Equine stereotypic behaviors: Causation, occurrence, and prevention

Feeding behaviour related to different feeding devices

Slow feeding devices (SFDs) are useful tools in order to improve the horse well-being and to reduce wastage, but their use may result in unnatural posture during feeding and frustration behaviours. Moreover, it may be important to evaluate the laterality during feeding. The aim of the study was to investigate ponies' feeding behaviour (i.e., lateralisation, frustration, postural eating style) with different hay feeding methods: on the ground (G), a fully filled hay net (HF), a partially filled hay net (HL), and a slow feeder hay box (HB). Nine ponies of two different breed types (Shetland and Welsh/Cob) were evaluated. Video recordings were obtained and then behavioural analysis was conducted. Data were analysed statistically using k-means cluster analysis, repeated measurement mixed model procedure, principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation coefficient. Head tilting was more often performed during feeding from HF and HL compared to G and HB. Forelimb forward, referring to the position that ponies assumed during feeding, was performed less frequently with the hay nets. Ponies, in particular Welsh/Cobs, tended to be more left-lateralized and performed more backward ears when feeding from the hay nets. Blink rate was observed to be greater when ponies were fed from G. No head pushing, striking with forelimb and pawing while feeding was seen. Animals fed from HF tended to eat from the top of the hay net and consequently showed an arched neck; while HL and HB showed for elongated neck an intermediate pattern between G and HF. From our results, HB seemed to be a useful compromise between natural feeding on the ground and the use of hay nets.

Initial Impact of Different Feeding Methods on Feed Intake Time in Stabled Icelandic Horses

The natural behaviour of horses is to spend the majority of their time on feed intake The feeding of stabled horses is, however, often far from that, as their feed intake is limited to their nutritional requirements. In order to approach their natural foraging time, it is important to extend the feed intake time of stabled horses. The aim of this study was to estimate if the feed intake time differs when feeding haylage in a haynet, hayball, metal corner manger, or from the box floor. The experimental design consisted of a Latin square, occurred across four days with four adult Icelandic horses and four treatments. Horses were stabled in individual boxes and fed 7 kg of high-energy haylage in two even meals while the intake time was recorded. The feed intake time per kg DM was shorter from the manger or the box floor than from a haynet or hayball (81 or 85 min versus 94 or 96 min; p < 0.05). It can be concluded that feeding haylage in a hayball or in a haynet can increase the feed intake time by 13% per day (12 min/kg DM/day) when compared to the more traditional methods. Thus, with simple alternatives, it is possible to extend the feed intake time of stabled horses.

Effects of Different Hay Feeders, Availability of Roughage on Abnormal Behaviors and Cortisol Circadian Rhythm in Horses Kept in Dry Lots

Free choice forage could be the best option regarding horses' welfare but can lead to increased body weight (BW), and waste of hay. Automatic box feeders (BF) and slow feeders (SF) decrease food waste, but it is unknown how these affect the horses' time-budget (TB). This study compared the effects of feeding free choice hay (FC), to a SF and an automated BF on the horses' cortisol circadian rhythm (CCR) and behavior by 24-hours continuous behavioral sampling (CBS). The study was designed as a 3 × 3 Latin square design with 15 polo horses divided into 3 groups, for 15 days on each treatment. Every 15 days, BW was assessed, blood collected for CCR analysis, the behavior recorded during the last 24 hours of the last day of each treatment and the video analyzed with CBS. Time spent on all behaviors was evaluated and used for the determination of the animals' TB. The effects of the different feeders were analyzed with ANOVA. FC horses consumed and wasted more hay daily (16.6 ± 0.5kg) (P < .001), compared with BF (10.4 ± 0.5 kg), and SF (9.30 ± 0.45 kg). FC horses had higher weight gain (P < .001, 23.5 ± 4.6kg), compared to BF (1.2 ± 5.7 kg) and SF (0.37 ± 4.6) kg. FC and SF horses spent more than 50% of the TB foraging, generating a TB similar to grazing horses. BF horses spent less time eating (P < .001), increasing time spent standing, sniffing the ground, and practicing coprophagy (P < .050). BF horses showed the highest aggression (P < .043). CCR was not different among treatments.

Olfactory Stimulation as Environmental Enrichment for Domestic Horses-A Review

Horses constantly face several challenges inherent to the domestic environment, and it is common for the expression of their natural behavior to be drastically limited. Environmental enrichment has been suggested as an alternative to improve the captive situation of domestic horses. Among the recently proposed enrichment strategies, olfactory stimulation has emerged as a method for improving several aspects related to animal behavior. Olfaction is a sensory modality that plays a significant role in the expression of equine behavior, and in recent years, studies have shown that olfactory stimulation can influence the physiological and behavioral parameters of horses. This review provides current information on the anatomical particularities of the equine olfactory system, presents the physiological mechanisms involved in the odor detection process, and demonstrates how stress can interfere with this process. Finally, the use of olfactory stimulation as an environmental enrichment for domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus) is explored. The need for new studies that answer pertinent questions related to this topic is discussed throughout the manuscript.

Incidence, risk factors, and therapeutic management of equine colic in Lamongan, Indonesia

Background and Aim

Colic is among the common health issues in equine health management. Gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are the most frequent causes of colic, but dysfunction of other organs and systems inside the abdominal cavity may also contribute. Therefore, it is crucial to identify risk factors for colic of specific etiologies. This study aimed to examine the incidence, risk factors, and best therapeutic management practices for horses with colic.

Materials and Methods

A cohort of 256 horses living in Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia, was randomly recruited based on reports of colic symptoms by owners. Diagnosis and treatment were then conducted with the help of owners. Symptom profiles, risk factors, and therapeutic management strategies were analyzed by Chi-square tests.

Results

Of 256 horses enrolled, 217 (84%) were diagnosed with colic, of which 172 (79.3%) were cases of spasmodic colic, 33 (15.2%) of impaction colic, and 12 (5.5%) of intestinal obstruction/displacement. Male sex (χ2 = 16.27; p < 0.001), wheat bran feeding (χ2 = 15.49; p < 0.001), concentrate feed intake >5 kg/day (χ2 = 24.95; p < 0.001), no regular anthelmintic drug treatment (χ2 = 67.24; p < 0.001), GI parasite infection (χ2 = 65.11; p < 0.001), recurrent colic (χ2 = 91.09; p < 0.001), poor body condition score (χ2 = 71.81; p < 0.001), limited daily water access (χ2 = 127.92; p < 0.001), and indications of dental disease (χ2 = 9.03; p < 0.001) were identified as risk factors. The most effective therapies were gastric intubation (χ2 = 153.54; p < 0.001), Vitamin B complex injection (χ2 = 32.09; p < 0.001), fluid therapy (χ2 = 42.59; p < 0.001), and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug injection (NSAID).

