Melatonin ameliorates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury through SIRT3 activation

Neuroprotective potential for mitigating ischemia-reperfusion-induced damage

Reperfusion following cerebral ischemia causes both structural and functional damage to brain tissue and could aggravate a patient's condition; this phenomenon is known as cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Current studies have elucidated the neuroprotective role of the sirtuin protein family (Sirtuins) in modulating cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. However, the potential of utilizing it as a novel intervention target to influence the prognosis of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury requires additional exploration. In this review, the origin and research progress of Sirtuins are summarized, suggesting the involvement of Sirtuins in diverse mechanisms that affect cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, including inflammation, oxidative stress, blood-brain barrier damage, apoptosis, pyroptosis, and autophagy. The therapeutic avenues related to Sirtuins that may improve the prognosis of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury were also investigated by modulating Sirtuins expression and affecting representative pathways, such as nuclear factor-kappa B signaling, oxidative stress mediated by adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and the forkhead box O. This review also summarizes the potential of endogenous substances, such as RNA and hormones, drugs, dietary supplements, and emerging therapies that regulate Sirtuins expression. This review also reveals that regulating Sirtuins mitigates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury when combined with other risk factors. While Sirtuins show promise as a potential target for the treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury, most recent studies are based on rodent models with circadian rhythms that are distinct from those of humans, potentially influencing the efficacy of Sirtuins-targeting drug therapies. Overall, this review provides new insights into the role of Sirtuins in the pathology and treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Targeting sirtuins in neurological disorders: A comprehensive review

The sirtuin (SIRT) family is a group of seven conserved nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent histone deacetylases (SIRT1-SIRT7), which play crucial roles in various fundamental biological processes, including metabolism, aging, stress responses, inflammation, and cell survival. The role of SIRTs in neuro-pathophysiology has recently attracted significant attention. Notably, SIRT1-SIRT3 have been identified as key players in neuroprotection as they reduce neuroinflammation and regulate mitochondrial function. This review summarizes the latest research advancements in the role of the SIRT family in neurological diseases, mainly including neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia-related diseases, bleeding-related diseases, nervous system injury and other nervous system diseases, emphasizing their critical functions and associated signaling pathways, (e.g., AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α, AMPK/SIRT1/IL-1β/NF-κB, STAT2-SIRT4-mTOR, SIRT3/FOXO3α, and other signaling pathways in disease progression, particularly their protective roles in neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic injuries, and neural damage. Additionally, this review discusses progress in clinical studies targeting SIRT-specific small-molecule agonists and inhibitors. Further research on SIRTs may provide new insights into potential therapeutic strategies for the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders.

Sevoflurane: an opportunity for stroke treatment

In developed countries, stroke is the leading cause of death and disability that affects long-term quality of life and its incidence is increasing. The incidence of ischemic stroke is much higher than that of hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic stroke often leads to very serious neurological sequelae, which severely reduces the patients' quality of life and becomes a social burden. Therefore, ischemic stroke has received increasing attention. As a new type of anesthetic, sevoflurane has a lower solubility, works faster in the human body, and has less impact on the cardiovascular system than isoflurane. At the same time, studies have shown that preconditioning and postconditioning with sevoflurane have a beneficial effect on stroke. We believe that the role of sevoflurane in stroke may be a key area for future research. Therefore, this review mainly summarizes the relevant mechanisms of sevoflurane preconditioning and postconditioning in stroke in the past 20 years, revealing the bright prospects of sevoflurane in stroke treatment.

Protective Role of Vitamin D Receptor in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury In Vitro and In Vivo Model

BACKGROUND

Vitamin D receptor (VDR) can prevent myocardial ischemia reperfusion injury (MIRI). Hence, we aimed to illuminate the effect of VDR on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI).

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice and SK-N-SH cells were utilized to establish CIRI and cellular oxygen deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) models. Mice were injected with 1 μg/kg Calcitriol or 1 μg/kg Paricalcitol (PC) and adenovirus-mediated VDR overexpression or knockdown plasmids. 2,3,5-triphenyl-tetrazolium chloride (TTC) and Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assays were performed to measure the brain infarct volume and the apoptosis of cerebral cells. SK-N-SH cells were treated with 5 mM N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and transfected with VDR knockdown plasmid. Flow cytometry and Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assays were employed to assess the apoptosis and cell viability. Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (qRT-PCR) and Western blot were exploited to quantify the levels of reactive species oxygen (ROS), other oxidative stress-related factors, VDR and apoptosis-related factors.

RESULTS

The level of VDR in mouse cerebral tissue was elevated by CIRI (p < 0.001). CIRI-induced cerebral infarction (p < 0.001) and the apoptosis of cerebral cells (p < 0.001) in mice were mitigated by the activation of VDR. VDR overexpression abrogated while VDR silencing enhanced CIRI-induced infarction, oxidative stress and apoptosis of cerebral cells (p < 0.05). Furthermore, VDR silencing aggravated the oxidative stress and apoptosis in OGD/R-treated SK-N-SH cells (p < 0.05). NAC, a scavenger of oxidative stress, could reverse the effects of VDR silencing on apoptosis and oxidative stress in OGD/R-treated SK-N-SH cells (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

VDR alleviates the oxidative stress to protect against CIRI.