Conclusion

Colic is highly prevalent among horses in Lamongan, East Java, Indonesia. Proper diet, workload management, regular access to clean drinking water, and dental care can reduce colic risk. Recommended therapies include NSAID injection without other analgesics or spasmolytics, fluid therapy, Vitamin B complex, and gastric intubation.

Understanding and treating equine behavioural problems

Behaviour-related issues are common in horses. Many 'undesirable behaviours' pose important safety concerns for the human handlers / riders / carers, as well as welfare concerns for the horse. Undesirable behaviours can also devalue a horse, or result in the horse being re-homed, relinquished, or euthanased. Undesirable behaviours occur for a range of reasons. These include physiological causes, poor management, and the use of inappropriate or poorly applied handling and training techniques. The potential contribution of each of these aspects must be considered when attempting to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours. Effectively modifying the existing behaviour includes investigation and treatment of potential physiological causes, assessing and adjusting existing handling, husbandry and management, and undertaking behaviour modifying training. Unlike in the treatment of dogs and cats, the use of psychotropic agents is uncommon in equine behaviour medicine but the benefits of using these agents in appropriate cases is gaining recognition. This review discusses potential causes for the development and maintenance of undesirable behaviours in horses and highlights the various considerations involved in determining the most appropriate course for reducing or eliminating these behaviours. There is also a brief discussion about the potential role of psychotropic agents as an additional component of an overall behaviour modification plan to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviours in horses.

Models of Conditioned Reinforcement and Abnormal Behaviour in Captive Animals

Abnormal behaviours are common in captive animals, and despite a lot of research, the development, maintenance and alleviation of these behaviours are not fully understood. Here, we suggest that conditioned reinforcement can induce sequential dependencies in behaviour that are difficult to infer from direct observation. We develop this hypothesis using recent models of associative learning that include conditioned reinforcement and inborn facets of behaviour, such as predisposed responses and motivational systems. We explore three scenarios in which abnormal behaviour emerges from a combination of associative learning and a mismatch between the captive environment and inborn predispositions. The first model considers how abnormal behaviours, such as locomotor stereotypies, may arise from certain spatial locations acquiring conditioned reinforcement value. The second model shows that conditioned reinforcement can give rise to abnormal behaviour in response to stimuli that regularly precede food or other reinforcers. The third model shows that abnormal behaviour can result from motivational systems being adapted to natural environments that have different temporal structures than the captive environment. We conclude that models including conditioned reinforcement offer an important theoretical insight regarding the complex relationships between captive environments, inborn predispositions, and learning. In the future, this general framework could allow us to further understand and possibly alleviate abnormal behaviours.

Gut Microbiota and Behavioural Issues in Production, Performance, and Companion Animals: A Systematic Review

The literature has identified poor nutrition as the leading factor in the manifestation of many behavioural issues in animals, including aggression, hyperalertness, and stereotypies. Literature focused on all species of interest consistently reported that although there were no significant differences in the richness of specific bacterial taxa in the microbiota of individual subjects with abnormal behaviour (termed alpha diversity), there was variability in species diversity between these subjects compared to controls (termed beta diversity). As seen in humans with mental disorders, animals exhibiting abnormal behaviour often have an enrichment of pro-inflammatory and lactic acid-producing bacteria and a reduction in butyrate-producing bacteria. It is evident from the literature that an association exists between gut microbiota diversity (and by extension, the concurrent production of microbial metabolites) and abnormal behavioural phenotypes across various species, including pigs, dogs, and horses. Similar microbiota population changes are also evident in human mental health patients. However, there are insufficient data to identify this association as a cause or effect. This review provides testable hypotheses for future research to establish causal relationships between gut microbiota and behavioural issues in animals, offering promising potential for the development of novel therapeutic and/or preventative interventions aimed at restoring a healthy gut-brain-immune axis to mitigate behavioural issues and, in turn, improve health, performance, and production in animals.

Factors Affecting Thoroughbred Online Auction Prices in Non/Post-Racing Careers

Racehorse welfare is a prominent, public issue which affects nearly every aspect of the racing industry. Thoroughbred care after race career completion has garnered increasing attention from the equine industry, general public, and animal welfare groups alike. As the average racehorse's career lasts just 4.5 years, owner demand for thoroughbreds is essential for post-race careers and acceptable welfare standards. This study utilized data from and hedonic pricing models to analyze buyer demand for thoroughbreds sold in online auctions held from 2012 to 2020. The results indicate buyer preferences for age (p < 0.01), sex (p < 0.05), and organization registration (p < 0.05), with bid price premiums for age and registration status (USEF, USEA, USHJA, etc.) and price discounts for mares compared to geldings and horses listed for non-competition careers (trail, p < 0.01). The results of this study confirm and quantify the value potential buyers place on thoroughbreds offered for sale in sport disciplines. The findings may help non-profit organizations charged with rehoming off the track thoroughbreds and reduce the number of unwanted thoroughbreds by illustrating the desired traits and skills within the equine market, thus improving welfare optics overall.

The impact of strategic ventilation adjustments on stress responses in horses housed full-time in a vector-protected barn during the African horse sickness outbreak in Thailand

The severe outbreak of African horse sickness (AHS) in Thailand has forced horses to reside full-time inside barns that are covered by a small mesh net to prevent minuscule AHS insect vectors from gaining access. However, housing in the net-covered barn induces stress in horses, which compromises their welfare. Implementing strategic airflow adjustment while retaining the vector-protection characteristics has been proposed to help alleviate this problem. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of strategic ventilation adjustment on blood cortisol levels, heart rate and behaviour in horses in a vector-protected barn. Nine horses underwent two sequential stabling conditions: vector-protected barn housing and housing in a barn in which the air ventilation was explicitly adjusted. Heart rate was higher in the afternoon in horses housed in the barn without ventilation adjustment, whereas no change was observed in the barn with ventilation adjustment. The vector-protected housing increased the horses' behavioural scores. Blood cortisol level declined over time, and an earlier decrease was detected at 1400h in the barn with ventilation adjustment. Although airflow adjustment did not appear to statistically alter the stress response in horses during housing in the vector-protected barn, an earlier decline in cortisol level alongside an unchanged heart rate in horses during the day may indicate the positive impact of ventilation adjustment within the vector-protected barn. With limited options to reduce stress or discomfort in horses, this strategic protocol could, at least in part, be applied to managing horses' welfare during the AHS outbreak.