Protective Activity of Melatonin Combinations and Melatonin-Based Hybrid Molecules in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The identification of protective agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases is the mainstay therapeutic goal to modify the disease course and arrest the irreversible disability progression. Pharmacological therapies synergistically targeting multiple pathogenic pathways, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation, are prime candidates for neuroprotection. Combination or synergistic therapy with melatonin, whose decline correlates with altered sleep/wake cycle and impaired glymphatic "waste clearance" system in neurodegenerative diseases, has a great therapeutic potential to treat inflammatory neurodegenerative states. Despite the protective outcomes observed in preclinical studies, mild or poor outcomes were observed in clinical settings, suggesting that melatonin combinations promoting synergistic actions at appropriate doses might be more suitable to treat multifactorial neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we first summarize the key melatonin actions and pathways contributing to cell protection and its therapeutic implication in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). We remark the major controversies in the field, mostly generated by the lack of a common consensus for the optimal dosing, molecular targets, and toxicity. Then, we review the literature investigating the efficacy of melatonin combinations with approved or investigational neuroprotective agents and of melatonin-containing hybrid molecules, both in vitro and in animal models of AD, PD, and MS, as well as the efficacy of add-on melatonin in clinical settings. We highlight the rationale for such melatonin combinations with a focus on the comparison with single-agent treatment and on the assays in which an additive or a synergistic effect has been achieved. We conclude that a better characterization of the mechanisms underlying such melatonin synergistic actions under neuroinflammation at appropriate doses needs to be tackled to advance successful clinical translation of neuroprotective melatonin combination therapies or melatonin-based hybrid molecules.

Combined swimming with melatonin protects against behavioural deficit in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury induced rats associated with modulation of Mst1- MAPK -ERK signalling pathway

BACKGROUND

The inconvenience of social and behavioural deficits after cerebral ischaemia reperfusion (I/R) injury is still not well documented.

AIM

We aimed to study the protective effect of preconditioning swimming exercise combined with melatonin against cerebral I/R induced injury.

METHODOLOGY

Sixty rats were allocated into 6 groups; groups I and II served as control. Groups 3,4,5,6 subjected to bilateral carotid ligation for 30 minutes (min.) followed by reperfusion. Group 3 left untreated while groups 4 and 6; underwent swimming exercise 30 min/day, five days a week for three weeks before the surgery. Groups 5 and 6 treated with melatonin 30 minutes before the operation, then, all rats in groups 4, 5,6 were subjected to I/R. After that, groups 5 and 6 treated with 2nd dose of melatonin 30 minutes after reperfusion.

RESULTS

Combined strategy exhibited the most neuroprotective effect through prevention of cerebral I/R induced inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis with subsequent improvement in socio behaviour deficits and enhanced Glial cell proliferative capacity.

CONCLUSION

The protective contribution of combined strategy is associated with modulation in Macrophage-stimulating 1/mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MST1/MAPK/ERK) pathway which may explain, at least in part, its protective potential.

Mechanisms of mitophagy and oxidative stress in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion, vascular dementia, and Alzheimer's disease

Neurological diseases have consistently represented a significant challenge in both clinical treatment and scientific research. As research has progressed, the significance of mitochondria in the pathogenesis and progression of neurological diseases has become increasingly prominent. Mitochondria serve not only as a source of energy, but also as regulators of cellular growth and death. Both oxidative stress and mitophagy are intimately associated with mitochondria, and there is mounting evidence that mitophagy and oxidative stress exert a pivotal regulatory influence on the pathogenesis of neurological diseases. In recent years, there has been a notable rise in the prevalence of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CI/RI), vascular dementia (VaD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD), which collectively represent a significant public health concern. Reduced levels of mitophagy have been observed in CI/RI, VaD and AD. The improvement of associated pathology has been demonstrated through the increase of mitophagy levels. CI/RI results in cerebral tissue ischemia and hypoxia, which causes oxidative stress, disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and damage to the cerebral vasculature. The BBB disruption and cerebral vascular injury may induce or exacerbate VaD to some extent. In addition, inadequate cerebral perfusion due to vascular injury or altered function may exacerbate the accumulation of amyloid β (Aβ) thereby contributing to or exacerbating AD pathology. Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator (tPA; alteplase) and endovascular thrombectomy are effective treatments for stroke. However, there is a narrow window of opportunity for the administration of tPA and thrombectomy, which results in a markedly elevated incidence of disability among patients with CI/RI. It is regrettable that there are currently no there are still no specific drugs for VaD and AD. Despite the availability of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved clinical first-line drugs for AD, including memantine, donepezil hydrochloride, and galantamine, these agents do not fundamentally block the pathological process of AD. In this paper, we undertake a review of the mechanisms of mitophagy and oxidative stress in neurological disorders, a summary of the clinical trials conducted in recent years, and a proposal for a new strategy for targeted treatment of neurological disorders based on both mitophagy and oxidative stress.

SIRT3 Activation a Promise in Drug Development? New Insights into SIRT3 Biology and Its Implications on the Drug Discovery Process

Sirtuins catalyze deacetylation of lysine residues with a NAD+-dependent mechanism. In mammals, the sirtuin family is composed of seven members, divided into four subclasses that differ in substrate specificity, subcellular localization, regulation, as well as interactions with other proteins, both within and outside the epigenetic field. Recently, much interest has been growing in SIRT3, which is mainly involved in regulating mitochondrial metabolism. Moreover, SIRT3 seems to be protective in diseases such as age-related, neurodegenerative, liver, kidney, heart, and metabolic ones, as well as in cancer. In most cases, activating SIRT3 could be a promising strategy to tackle these health problems. Here, we summarize the main biological functions, substrates, and interactors of SIRT3, as well as several molecules reported in the literature that are able to modulate SIRT3 activity. Among the activators, some derive from natural products, others from library screening, and others from the classical medicinal chemistry approach.

Systematic review of melatonin in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury: critical role and therapeutic opportunities

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is the predominant causes for the poor prognosis of ischemic stroke patients after reperfusion therapy. Currently, potent therapeutic interventions for cerebral I/R injury are still very limited. Melatonin, an endogenous hormone, was found to be valid in preventing I/R injury in a variety of organs. However, a systematic review covering all neuroprotective effects of melatonin in cerebral I/R injury has not been reported yet. Thus, we perform a comprehensive overview of the influence of melatonin on cerebral I/R injury by collecting all available literature exploring the latent effect of melatonin on cerebral I/R injury as well as ischemic stroke. In this systematic review, we outline the extensive scientific studies and summarize the beneficial functions of melatonin, including reducing infarct volume, decreasing brain edema, improving neurological functions and attenuating blood-brain barrier breakdown, as well as its key protective mechanisms on almost every aspect of cerebral I/R injury, including inhibiting oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, apoptosis, excessive autophagy, glutamate excitotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction. Subsequently, we also review the predictive and therapeutic implications of melatonin on ischemic stroke reported in clinical studies. We hope that our systematic review can provide the most comprehensive introduction of current advancements on melatonin in cerebral I/R injury and new insights into personalized diagnosis and treatment of ischemic stroke.

Astragaloside IV promotes angiogenesis by targeting SIRT7/VEGFA signaling pathway to improve brain injury after cerebral infarction in rats

Cerebral infarction (CI) has become one of the leading causes of death and acquired disability worldwide. Astragaloside IV (AST IV), one of the basic components of Astragalus membranaceus, has a protective effect on CI. However, the underlying mechanism has not been conclusively elucidated. Therefore, this study aims to explore the underlying mechanism of AST IV improving brain injury after CI. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) were used to simulate cerebral infarction injury in SD rats and HUVECs cells. Neurologic score, Evans blue, TTC and HE staining were used to observe brain injury in rats. Cell viability and migration were measured in vitro. Angiogenesis was detected by immunofluorescence and tube formation assay, and cell cycle was detected by flow cytometry. Western blot was used to find the expression of related proteins. Molecular docking, virtual mutation, site-directed mutagenesis, MST, and lentivirus silencing were used for target validation. The results showed that AST IV alleviated neurological impairment and promoted angiogenesis after CI. Moreover, AST IV greatly increased the transcription levels of SIRT6 and SIRT7, but had no effect on SIRT1-SIRT5, and promoted cell viability, migration, angiogenesis and S phase ratio in OGD/R-induced HUVECs. Furthermore, AST IV up-regulated the protein expressions of CDK4, cyclin D1, VEGFA and VEGF2R. Interestingly, AST IV not only bound to SIRT7, but also increased the expression of SIRT7. Silencing SIRT7 by lentivirus neutralizes the positive effects of AST IV. Taken together, the present study revealed that AST IV may improve brain tissue damage after CI by targeting SIRT7/VEGFA signaling pathway to promote angiogenesis.

Esculetin Alleviates Inflammation, Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in Intestinal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury via Targeting SIRT3/AMPK/mTOR Signaling and Regulating Autophagy

Aim

Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is a challenging pathological phenomenon accountable for significant mortality in clinical scenarios. Substantial evidence has supported the protective role of esculetin in myocardial I/R injury. This study is designed to reveal the specific impacts of esculetin on intestinal I/R injury and disclose the underlying mechanism.

Methods

First, intestinal I/R injury model and intestinal epithelial cell line hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) model were established. Pathologic damages to intestinal tissues were observed through H&E staining. Serum diamine oxidase (DAO) levels were examined. RT-qPCR and Western blot examined the expression of inflammatory mediators. Commercial kits were used for detecting the levels of oxidative stress markers. TUNEL assay and caspase 3 activity assay measured cell apoptosis. Immunofluorescence (IF) staining measured autophagy levels. Western blot analyzed the expression of apoptosis-, Sirtuin 3 (SIRT3)/AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK)/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling- and autophagy-related proteins. Molecular docking verified the interaction of esculetin with SIRT3. Cell viability was explored via CCK-8 assay.

Results

The experimental results revealed that esculetin treatment mitigated pathological damage of intestinal tissues, reduced serum DAO level, ameliorated inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis and promoted autophagy in intestinal I/R rats. Moreover, esculetin bond to SIRT3 and activated SIRT3/AMPK/mTOR signaling both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, esculetin treatment enhanced cell viability and SIRT3 silencing reversed the impacts of esculetin on autophagy, inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis in H/R cell model.

Conclusion

In a word, esculetin activated SIRT3/AMPK/mTOR signaling and autophagy to protect against inflammation, oxidative stress and apoptosis in intestinal I/R injury.

Melatonin: a promising neuroprotective agent for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) injury is initiated by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which leads to the oxidation of cellular proteins, DNA, and lipids as an initial event. The reperfusion process impairs critical cascades that support cell survival, including mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant enzyme activity. Failure to activate prosurvival signals may result in increased neuronal cell death and exacerbation of CIR damage. Melatonin, a hormone produced naturally in the body, has high concentrations in both the cerebrospinal fluid and the brain. However, melatonin production declines significantly with age, which may contribute to the development of age-related neurological disorders due to reduced levels. By activating various signaling pathways, melatonin can affect multiple aspects of human health due to its diverse range of activities. Therefore, understanding the underlying intracellular and molecular mechanisms is crucial before investigating the neuroprotective effects of melatonin in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Sirtuins: Promising Therapeutic Targets to Treat Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is a major cause of mortality and disability globally, with ischemic stroke (IS) accounting for over 80% of all stroke cases. The pathological process of IS involves numerous signal molecules, among which are the highly conserved nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-dependent enzymes known as sirtuins (SIRTs). SIRTs modulate various biological processes, including cell differentiation, energy metabolism, DNA repair, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Importantly, several studies have reported a correlation between SIRTs and IS. This review introduces the general aspects of SIRTs, including their distribution, subcellular location, enzyme activity, and substrate. We also discuss their regulatory roles and potential mechanisms in IS. Finally, we describe the current therapeutic methods based on SIRTs, such as pharmacotherapy, non-pharmacological therapeutic/rehabilitative interventions, epigenetic regulators, potential molecules, and stem cell-derived exosome therapy. The data collected in this study will potentially contribute to both clinical and fundamental research on SIRTs, geared towards developing effective therapeutic candidates for future treatment of IS.