The Effect of Stabling Routines on Potential Behavioural Indicators of Affective State in Horses and Their Use in Assessing Quality of Life

Increasing interest in equine welfare has emphasised the need for objective and reliable behavioural indicators of horses’ affective state. However, research has yielded mixed results regarding behaviours suited for industry use largely because they are subject to anthropomorphic interpretation. Stabling is commonly used to manage domesticated horses despite research indicating that it can negatively impact horse welfare, but its effect on their affective state is yet to be quantified. Ten adult horses (11.8 ± 4.4 years) were observed either on a day- (DS) or night-stabling (NS) schedule over two consecutive 24 h periods. NS horses were kept confined for significantly longer (13.60 ± 0.04 h) than DS horses (7.73 ± 0.07; t7 = 5.70; p = 0.0004). Eight behaviours occurred significantly more often during NS than DS: forward ears (t7 = 3.32; p = 0.001), neutral ears (t7 = 3.47; p = 0.001), stepping forward (t7 = 2.62; p = 0.001), stepping laterally (t7 = 2.39; p = 0.001), sternal recumbency (t7 = 2.64; p = 0.001), yawning (t7 = 2.69; p = 0.001), non-nutritive chewing (t7 = 2.49; p = 0.001), and closing eyes (t7 = 2.71; p = 0.001). These behaviours may be candidates for indicators that can be used to determine the affective state in horses and subsequently be used to assess equine quality of life and to optimise individual horse welfare.

Does housing system affect horse welfare? The AWIN welfare assessment protocol applied to horses kept in an outdoor group-housing system: The 'parcours'

Outdoor group housing is generally reported as being beneficial to the welfare of horses compared to single boxes, being considered to show greater similarities with the living conditions of feral horses, allowing full expression of behaviours such as grazing, social interactions and free movement. However, concerns persist regarding the ability to maintain a good nutritional state and the possibility of acquiring injury. No data reporting a comprehensive assessment of welfare for horses in outdoor group-housing systems are currently available. The present study aimed at applying a scientifically valid welfare assessment protocol to group-housed outdoor horses in 'parcours', a particular management system used in the south of France. 'Parcours' are semi-natural areas, grazed by domestic herbivores located in lowland, mountain, or marsh. One hundred and seventy-one horses older than a year pertaining to six farms and kept on 'parcours' were evaluated by a trained veterinarian using a modified version of the second level Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) welfare assessment protocol for horses. No major welfare issues were detected. Horses in 'parcours' displayed few abnormal behaviours, they could move freely for most of the day and interact with conspecifics, maintaining a healthy state of nutrition and a good relationship with humans. The main welfare concerns were related to the presence of superficial integument alterations such as alopecia, difficulty in reaching quality controlled water sources and a lack of shelter. As the number of facilities involved in this study is relatively limited, further harmonised data collection should aim to enlarge the sample size and allow comparison with different outdoor group-housing conditions.

The effect of being housed with a goat on abnormal behavior in horses

Horses in stalls generally remain in single-stall housing, so abnormal behavior can be observed in this management condition. Abnormal behavior can harm the horse's keeper, rider, or even the animal itself. The present study aims to examine the effect of goats on abnormal behaviors in horses. For this purpose, it placed six horses and six goats in the single-stall housing of the horses, one horse and one goat, and monitored them for 45 d. The research was divided into three observation phases during this time: in the first observation, the horses were left alone (0-15 d), in the second observation, the horses were left together with the goats (16-30 d), and in the third observation, the horses were left alone again (31-45 d). In the first of these three stages, 12 different abnormal behaviors were detected in horses. The determined hours (00:00-01:00, 06:00-07:00, 07:00-08:00, 19:00-20:00, 20:00-21:00, 23:00-24:00 LT) of the day for abnormal behaviors identified in six different single-stall houses were examined. The frequency of the total abnormal behavior occurring at these hours was evaluated with nonparametric statistical tests. At the end of the research, front feet playing ( p = 0.002 ), crib-biting objects ( p < 0.001 ), and box walking ( p < 0.001 ) behaviors were significantly affected positively by the goats, while there was no statistical difference in other abnormal behaviors ( p > 0.05 ). In conclusion, it can be said that goats positively affect some abnormal behaviors in horses but not others.

Effect of Hay Steaming on the Estimated Precaecal Digestibility of Crude Protein and Selected Amino Acids in Horses

Steaming hay is increasingly used to treat low-quality forage because it was proven to reduce inhalable allergens such as mould spores, bacteria, and airborne dust particles. Preliminary results have shown a substantial loss of precaecal (pc) digestibility (D) of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA). For this purpose, six different batches of hay from central Germany were divided into four subsamples, and each one was individually steamed. Native hay and four replicates of each steamed subsample were analysed for CP, AA, neutral detergent insoluble crude protein (NDICP), neutral detergent soluble crude protein (NDSCP) as well as pepsin insoluble CP (piCP). Based on the analytical parameters, pcD of CP, protein solubility (PS), piCP (% CP) and precaecal digestible (pcd) CP and pcdAA contents were calculated. Selected Maillard reaction products (MRP), namely furosine and carboxymethyllysine (CML), were also analysed. Steaming did not affect CP content (native = 69, steamed = 67 g/kg dry matter, DM; p > 0.05), but it had an impact on the insoluble part of CP. Thus, NDICP increased by 57% (native = 27, steamed = 42 g/kg DM; p < 0.05) and piCP by 15% overall (native = 40, steamed = 46% of CP; p < 0.05). This could be a consequence of the heat damage and the associated increase in MRP. The content of furosine rose by 67% (native = 17.6, steamed = 29.4 mg/100 g DM; p < 0.05). The content of CML increased by 120% (native = 5.1, steamed = 11.3 mg/100 g DM; p < 0.05). We chose to analyse these two MRPs because they represent the reaction products with the limiting AA lysine. In contrast, the soluble fractions of CP declined, while PS as a percentage of CP decreased by 38% as a result of the treatment, and NDSCP was reduced by as much as 41% (p < 0.05). In line with this, the steaming process decreased the pcD of CP (native = 56%, steamed = 35%; p < 0.05) and pcdCP (native = 37.9, steamed = 22.5 g/kg DM; p < 0.05), respectively. The same effects were shown for selected AA; e.g., sulphuric AA pcd methionine plus pcd cysteine decreased by 45%, pcd threonine decreased by 41%, and the limited AA pcd lysine decreased by more than 50% (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the high temperatures generated during steaming lead to protein damage and consequently to a reduction in the pcD of CP and essential AA. Nevertheless, steaming successfully reduces viable microorganisms and binds dust particles. Therefore, steamed hay is still a proper and sometimes the only possible roughage for horses suffering from respiratory diseases such as equine asthma. Essentially, horse diets based on steamed hay should be balanced accordingly.

Horse welfare: A joint assessment of four categories of behavioural indicators using the AWIN protocol, scan sampling and surveys

Domesticated horses ( Equus caballus) can be exposed to a compromised welfare state and detecting a deterioration in welfare is essential to modify the animals' living conditions appropriately. This study focused on four categories of behavioural indicators, as markers of poor welfare: stereotypies, aggressiveness towards humans, unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. In the scientific literature, at least three assessment methods can be used to evaluate them: the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol, behavioural observations using scans and surveys. The question remains as to whether all these three methods allow an effective assessment of the four categories of behavioural indicators. To address this issue, the repeatability at a three-month interval and convergent validity of each measure (correlations between methods) were investigated on 202 horses housed in loose boxes. Overall, the repeatability and convergent validity were limited, highlighting the difficulty in assessing these indicators in horses. However, stereotypies and aggressiveness measures showed higher repeatability and convergent validity than those of unresponsiveness to the environment and hypervigilance. Behavioural observations using scans enabled the four categories of behavioural indicators to be detected more effectively. Suggestions of improvements are proposed for one-off measures such as those performed with the AWIN protocol. Regardless of the assessment method, very limited correlations were observed between the four categories of behavioural indicators, suggesting that they should all be included in a set of indicators used to assess the welfare state of horses, in conjunction with physiological and health measures.

Changes in Management, Welfare, Emotional State, and Human-Related Docility in Stallions

Despite an increase in awareness of their essential needs, many stallions continue to be kept in conditions limiting their social interactions and movement. To supplement the studies which highlight the effects of these practices on selected aspects of equine mental and physical wellbeing, we aimed to monitor a group of 32 adult intact stallions during their transition from tethered housing with limited outdoor access to free group housing through the lens of their overall welfare, perceived emotional status, and docility toward humans. Over three visits (before the management change, two weeks, and three months after, respectively), their welfare, qualitative behavior, and docility were assessed. Analysis of the data collected showed an improvement in the stallions’ overall welfare and no decrease in their docility after their group-release, with a constant correlation between these two aspects. The evaluation of their emotional states was less relevant, lacking consistency between the assessments for most of the descriptors used, warranting further research in similar conditions. Although our study covered a relatively short period of time, our results provide encouraging support for stallion owners in deciding on a similar management change for the welfare of their animals.

Blood profile, hormones, and telomere responses: potential biomarkers in horses exhibiting abnormal oral behaviour

The high prevalence of abnormal oral behaviour (AOB) in working horses has been linked to management issues and the pathophysiology of this behaviour remains unclear. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the blood profile, hormones, and telomere length responses between low and high levels of AOB among different horse working groups. A total of 207 healthy horses from various breeds were initially selected from four working groups (leisure riding, equestrian, endurance, and patrolling) and observed for the time spent on AOB. Then, six horses each with higher and lower AOB than the population means were randomly selected from each of the working groups and categorized as high and low AOB horses, respectively. Blood samples were collected for haematology, biochemistry, cortisol, ghrelin, leptin, and relative telomere length analyses. High AOB horses notably had higher values of glucose, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and creatine kinase (CK) compared to low AOB horses. High AOB horses also recorded higher plasma cortisol and ghrelin, but lower leptin concentrations. Among working groups, both endurance and patrolling horses presented the highest values in sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, ALT, and CK. While patrolling horses had the lowest levels of urea, ALP, and albumin levels, equestrian and leisure horses recorded the highest and lowest plasma cortisol and leptin concentrations, respectively. Finally, the telomere length of endurance and patrolling horses were significantly greater than leisure and equestrian horses. The present findings suggest that AOB horses had distinctive physiological characteristics that could be linked to improper diet and a demanding workload, while ghrelin and leptin hormones could be potential biomarkers for this behaviour.

Single housing but not changes in group composition causes stress-related immunomodulations in horses

Domestic horses are currently often subject to management practices that can entail social stressors, which in turn can negatively influence immunocompetence and disease susceptibility.

The present study therefore aimed to characterize the number of various blood leukocyte subsets in horses, focusing on two potentially stressful housing environments: changes in group composition and relocation to individual stabling. Immune measurements were conducted before as well as one and eight days after changes were made. They were complemented by an assessment of plasma cortisol concentrations as well as behavioral observations. One and eight days after relocation to single housing, the mean numbers of eosinophils, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells decreased by up to 31%, 20% and 22% respectively, whereas the mean numbers of neutrophils increased by 25%. In contrast, one and eight days after changes in group composition not only the mean number of neutrophils, but also of monocytes, T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells increased by up to 24%, 17%, 9%, and 15% respectively. In consequence, an increase in the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio indicating stress-induced immune modulation was found after relocation to single housing, but not after changes in group composition. The changes in leukocyte numbers after relocation to single housing were accompanied by a transient increase in cortisol concentrations after one day and the occurrence of disturbed behavior patterns one week after change in housing condition. In contrast, changes in group composition did not result in an increase of cortisol concentrations or in an increase of aggressive interactions. The results strongly indicate that individual stabling is an intense stressor leading to acute and lasting alterations in blood counts of various leukocyte types. The study highlights a probable negative impact of single housing on welfare and health of horses and an advantage of group housing systems in view of immunocompetence.

Champing at the Bit for Improvements: A Review of Equine Welfare in Equestrian Sports in the United Kingdom

Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.

Colombian Creole Horse: Frequency of oral and motor stereotypies

Background and Aim: The current stable housing of Colombian Creole Horses severely restricts the animals' locomotion and natural behaviors. In addition, their feed consists of a combination of high-energy concentrates with considerably little forage which potentially leads to locomotor or oral stereotypies. This study aimed to report the frequency of locomotor and oral stereotypies in Colombian Creole Horses in Girardota (Antioquia, Colombia) and associated risk factors. Materials and Methods: A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted from 2019 to 2020, in which 102 stabled horses aged 28 months and older participated. A questionnaire was developed to collect information on the horses' daily barn routines. The horses were observed twice a day for 2 h for 3 consecutive days to record information related to stereotypy behaviors. The Fisher's exact test and the Mann–Whitney U test were utilized for data analyses. Associations were considered statistically significant at p<0.05. Results: Among the horses evaluated, 32.35% presented at least one stereotyped behavior. The most common was crib-biting (i.e., cribbing), with 17.65% exhibiting this behavior. Age, weight, gender, type of feeding, visual contact between horses, and natural lighting were all associated with oral stereotypies. Crib-biting was most common in young horses (U=1.36, p≤0.05), wind-sucking was more common in lighter weight animals (U=1.45, p=0.01), and lip-smacking was more common in stallions (χ2=9.10, p≤0.01). It is noteworthy that their feeding diet included bran, molasses, and gopher. Horses that did not have visual contact with other horses and those that did not have natural lighting were associated with pica (χ2=9.52, p≤0.02; χ2=3.72, p≤0.05; and χ2=3.72, p≤0.05, respectively). Of locomotor stereotypies, kicking the wall was significant in young animals (U=1.54, p=0.03) and walking in circles in lactating mares (χ2=13.20, p≤0.02). Conclusion: Housing conditions in this study were found to have several risk factors affecting horses that exhibit stereotypic behaviors, and all these factors resulted in a higher frequency of stereotypies. Establishing risk factors for the presentation of abnormal behaviors allows for the implementation of better management practices in the production systems of the Creole Colombian Horse and will help improve their overall welfare.