Melatonin Attenuates Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury through Inducing Autophagy

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to investigate how melatonin administration for 3 days or 7 days following cerebral ischemia (CI) injury would affect autophagy and, therefore, survival in neurons of the penumbra region. Moreover, it was also aimed at determining how this melatonin treatment would affect the neurological deficit score and rotarod and adhesive removal test durations.

METHODS

Focal CI (90 min) was achieved in a total of 105 rats utilizing a middle cerebral artery occlusion model. After the start of reperfusion, the groups were treated with melatonin (10 mg/kg/day) for 3 days or 7 days. In all groups, neurological deficit scoring, rotarod, and adhesive removal tests were executed during reperfusion. Infarct areas were determined by TTC (2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride) staining at the end of the 3rd and 7th days of reperfusion. Beclin-1, LC3, p62, and caspase-3 protein levels were assessed using Western blot and immunofluorescence methods in the brain tissues. Moreover, penumbra areas were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

RESULTS

Following CI, it was observed that melatonin treatment improved the rotarod and adhesive removal test durations from day 5 and reduced the infarct area after CI. It also induced autophagic proteins Beclin-1, LC3, and p62 and suppressed the apoptotic protein cleaved caspase-3. According to TEM findings, melatonin treatment partially reduced the damage in neurons after CI.

CONCLUSION

Melatonin treatment following CI reduced the infarct area and induced the autophagic proteins Beclin-1, LC3, and p62 by inhibiting the apoptotic caspase-3 protein. The functional reflection of melatonin treatment on neurological test scores was became significant from the 5th day onward.

Three-dimensional-cultured MSC-derived exosome with hydrogel for cerebral ischemia repair

Microglia-mediated neuroinflammatory response, one of the most essential pathological processes of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, is acknowledged as the main factors leading to poor prognosis of cerebral ischemia. Exosome derived from mesenchymal stem cell (MSC-Exo) exhibits neuroprotective functions by reducing cerebral ischemia-induced neuroinflammatory response and promoting angiogenesis. However, MSC-Exo has disadvantages such as insufficient targeting capability and low production, which limits their clinical applications. Here, we fabricated gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel for three-dimensional (3D) culture of MSCs. It is indicated that 3D environment could simulate the biological niches of MSCs, thereby significantly increasing the cell stemness of MSCs and improving the yield of MSCs-derived exosomes (3D-Exo). In this study, we utilized the modified Longa method to induce middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to interrogate the mechanism of the stronger neuroprotective effect of 3D-Exo. Furthermore, the administration of 3D-Exo in MCAO model could promote neovascularization in infarct region and result in a significant suppression of inflammatory response. This study proposed an exosome-based targeting delivery system for cerebral ischemia and provided a promising strategy for efficient and large-scale production of MSC-Exo.

Neuroprotection of NAD+ and NBP against ischemia/reperfusion brain injury is associated with restoration of sirtuin-regulated metabolic homeostasis

Background: Ischemic stroke seriously threatens human health because of high rates of morbidity, mortality and disability. This study compared the effects of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and butylphthalide (NBP) on in vitro and in vivo ischemic stroke models.

Methods: Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (t-MCAO/R) model was established in mice, and the cultured primary cortical neurons were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). Cerebral infarct volume, neurobehavioral indices, antioxidant activity, ATP level and lactic acid content were determined. The neuroprotective effects of NAD+ or NBP were compared using sirtuin inhibitor niacinamide (NAM).

Results: Intraperitoneal injection of NBP within 4 h or intravenous injection of NAD+ within 1 h after t-MCAO/R significantly reduced the volume of infarcts, cerebral edema, and neurological deficits. Administration of NAD+ and NBP immediately after t-MCAO/R in mice showed similar neuroprotection against acute and long-term ischemic injury. Both NAD+ and NBP significantly inhibited the accumulation of MDA and H2O2 and reduced oxidative stress. NAD+ was superior to NBP in inhibiting lipid oxidation and DNA damage. Furthermore, although both NAD+ and NBP improved the morphology of mitochondrial damage induced by ischemia/reperfusion, NAD+ more effectively reversed the decrease of ATP and increase of lactic acid after ischemia/reperfusion compared with NBP. NAD+ but not NBP treatment significantly upregulated SIRT3 in the brain, but the sirtuin inhibitor NAM could abolish the protective effect of NAD+ and NBP by inhibiting SIRT1 or SIRT3.

Conclusions: These results confirmed the protective effects of NAD+ and NBP on cerebral ischemic injury. NBP and NAD+ showed similar antioxidant effects, while NAD+ had better ability in restoring energy metabolism, possibly through upregulating the activity of SIRT1 and SIRT3. The protection provided by NBP against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion may be achieved through SIRT1.

Sirtuin-3: A potential target for treating several types of brain injury

Sirtuin-3 (SIRT3) is responsible for maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis by deacetylating substrates in an NAD+-dependent manner. SIRT3, the primary deacetylase located in the mitochondria, controls cellular energy metabolism and the synthesis of essential biomolecules for cell survival. In recent years, increasing evidence has shown that SIRT3 is involved in several types of acute brain injury. In ischaemic stroke, subarachnoid haemorrhage, traumatic brain injury, and intracerebral haemorrhage, SIRT3 is closely related to mitochondrial homeostasis and with the mechanisms of pathophysiological processes such as neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, autophagy, and programmed cell death. As SIRT3 is the driver and regulator of a variety of pathophysiological processes, its molecular regulation is significant. In this paper, we review the role of SIRT3 in various types of brain injury and summarise SIRT3 molecular regulation. Numerous studies have demonstrated that SIRT3 plays a protective role in various types of brain injury. Here, we present the current research available on SIRT3 as a target for treating ischaemic stroke, subarachnoid haemorrhage, traumatic brain injury, thus highlighting the therapeutic potential of SIRT3 as a potent mediator of catastrophic brain injury. In addition, we have summarised the therapeutic drugs, compounds, natural extracts, peptides, physical stimuli, and other small molecules that may regulate SIRT3 to uncover additional brain-protective mechanisms of SIRT3, conduct further research, and provide more evidence for clinical transformation and drug development.