Risk Factors for Chronic Stress in Sows Housed in Groups, and Associated Risks of Prenatal Stress in Their Offspring

Chronic stress has a detrimental effect on sow welfare and productivity, as well as on the welfare and resilience of their piglets, mediated prenatally. Despite this, the specific risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows are understudied. Group-housed pregnant sows continuously face numerous challenges associated with aspects of the physical (group type and size, flooring, feeding system) and social (stocking density, mixing strategy) environment. There are many well-known potent stressors for pigs that likely contribute to chronic, physiological stress, including overcrowding, hot temperatures, feed restriction, inability to forage, uncomfortable floors, and poor handling. Some of these stressors also contribute to the development of production diseases such as lameness, which in turn are also likely causes of chronic stress because of the associated pain and difficulty accessing resources. The aim of this review is to discuss potential risk factors for chronic stress in pregnant sows such as space allowance, group size and type (stable/dynamic), feeding level, lameness, pen design, feed system, enrichment and rooting material, floor type, the quality of stockmanship, environmental conditions, and individual sow factors. The mechanisms of action of both chronic and prenatal stress, as well as the effects of the latter on offspring are also discussed. Gaps in existing research and recommendations for future work are outlined.

Physiological Indicators and Production Performance of Dairy Cows With Tongue Rolling Stereotyped Behavior

Non-nutritive oral behaviors, especially tongue rolling, are prevalent in the stabled cow population. These behaviors mean that the environment or management process might not suit the cows, suggesting low welfare. However, few researches have reported the physiological indicators or production performance of dairy cows with the stereotyped behavior. This study aimed to determine physical conditions, daily activity, rumen fermentation, and milk production of cows with tongue-rolling behavior. Three hundred and fifty nine Holstein cows in the same barn and lactation stage were subjected to scan sampling behavior observations 126 times for 7 days. Ten cows with high-frequency tongue-rolling behavior (TON) and 10 cows without abnormal oral behavior (CON) were selected for further study. Serum sample, ruminal fluid, milk sample, and behavior record video of TON and CON cows were collected. TON cows had more drinking behavior and more stable lying behavior than the CON cows during the daytime. The body condition score of the TON cows decreased, while the milk yield, yield of milk fat, protein, and lactose in the study period increased. The TON cows had lower ruminal fluid pH, acetate/propionate ratio, and total volatile acid. The bacterial diversity in the ruminal fluid was not different between the two groups. Compared to CON cows, the TON cows had a higher level of serum stress indicators, such as cortisol, thyroid hormone, and norepinephrine, which positively correlated to the frequency of tongue-rolling behavior. Meanwhile, the TON cows had a higher level of lactate dehydrogenase, serum glucose, total triglyceride, total cholesterol, and Interleukin 6. Overall, it means they suffer from higher levels of stress and have higher energy metabolism for a long time when cows show tongue-rolling behavior. TON cows had suffered a higher stress level and had higher energy metabolic status for a long time. The TON cows might have better heat tolerance to the thermal environment by more lying and drinking time. Our data revealed the changes in milk production, physiological stress indicators of dairy cows with high-frequency tongue rolling behavior, which will provide essential knowledge for the in-depth understanding of tongue rolling behavior in dairy cows.

Behavioural diversity as a potential welfare indicator for professionally managed chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Exploring variations in calculating diversity using species-specific behaviours

Behavioural diversity may serve as a positive indicator of animal welfare that can be applied in long-term monitoring schemes in managed settings (eg zoos, laboratories, farms). Behavioural diversity is often higher when animals live in stimulating environments and experience positive events. Unfortunately, welfare researchers have not adopted consistent, standardised approaches to measuring behavioural diversity. The goal of this exploratory study was to utilise data from 41 adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed across 16 zoological institutions to examine various models of Shannon's Diversity Index. Specifically, we investigated the impact of: combining versus splitting behaviours, including only positive behaviours, including human interaction, and considering recipient behaviours. We evaluate how the inclusion or exclusion of different behaviours impacts the relationship of behavioural diversity with: (i) concentrations of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM), a common indicator of adrenal activity; (ii) concentrations of immunoglobulin-A (IgA), an indicator of immune function and potential indicator of positive welfare; and (iii) stereotypic behaviour, a validated indicator of poor welfare. Most indices had significant negative relationships with faecal GCM. Animals that express a variety of behaviours from their species-typical repertoire have lower average faecal GCM concentrations and are likely experiencing better welfare. We did not find significant relationships between the behavioural diversity indices and IgA concentrations. Two indices were inversely associated with stereotypic behaviour. Our findings provide additional support for using Shannon's Diversity Index to calculate behavioural diversity as a robust, valid measure of positive welfare. However, future publications must justify the process for including or excluding behaviours from calculations.

Aspects of Breeding Stallion Management with Specific Focus on Animal Welfare

Risk prevention is often counterproductive to stallions' living conditions when assessed under welfare aspects. In the wild, stallions live in social groups, but under domestic conditions, the majority of breeding stallions live in individual boxes with limited social contact. This stimulates aggressiveness and the incidence of stereotypic behavior. While racehorse stallions start their breeding career after having finished their performance career, riding horse stallions are often simultaneously used for breeding and performance. Training, performance, and the associated stress are unlikely to impair semen characteristics, but performing stallions may benefit from more opportunities for social contact. With regard to accommodation of stallions in single boxes, changes in the construction of the partition between them may help to improve social contact from merely visual to much more physical. This will help to reduce social isolation but requires careful observation if neighbors tend to either sympathize or fight with each other. Careful organization of the barn is thus of great importance. Under certain conditions, even keeping adult stallions in groups on spacious pastures is possible. Interestingly, the frequency of agonistic interactions usually decreases quickly and remains low after successful group integration. General changes in the husbandry of young stallions and at their transfer into the future career may help to produce stallions with better social skills and facilitate accommodation under improved welfare conditions.

Recumbency as an Equine Welfare Indicator in Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Recumbency is a prerequisite for horses achieving rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and completing a full sleep cycle. An inability to lie down due to environmental insecurities or pain results in REM sleep deficiency, which can cause substantial impairment of welfare and health. Therefore, the present study used wearable automated sensor technology on 83 horses housed in an animal sanctuary to measure and compare the recumbency, locomotion, and standing time budgets of geriatric horses with and without chronic lameness to younger adult sound and lame horses. Recumbency times ranged from 0 to 319 min per day with an overall mean of 67.4 (±61.9) minutes; the time budget for locomotion was 19.1% (±11.2% s.d.) and for standing 75.6% (±13.1 s.d.). Interestingly, neither age nor lameness due to chronic orthopedic disease had a significant influence on recumbency times in this study. Eight horses showed symptoms of REM deficit. These horses had significantly shorter lying times (7.99 ± 11.4 min) and smaller locomotion time budgets than the other horses enrolled in this study (73.8 ± 61.8 min), indicating a general compromise of well-being. Thus, wearable sensor technology can be used to identify horses with low recumbency times at risk for REM sleep deficiency and to assess and monitor equine welfare objectively.

Factors Associated With the Development and Prevalence of Abnormal Behaviors in Horses: Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

Researchers believe that the development and prevalence of abnormal behaviors in horses may be caused by several environmental and biological factors, and the literature offers numerous reports that discuss the causes and effects of stereotypies in these animals. In this light, this study aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific literature, summarizing the main risk factors associated with the development of abnormal behaviors in horses. The searches were conducted over the course of four years in Portuguese, Spanish, and English. The publications reviewed were full text research thesis or articles that addressed issues within the following criteria: (1) presentation of epidemiological information on the studied population; (2) prevalence of abnormal behaviors in equine populations; (3) factors associated with the development or prevalence of stereotypies. Data were extracted from each study and inserted into an Excel spreadsheet to be analyzed through descriptive statistics. In addition, the Mann-Whitney U test was used to verify the existence of significant differences between the methodologies (direct observation/questionnaires). The dataset was also analyzed through data mining to identify the main factors that influence the prevalence of abnormal behaviors in the studied population. The results showed a great variation in the mean prevalence of abnormal behaviors, with no significant difference between research conducted through questionnaires or direct observation, and the data mining technique identified that incorrect nutritional management may be the main factor influencing the development and prevalence of abnormal behaviors in horses.

Towards understanding the welfare of cetaceans in accredited zoos and aquariums

Cetaceans are long-lived, social species that are valued as ambassadors inspiring the public to engage in conservation action. Under professional care, they are critical partners with the scientific community to understanding the biology, behavior, physiology, health, and welfare requirements of this taxonomic group. The Cetacean Welfare Study was a highly collaborative research effort among zoos and aquariums accredited by the Alliance for Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums and/or the Association of Zoos & Aquariums that provided important empirical and comparative information on the care and management of cetaceans. The goal was to identify factors that were related to the welfare of bottlenose dolphins and to develop reference intervals and values for common and novel indicators of health and welfare for common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus), beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas), and Pacific white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obliquidens). Data were collected from cetaceans at 43 accredited zoos and aquariums in seven countries in 2018 and 2019. This overview presents a summary of findings from the initial research articles that resulted from the study titled "Towards understanding the welfare of cetaceans in zoos and aquariums." With multiple related objectives, animal-based metrics were used to advance frameworks of clinical care and target key conditions that were associated with good welfare of cetaceans in zoo and aquarium environments. As a result of this collaboration, species-specific reference intervals and values for blood variables and fecal hormone metabolites were developed and are freely available in an iOS application called ZooPhysioTrak. The results suggested that environmental enrichment programs and social management factors were more strongly related to behaviors likely indicative of positive welfare than habitat characteristics for common and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins. These findings can be widely applied to optimize care and future science-based welfare practice.

Behavioral diversity as a potential positive indicator of animal welfare in bottlenose dolphins

Accredited zoological facilities are committed to fully understanding the behavioral, mental, and physical needs of each species to continuously improve the welfare of the animals under their professional care and detect when welfare has diminished. In order to accomplish this goal, internally consistent and externally valid indicators of animal welfare are necessary to advance our understanding of the current welfare status of individual animals. Historically, efforts have focused on monitoring visible or observable signs of poor health or problem behavior, but lack of signs or problems does not necessarily demonstrate that an individual animal is thriving. The current study examined fecal hormone metabolite levels and behavior for two species of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus and Tursiops aduncus) from 25 different accredited zoological facilities. At the time of the study, all facilities were accredited by the Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums and/or the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. This was part of the multi-institutional study 'Towards understanding of the welfare of cetaceans in zoos and aquariums" commonly referred to as the Cetacean Welfare Study. Behavioral diversity was calculated using the Shannon Diversity Index on species-appropriate behavioral events. Behavioral diversity was compared to the fecal metabolites of cortisol, aldosterone, and the ratio of cortisol to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) as well as the stereotypic behavior of route tracing. Similar to previous studies on other species, there was a significant inverse relationship between behavioral diversity and both fecal cortisol metabolites and route tracing. Additionally, a significant inverse relationship also exists between behavioral diversity and the ratio of fecal cortisol to DHEA metabolites. Behavioral diversity and fecal aldosterone metabolites were not associated. Additional research is still needed to validate behavioral diversity as an indicator of positive animal welfare for bottlenose dolphins and across species. However, based on current results, facilities could utilize behavioral diversity combined with other measures of welfare to more comprehensively evaluate the welfare of bottlenose dolphins.

Equine Activity Time Budgets: The Effect of Housing and Management Conditions on Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Housing and management conditions strongly influence the health, welfare and behaviour of horses. Consequently, objective and quantifiable comparisons between domestic environments and their influence on different equine demographics are needed to establish evidence-based criteria to assess and optimize horse welfare. Therefore, the present study aimed to measure and compare the time budgets (=percentage of time spent on specific activities) of horses with chronic orthopaedic disease and geriatric (≥20 years) horses living in different husbandry systems using an automated tracking device. Horses spent 42% (range 38.3-44.8%) of their day eating, 39% (range 36.87-44.9%) resting, and 19% (range 17-20.4%) in movement, demonstrating that geriatric horses and horses suffering from chronic orthopaedic disease can exhibit behaviour time budgets equivalent to healthy controls. Time budget analysis revealed significant differences between farms, turn-out conditions and time of day, and could identify potential areas for improvement. Horses living in open-air group housing on a paddock had a more uniform temporal distribution of feeding and movement activities with less pronounced peaks compared to horses living in more restricted husbandry systems.

Recommendations for Ensuring Good Welfare of Horses Used for Industrial Blood, Serum, or Urine Production

Simple Summary

Because of their large size, blood, serum, or other substances are often collected from horses for production of biologics and therapeutics used in humans and other animals. There are few international guidelines that provide recommendations for caring for horses kept for these purposes. In this paper, general guidelines are provided to ensure well-being of horses kept for production of biologics.