Melatonin Alleviates the Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation/Reperfusion-Induced Pyroptosis of HEI-OC1 Cells and Cochlear Hair Cells via MT-1,2/Nrf2 (NFE2L2)/ROS/NLRP3 Pathway

Substantial evidence suggests that pyroptosis is involved in renal, cerebral, and myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. However, whether pyroptosis is involved in ischemia-reperfusion injury of cochlear hair cells has not been explored. In this study, we examined the effects of melatonin on the oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) of hair cell-like House Ear Institute-Organ of Corti 1 (HEI-OC1) cells and cochlear hair cells in vitro to mimic cochlear ischemia-reperfusion injury in vivo. We found that melatonin treatment protected the HEI-OC1 and cochlear hair cells against OGD/R-induced cell pyroptosis and reduced the expression level of ROS in these cells. However, these effects were completely abolished by the application of luzindole (a non-selective melatonin receptor blocker) and largely offset by the use of ML385 (an nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) inhibitor). These findings suggest that melatonin alleviates OGD/R-induced pyroptosis of the hair cell-like HEI-OC1 cells and cochlear hair cells via the melatonin receptor 1A (MT-1) and melatonin receptor 1B (MT-2)/Nrf2 (NFE2L2)/ROS/NLRP3 pathway, which may provide credible evidence for melatonin being used as a potential drug for the treatment of idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing loss in the future.

FTO inhibits oxidative stress by mediating m6A demethylation of Nrf2 to alleviate cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Current therapies are of limited efficacy in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Based on the important role of oxidative stress in cerebral I/R injury, this study aimed to explore how the N6-adenosine methylation (m6A) demethylase FTO affects oxidative stress. Middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R)-induced rat model and oxygen and glucose deprivation/re-oxygenation (OGD/R)-induced SH-SY5Y cells were established as in vivo and in vitro model, respectively. The neurological score of rats was measured, and the volume of cerebral infarction was measured by TTC staining. The levels of FTO, nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2), and the activity of m6A demethylase FTO were detected. The m6A methylation level of Nrf2 mRNA was detected by MeRIP experiment. Flow cytometry and MTT assay were used to detect apoptosis and proliferation in vitro. TUNEL assay was used to detect apoptosis in brain tissues. FTO and Nrf2 expressions were decreased in the MCAO/R rat brain tissues and OGD/R SH-SY5Y cells, while the m6A methylation level of Nrf2 mRNA was significantly increased. Overexpression of FTO upregulated Nrf2 expression by decreasing the m6A methylation level of Nrf2 mRNA. m6A binding protein YT521-B homology (YTH) domain family protein 2 (YTHDF2) promoted the degradation of Nrf2 by promoting the m6A methylation level of Nrf2 mRNA. Furthermore, SH-SY5Y cell apoptosis was increased and cell viability was decreased after the addition of methyltransferases METTL 3/14, thus blocking FTO to protect SH-SY5Y cells from oxidative stress injury. In vivo, overexpression of FTO decreased the area of cerebral ischemia infarction and the extent of cell apoptosis. In conclusion, FTO increases Nrf2 expression by mediating m6A demethylation of Nrf2 mRNA, thereby inhibiting oxidative stress response and ultimately alleviating cerebral I/R injury.

Emerging Treatment Strategies for Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CI/RI) injury is a common feature of ischemic stroke which occurs when the blood supply is restored after a period of ischemia in the brain. Reduced blood-flow to the brain during CI/RI compromises neuronal cell health as a result of mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, cytokine production, inflammation and tissue damage. Reperfusion therapy during CI/RI can restore the blood flow to ischemic regions of brain which are not yet infarcted. The long-term goal of CI/RI therapy is to reduce stroke-related neuronal cell death, disability and mortality. A range of drug and interventional therapies have emerged that can alleviate CI/RI mediated oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis in the brain. Herein, we review recent studies on CI/RI interventions for which a mechanism of action has been described and the potential of these therapeutic modalities for future use in the clinic.

Mitochondrial unfolded protein response in ischemia-reperfusion injury

Mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) is a mitochondrial stress response that activates the transcriptional program of mitochondrial chaperone proteins and proteases to keep protein homeostasis in mitochondria. Ischemia-reperfusion injury results in multiple severe clinical issues linked to high morbidity and mortality in various disorders. The pathophysiology and pathogenesis of ischemia-reperfusion injury are complex and multifactorial. Emerging evidence showed the roles of UPRmt signaling in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Herein, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms underlying UPRmt signaling in C. elegans and mammals. Furthermore, we review the recent studies into the roles and mechanisms of UPRmt signaling in ischemia-reperfusion injury of the heart, brain, kidney, and liver. Further research of UPRmt signaling will potentially develop novel therapeutic strategies against ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy: Perspectives of Neuroprotective and Neuroregenerative Treatments

Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is a serious condition that could have deleterious neurological outcomes, such as cerebral palsy, neuromotor disability, developmental disability, epilepsy, and sensitive or cognitive problems, and increase the risk of death in severe cases. Once HIE occurs, molecular cascades are triggered favoring the oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and inflammation damage that promote cell death via apoptosis or necrosis. Currently, the therapeutic hypothermia is the standard of care in HIE; however, it has a small window of action and only can be used in children of more than 36 gestational weeks; for this reason, it is very important to develop new therapies to prevent the progression of the hypoxic-ischemic injury or to develop neuroregenerative therapies in severe HIE cases. The objective of this revision is to describe the emerging treatments for HIE, either preventing cell death for oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, or exacerbated inflammation, as well as describing a new therapeutic approach for neuroregeneration, such as mesenchymal stem cells, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and gonadotropin realizing hormone agonists.

Melatonin as an Antioxidant Agent in Stroke: An Updated Review

Stroke is a devastating disease associated with high mortality and disability worldwide, and is generally classified as ischemic or hemorrhagic, which share certain similar pathophysiological processes. Oxidative stress is a critical factor involved in stroke-induced injury, which not only directly damages brain tissue, but also enhances a series of pathological signaling cascades, contributing to inflammation, brain edema, and neuronal death. To alleviate these serious secondary brain injuries, neuroprotective agents targeting oxidative stress inhibition may serve as a promising treatment strategy. Melatonin is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland, and has various properties, such as antioxidation, anti-inflammation, circadian rhythm modulation, and promotion of tissue regeneration. Numerous animal experiments studying stroke have confirmed that melatonin exerts considerable neuroprotective effects, partially via anti-oxidative stress. In this review, we introduce the possible role of melatonin as an antioxidant in the treatment of stroke based on the latest published studies of animal experiments and clinical research.

A novel mechanism for the protection against acute lung injury by melatonin: mitochondrial quality control of lung epithelial cells is preserved through SIRT3-dependent deacetylation of SOD2

The mitochondrial quality control of lung epithelial cells is disturbed during sepsis, which contributes to abnormal mitochondrial function and acute lung injury. Melatonin is one of the primary hormones secreted by the pineal gland, displaying favorable antioxidative actions in sepsis and cardiopulmonary disease. However, the potential roles and molecular basis of melatonin in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated lung epithelial cells have not been explored and reported. Herein, we investigated whether melatonin could protect against sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI) and LPS-treated lung epithelial cells through the mitochondrial quality control as well as its possible molecular targets. Wild type and Sirt3 knockout mice were intratracheally instilled with LPS for 12 h to construct an in vivo acute lung injury model. Both A549 lung epithelial cells and primary alveolar type II (AT-II) cells were used to explore the possible roles of melatonin in vitro by incubating with small interfering RNA against Sirt3. To determine the involvement of the melatonin receptor, cells and mice were treated with si Mtnr1b and luzindole. Melatonin pretreatment significantly inhibited pathological injury, inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in LPS-treated lung tissues and LPS-treated lung epithelial cells. Furthermore, melatonin also shifted the dynamic course of mitochondria from fission to fusion, inhibited mitophagy and fatty acid oxidation in LPS-treated lung epithelial cells in vitro and in vivo. However, SIRT3 inhibition abolished the protective roles of melatonin in acute lung injury. Mechanistically, we found that melatonin increased the activity and expression of SIRT3, which further promoted the deacetylation of SOD2 at K122 and K68. More importantly, melatonin exerted pulmonary protection by activating MTNR1B but not MTNR1A during ALI. Collectively, melatonin could preserve the mitochondrial quality control of lung epithelial cells through the deacetylation of SOD2 in a SIRT3-dependent manner, which eventually alleviated sepsis-induced injury, inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. Thus, melatonin may serve as a promising candidate against ALI in the future.

Redox Biology of Melatonin: Discriminating Between Circadian and Noncircadian Functions

Melatonin has not only to be seen as a regulator of circadian clocks. In addition to its chronobiotic functions, it displays other actions, especially in cell protection. This includes antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and mitochondria-protecting effects. Although protection is also modulated by the circadian system, the respective actions of melatonin can be distinguished and differ with regard to dose requirements in therapeutic settings. It is the aim of this article to outline these differences in terms of function, signaling, and dosage. Focus has been placed on both the nexus and the dissecting properties between circadian and noncircadian mechanisms. This has to consider details beyond the classic view of melatonin's role, such as widespread synthesis in extrapineal tissues, formation in mitochondria, effects on the mitochondrial permeability transition pore, and secondary signaling, for example, via upregulation of sirtuins and by regulating noncoding RNAs, especially microRNAs. The relevance of these findings, the differences and connections between circadian and noncircadian functions of melatonin shed light on the regulation of inflammation, including macrophage/microglia polarization, damage-associated molecular patterns, avoidance of cytokine storms, and mitochondrial functions, with numerous consequences to antioxidative protection, that is, aspects of high actuality with regard to deadly viral and bacterial diseases. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 37, 704-725.

Role of NAD+ and FAD in Ischemic Stroke Pathophysiology: An Epigenetic Nexus and Expanding Therapeutic Repertoire

The redox coenzymes viz., oxidized β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) by way of generation of optimal reducing power and cellular energy currency (ATP), control a staggering array of metabolic reactions. The prominent cellular contenders for NAD⁺ utilization, inter alia, are sirtuins (SIRTs) and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP-1), which have been significantly implicated in ischemic stroke (IS) pathogenesis. NAD⁺ and FAD are also two crucial epigenetic enzyme-required metabolites mediating histone deacetylation and poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation through SIRTs and PARP-1 respectively, and demethylation through FAD-mediated lysine specific demethylase activity. These enzymes and post-translational modifications impinge on the components of neurovascular unit, primarily neurons, and elicit diverse functional upshots in an ischemic brain. These could be circumstantially linked with attendant cognitive deficits and behavioral outcomes in post-stroke epoch. Parsing out the contribution of NAD⁺/FAD-synthesizing and utilizing enzymes towards epigenetic remodeling in IS setting, together with their cognitive and behavioral associations, combined with possible therapeutic implications will form the crux of this review.