Abstract

Various pharmaceutical products have been derived from horse blood and urine for over a century. Production of biologics and therapeutics from these samples is a niche industry and often occurs in regions with little regulation or veterinary oversight. To ensure good welfare of horses maintained for these purposes, guidance has been developed to support the industry.

Activity Time Budgets-A Potential Tool to Monitor Equine Welfare?

Simple Summary

Horses’ behavior is a good indicator of their welfare status. However, its complexity requires objective, quantifiable, and unambiguous evidence-based assessment criteria. As healthy, stress-free horses exhibit a highly repetitive daily routine, horses’ time budget (amount of time in a 24 h period spent on specific activities) can assist in equine welfare assessment. A systematic review of the literature yielded 12 papers that assessed equine time budgets for eating, resting and movement for a minimum of 24 continuous hours. A total of 144 horses (1–27 years old), 59 semi-feral and 85 domesticated horses, are included in this review. The reported 24 h time budgets for eating ranged from 10% to 66.6%, for resting from 8.1% to 66%, for lying from 2.7% to 27.3%, and for movement from 0.015% to 19.1%. The large variance in time budgets between studies can largely be attributed to differences in age and environmental conditions. Management interventions (free access to food, increased space, decreased population density) in domesticated horses yielded time budgets similar to semi-feral horses. The data support the importance of environmental conditions for horses’ well-being and the ability of time budgets to assist in monitoring horses’ welfare.

Abstract

Horses’ behavior can provide valuable insight into their subjective state and is thus a good indicator of welfare. However, its complexity requires objective, quantifiable, and unambiguous evidence-based assessment criteria. As healthy, stress-free horses exhibit a highly repetitive daily routine, temporal quantification of their behavioral activities (time budget analysis) can assist in equine welfare assessment. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to provide an up-to-date analysis of equine time budget studies. A review of the literature yielded 12 papers that fulfilled the inclusion criteria: assessment of equine time budgets for eating, resting and movement for a minimum of 24 continuous hours. A total of 144 horses (1–27 years old), 59 semi-feral and 85 domesticated horses, are included in this review. The 24 h time budgets for foraging or eating (10–6.6%), resting (8.1–66%), lying (2.7–27.3%), and locomotion (0.015–19.1%) showed large variance between studies, which can largely be attributed to differences in age and environmental conditions. Management interventions in domesticated horses (ad libitum access to food, increased space, decreased population density) resulted in time budgets similar to their (semi-)feral conspecifics, emphasizing the importance of environmental conditions and the ability of time budgets to assist in monitoring horses’ welfare.

Evaluation of Oxidative Stress Parameters in Healthy Saddle Horses in Relation to Housing Conditions, Presence of Stereotypies, Age, Sex and Breed

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the development of many horse diseases and it has been shown that housing has important implications for the psychophysical well-being of horses. The aim of this study is to determine if there are any differences between the redox status in horses in relation to housing conditions. The four housing conditions analyzed were: single box, without external access and without contact (Cat A), single box with external access and possibility of partial contact (Cat B), group housing with box and large paddock (Cat C), pasture with more than 7 horses and the possibility of green forage for the whole year (Cat D). A group of 117 healthy horses were selected in several private stables in Northern Italy. All subjects treated with any type of drug were excluded. At the end of the enrollment, the 117 selected horses were divided into the four housing categories. Stereotypies were highest in the group of horses in single box, without external access and without contact (Cat A). Oxidative stress was evaluated by testing plasma or serum samples for the following parameters: superoxide anion (WST), nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (d-ROMs), ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). Simultaneously with the blood sampling, the owners completed a questionnaire with all the management aspects of the horse (signaling, feeding, equestrian activity, vaccinations, foot management etc.). The statistical evaluation was carried out based on the categories previously described, on the presence and absence of stereotypies and on some signaling data obtained from the questionnaire. There were no significant differences in the parameters analyzed between the categories. No significant redox status differences were detected based on the presence or absence of stereotypies. Interestingly, when the age was introduced as selection (<14 and >14 years old) parameter inside the categories, statistical significance was observed for some of the stress markers considered. Finally, independently of the housing conditions, the horses of the most two represented breeds exhibited different values of FRAP. All these aspects are commented in the discussion.

Retrospective Evaluation of Fluoxetine Hydrochloride Use in Horses: 95 Cases (2010-2019)

This study aimed to describe the clinical use of oral fluoxetine hydrochloride administration in horses using a retrospective medical records analysis and to determine owner perception of efficacy via a standardized questionnaire. The records of ninety-five horses for which fluoxetine had been prescribed by the equine service of a veterinary teaching hospital from November 2010 and February 2019 were identified, and data were collected from the medical records. A standardized questionnaire was used to obtain data from owners regarding length of administration, ease of administration, adverse effects, and whether the owner noted improvement in the horse's behavior. Ninety-five horses received fluoxetine during the study period. Fluoxetine was prescribed to facilitate stall rest in 68 horses (Group A) and for behavior-related problems in 27 horses (Group B). The mean dosage was 0.25 mg/kg (range 0.15-0.54). Forty-seven of the 66 owners (71%) that completed the follow-up questionnaire reported a perceived improvement in the animal's behavior (29/41 in Group A and 18/25 in Group B). Fifty-eight owners (88%) reported that they felt the medication was easy to administer. When used to facilitate extended stall confinement, fluoxetine appears to be perceived as efficacious by most owners. Although the number of behavioral cases was low, the results indicate that the drug may also be useful for some problem behaviors. Further controlled behavioral studies are needed to investigate the use of fluoxetine for equine behavioral problems.

The Influence of Stable Management and Feeding Practices on the Abnormal Behaviors Among Stabled Horses in Malaysia

The present study aimed to provide preliminary data on the prevalence of oral stereotypic, locomotory stereotypic, and redirected behaviors as well as their associations with stable management and feeding practices. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 207 working horses used for leisure riding, equestrian sport, polo, endurance, and patrolling were selected from seven equine facilities. Data on the stable management and feeding practices were obtained through the stable records, interviews, and on-site monitoring visits, whereas the prevalence of abnormal behaviors in the studied population was determined using the instantaneous scan sampling method. Most horses in the present study worked for more than 8 hours per week (n = 93). In addition, more horses were fed three times per day (n = 65) with different amounts of hay, concentrate, and chaff. Among the study population, oral stereotypic behaviors had the highest prevalence (n = 281; 54%), followed by redirected behavior (n = 181; 34%), and locomotory stereotypic behaviors had the lowest prevalence (n = 63; 12%). The oral stereotypic behavior was found to be significantly influenced (P < .05) by the working hours, amount of hay, and amount of concentrate. Both locomotory stereotypic and redirected behaviors were found to be influenced (P < .05) by the number of feedings per day and the amount of hay. In summary, the present study has proven that the stable management and feeding practices could influence the prevalence of different abnormal behaviors in the majority of working horses, with oral stereotypy being the most common abnormal behavior in this country.