Modulation of autophagy by melatonin via sirtuins in stroke: From mechanisms to therapies

Sirtuins perform an important effect on the neural cell fate following stroke. Several mechanisms that have been correlated with stroke are oxidative stress, apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. Autophagy is usually regarded as unitary of the neural cell survival mechanisms. Recently, the importance of the sirtuins effect on autophagy by antioxidant agents for stroke treatment mentioned in various studies. One of these agents is melatonin. Melatonin can modulate autophagy by changing on sirtuin pathways. Melatonin and its metabolites adjust various sirtuins pathways related to apoptosis, proliferation, metastases, autophagy and inflammation in case of stroke. In this review, we will discuss about the modulation of autophagy by melatonin via sirtuins in stroke.

Trilobatin promotes angiogenesis after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury via SIRT7/VEGFA signaling pathway in rats

Angiogenesis plays a pivotal role in the recovery of neurological function after ischemia stroke. Herein, we investigated the effect of trilobatin (TLB) on angiogenesis after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI). The effect of TLB on angiogenesis after CIRI were investigated in mouse brain microvascular endothelium bEnd.3 cells and middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO)-induced CIRI rat model. The cell proliferation and angiogenesis were observed using immunofluorescence staining. The cell cycle, expressions of cell cycle-related proteins and SIRT 1-7 were determined by flow cytometry and western blot, respectively. The binding affinity of TLB with SIRT7 was predicted by molecular docking. The results showed that TLB concentration-dependently promoted bEnd.3 cell proportion in the S-phase. TLB significantly increased the protein expressions of SIRT6, SIRT7, and VEGFA, but not affected SIRT1-SIRT5 protein expressions. Moreover, TLB not only dramatically alleviated neurological impairment after CIRI, but also enhanced post-stroke neovascularization and newly formed functional vessels in cerebral ischemic penumbra. Furthermore, TLB up-regulated the protein expressions of CDK4, cyclin D1, VEGFA and its receptor VEGFR-2. Intriguingly, TLB not only directly bound to SIRT7, but also increased SIRT7 expression at day 28. Our findings reveal that TLB promotes cerebral microvascular endothelial cells proliferation, and facilitates angiogenesis after CIRI via mediating SIRT7/VEGFA signaling pathway in rats. Therefore, TLB might be a novel restorative agent to rescue ischemia stroke.

Artemisinin Alleviates Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury via Regulation of the Forkhead Transcription Factor O1 Signaling Pathway

The effect and mechanism of artemisinin therapy on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) was analyzed in this work. 100 healthy male C57BL/6 mice were selected and randomly divided into the sham group (no treatment), CIRI model group (IR), IR + artemisinin posttreatment group (IR + Arte), EX527 + IR group (EX527 + IR), and EX527 + IR + artemisinin posttreatment group (EX527 + IR + Arte), with 20 mice in each group. The cerebral infarct volumes of mice in different groups were measured by the 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining method. The neurological function scores and oxidative stress levels of mice in different groups were measured and compared. In addition, the expressions of silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1), forkhead transcription factor O1 (FOXO1), and p53 protein in brain tissue were detected. The results showed that the contents of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in the EX527 + IR group and EX527 + IR + Arte group were significantly higher than those in the IR + Arte group (P < 0.05). The expressions of SIRT1 protein in the brain tissue of the IR group and EX527 + IR group were much lower than that of the sham group (P < 0.01); compared with the IR + Arte group, the expression of the X527 + IR group in the brain tissue was greatly reduced (P < 0.05). The expression levels of FOXO1 protein and p53 protein in the brain tissue of mice in the IR group and EX527 + IR group were higher than those in the sham group (P < 0.01). It was concluded that artemisinin treatment can reduce oxidative stress damage and alleviate CIRI through the SIRT1/FOXO1 signaling pathway, thereby achieving neuroprotective effects.

Sevoflurane Offers Neuroprotection in a Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Rat Model Through the E2F1/EZH2/TIMP2 Regulatory Axis

Cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury contributes considerably to the poor prognosis in patients with ischemic stroke. This study is aimed to delineate the molecular mechanistic actions by which sevoflurane protects against cerebral I/R injury. A rat model of cerebral I/R injury was established and pre-treated with sevoflurane, in which hippocampal neuron apoptosis was found to be repressed and the level of E2F transcription factor 1 (E2F1) was observed to be down-regulated. Then, the up-regulated expression of E2F1 was validated in rats with cerebral I/R injury, responsible for stimulated neuron apoptosis. Further, the binding of E2F1 to enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) and EZH2 to tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP2) was identified. The stimulative effect of the E2F1/EZH2/TIMP2 regulatory axis on neuron apoptosis was subsequently demonstrated through functional assays. After that, it was substantiated in vivo that sevoflurane suppressed the apoptosis of hippocampal neurons in rats with cerebral I/R injury by down-regulating E2F1 to activate the EZH2/TIMP2 axis. Taken together, our data elucidated that sevoflurane reduced neuron apoptosis through mediating the E2F1/EZH2/TIMP2 regulatory axis, thus protecting rats against cerebral I/R injury.

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and Its Neuroinvasive Capacity: Is It Time for Melatonin?

The world faces an exceptional new public health concern caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), subsequently termed the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) by the World Health Organization (WHO). Although the clinical symptoms mostly have been characterized, the scientific community still doesn´t know how SARS-CoV-2 successfully reaches and spreads throughout the central nervous system (CNS) inducing brain damage. The recent detection of SARS-CoV-2 in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and in frontal lobe sections from postmortem examination has confirmed the presence of the virus in neural tissue. This finding reveals a new direction in the search for a neurotherapeutic strategy in the COVID-19 patients with underlying diseases. Here, we discuss the COVID-19 outbreak in a neuroinvasiveness context and suggest the therapeutic use of high doses of melatonin, which may favorably modulate the immune response and neuroinflammation caused by SARS-CoV-2. However, clinical trials elucidating the efficacy of melatonin in the prevention and clinical management in the COVID-19 patients should be actively encouraged.