Behavioral Diversity as a Potential Indicator of Positive Animal Welfare

Modern day zoos and aquariums continuously assess the welfare of their animals and use evidence to make informed management decisions. Historically, many of the indicators of animal welfare used to assess the collection are negative indicators of welfare, such as stereotypic behavior. However, a lack of negative indicators of animal welfare does not demonstrate that an individual animal is thriving. There is a need for validated measures of positive animal welfare and there is a growing body of evidence that supports the use of behavioral diversity as a positive indicator of welfare. This includes an inverse relationship with stereotypic behavior as well as fecal glucocorticoid metabolites and is typically higher in situations thought to promote positive welfare. This review article highlights previous research on behavioral diversity as a potential positive indicator of welfare. Details are provided on how to calculate behavioral diversity and how to use it when evaluating animal welfare. Finally, the review will indicate how behavioral diversity can be used to inform an evidence-based management approach to animal care and welfare.

Priming for welfare: gut microbiota is associated with equitation conditions and behavior in horse athletes

We simultaneously measured the fecal microbiota and multiple environmental and host-related variables in a cohort of 185 healthy horses reared in similar conditions during a period of eight months. The pattern of rare bacteria varied from host to host and was largely different between two time points. Among a suite of variables examined, equitation factors were highly associated with the gut microbiota variability, evoking a relationship between gut microbiota and high levels of physical and mental stressors. Behavioral indicators that pointed toward a compromised welfare state (e.g. stereotypies, hypervigilance and aggressiveness) were also associated with the gut microbiota, reinforcing the notion for the existence of the microbiota-gut-brain axis. These observations were consistent with the microbiability of behaviour traits (> 15%), illustrating the importance of gut microbial composition to animal behaviour. As more elite athletes suffer from stress, targeting the microbiota offers a new opportunity to investigate the bidirectional interactions within the brain gut microbiota axis.

Determining a Welfare Prioritization for Horses Using a Delphi Method

Simple Summary

Horses are used for a wide range of different purposes and may be vulnerable to a large number of different welfare issues, some of which are unique to equines, such as responses to being ridden or trained. Compared to farmed livestock, their welfare has received less attention, but concern for their welfare is increasing. Welfare issues can arise from the environments in which animals are kept, how they are treated by their human caregivers and their health. To determine which of the issues are most important and may need the greatest attention in terms of research effort or owner education, we used a process of eliciting expert opinion. Through a series of surveys and ranking of issues, we determined that, in the opinion of equine experts, the most important issues for horses were poor disease prevention, issues arising when old or sick horses are not promptly euthanized, lack of owner knowledge of welfare needs of horses, fear and stress involved in horse use, inability of owners to recognize pain behaviour, obesity and inadequate feeding practices. Prioritizing different welfare issues can help to focus attention on the most pressing or severe issues causing the greatest amount of suffering.

Abstract

Equine welfare issues are receiving increasing attention in the UK, but welfare problems can arise from a wide range of causes. In order to identify the most important welfare concerns for horses, we used a Delphi method with 19 equine welfare experts. An initial list of 84 equine welfare issues was generated using an online discussion board and NVivo thematic analysis. Subsequently, experts ranked these welfare issues for perceived prevalence, severity and duration of suffering associated with each issue on a 6-point Likert scale. All issues with a mean score of 3 or above (n = 37) were included in subsequent rounds. Finally, a subset of experts attended a two-day workshop to determine the final priority list of welfare issues. The welfare issues perceived to be most prevalent were lack of biosecurity, delayed euthanasia, lack of owner knowledge of equine welfare needs, fear and stress from use, and obesity. The issues considered to cause greatest suffering for individual horses were delayed euthanasia, lack of recognition by owners of pain behaviour, large worm burdens, obesity and being fed unsuitable diets for equine feeding behaviour. These outcomes can help to focus research and education interventions on the most pressing welfare issues for horses.

Common Feeding Practices Pose A Risk to the Welfare of Horses When Kept on Non-Edible Bedding

During the evolution of the horse, an extended period of feed intake, spread over the entire 24-h period, determined the horses' behaviour and physiology. Horses will not interrupt their feed intake for more than 4 hours, if they have a choice. The aim of the present study was to investigate in what way restrictive feeding practices (non ad libitum) affect the horses' natural feed intake behaviour. We observed the feed intake behaviour of 104 horses on edible (n = 30) and non-edible bedding (n = 74) on ten different farms. We assessed the duration of the forced nocturnal feed intake interruption of horses housed on shavings when no additional roughage was available. Furthermore, we comparatively examined the feed intake behaviour of horses housed on edible versus non-edible bedding. The daily restrictive feeding of roughage (2 times a day: n = 8; 3 times a day: n = 2), as it is common in individual housing systems, resulted in a nocturnal feed intake interruption of more than 4 hours for the majority (74.32%, 55/74) of the horses on shavings (8:50 ± 1:25 h, median: 8:45 h, minimum: 6:45 h, maximum: 13:23 h). In comparison to horses on straw, horses on shavings paused their feed intake less frequently and at a later latency. Furthermore, they spent less time on consuming the evening meal than horses on straw. Our results of the comparison of the feed-intake behaviour of horses on edible and non-edible bedding show that the horses' ethological feeding needs are not satisfied on non-edible bedding. If the horses accelerate their feed intake (also defined as "rebound effect"), this might indicate that the horses` welfare is compromised. We conclude that in addition to the body condition score, the longest duration of feed intake interruption (usually in the night) is an important welfare indicator of horses that have limited access to roughage.

Housing Horses in Individual Boxes Is a Challenge with Regard to Welfare

Horses are mainly housed in individual boxes. This housing system is reported to be highly detrimental with regard to welfare and could trigger the expression of four behavioural indicators of a compromised welfare state: stereotypies, aggressiveness toward humans, unresponsiveness to the environment, and stress-related behaviours. The aim of this study was to identify housing and management factors that could alleviate the detrimental effects of individual boxes on welfare. A total of 187 horses were observed over 50 days by scan sampling. The impact of 12 factors was investigated on the expression of the four behavioural indicators in three different analyses. The results show that the majority of factors tested did not influence the expression of the behavioural indicators. Only three (straw bedding, a window opening onto the external environment, and a reduced quantity of concentrated feed) would have beneficial, although limited, effects. Furthermore, the longer the horses spent in individual boxes, the more likely they were to express unresponsiveness to the environment. To preserve the welfare of horses, it seems necessary to allow free exercise, interactions with conspecifics, and fibre consumption as often as possible, to ensure the satisfaction of the species' behavioural and physiological needs.