Melatonin ameliorates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in diabetic mice by enhancing autophagy via the SIRT1-BMAL1 pathway

Diabetic brains are more vulnerable to ischemia-reperfusion injury. Previous studies have proved that melatonin could protect against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) injury in non-diabetic stroke models; however, its roles and the underlying mechanisms against CIR injury in diabetic mice remain unknown. Streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice and high-glucose-cultured HT22 cells were exposed to melatonin, with or without administration of the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and the specifically silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) inhibitor EX527, and then subjected to CIR or oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion operation. We found that diabetic mice showed aggravated brain damage, increased apoptosis and oxidative stress, and deficient autophagy following CIR compared with non-diabetic counterparts. Melatonin treatment exhibited improved histological damage, neurological outcomes, and cerebral infarct size. Intriguingly, melatonin markedly increased cell survival, anti-oxidative and anti-apoptosis effects, and significantly enhanced autophagy. However, these effects were largely attenuated by 3-MA or EX527. Additionally, our cellular experiments demonstrated that melatonin increased the SIRT1-BMAL1 pathway-related proteins' expression in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, these results indicate that melatonin treatment can protect against CIR-induced brain damage in diabetic mice, which may be achieved by the autophagy enhancement mediated by the SIRT1-BMAL1 pathway.

Melatonin attenuates reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation following cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury mediated by GSK-3β and RIP1K

Even though astrocytes have been widely reported to support several brain functions, studies have emerged that they exert deleterious effects on the brain after ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury. The present study investigated the neuroprotective effects of melatonin on the processes of reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation, as well as axonal regeneration after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion. Male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: sham-operated, I/R, I/R treated with melatonin, and I/R treated with edaravone. All drugs were administered via intraperitoneal injection at the onset of reperfusion and were continued until the rats were sacrificed on Day 7 or 14 after the surgery. Melatonin presented long-term benefits on cerebral damage after I/R injury, as demonstrated by a decreased infarct volume, histopathological changes, and reduced neuronal cell death. We also found that melatonin attenuated reactive astrogliosis and glial scar formation and, consequently, enhanced axonal regeneration and promoted neurobehavioral recovery. Furthermore, glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein 1 kinase (RIP1K), which had previously been revealed as proteins involved in astrocyte responses, were significantly reduced after melatonin administration. Taken together, melatonin effectively counteracted the deleterious effects due to astrocyte responses and improved axonal regeneration to promote functional recovery during the chronic phase of cerebral I/R injury by inhibiting GSK-3β and RIP1K activities.

Dexmedetomidine inhibits mitochondria damage and apoptosis of enteric glial cells in experimental intestinal ischemia/reperfusion injury via SIRT3-dependent PINK1/HDAC3/p53 pathway

BACKGROUND

Intestinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury commonly occurs during perioperative periods, resulting in high morbidity and mortality on a global scale. Dexmedetomidine (Dex) is a selective α2-agonist that is frequently applied during perioperative periods for its analgesia effect; however, its ability to provide protection against intestinal I/R injury and underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear.

METHODS

To fill this gap, the protection of Dex against I/R injury was examined in a rat model of intestinal I/R injury and in an inflammation cell model, which was induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) plus interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) stimulation.

RESULTS

Our data demonstrated that Dex had protective effects against intestinal I/R injury in rats. Dex was also found to promote mitophagy and inhibit apoptosis of enteric glial cells (EGCs) in the inflammation cell model. PINK1 downregulated p53 expression by promoting the phosphorylation of HDAC3. Further studies revealed that Dex provided protection against experimentally induced intestinal I/R injury in rats, while enhancing mitophagy, and suppressing apoptosis of EGCs through SIRT3-mediated PINK1/HDAC3/p53 pathway in the inflammation cell model.

CONCLUSION

Hence, these findings provide evidence supporting the protective effect of Dex against intestinal I/R injury and its underlying mechanism involving the SIRT3/PINK1/HDAC3/p53 axis.

O-GlcNAc Transferase (OGT) Protects Cerebral Neurons from Death During Ischemia/Reperfusion (I/R) Injury by Modulating Drp1 in Mice

Previous studies have demonstrated that increased O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) level could promote cell survival following environmental stresses. This study aimed to explore the role of O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. The mouse model with cerebral I/R injury was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R). The expression of ogt in brain tissues was detected by qRT-PCR, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining assay. Neurological deficit was evaluated using a modified scoring system. The infarct volume was assessed by TTC staining assay. Neuronal apoptosis in brain tissues was evaluated by TUNEL staining assay. The level of cleaved caspase-3 in brain tissues was detected by Western blot and IHC staining assay. The expression of critical proteins involved in mitochondrial fission, including OPA1, Mfn1, and Mfn2, as well as Mff and Drp1 was detected by Western blot and IHC, respectively. The expression of ogt during cerebral I/R injury was significantly upregulated. Ogt knockdown significantly increased neurological score and infarct volume in I/R-induced mice. Meanwhile, ogt knockdown significantly enhanced neuronal apoptosis and cleaved caspase-3 level in brain tissues of I/R-induced mice. In addition, ogt knockdown markedly decreased serine 637 phosphorylation level of mitochondrial fission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) and promoted Drp1 translocation from the cytosol to the mitochondria. Moreover, the specific Drp1 inhibitor mdivi-1 effectively attenuated ogt knockdown-induced brain injury of I/R-stimulated mice in vivo. Our study revealed that OGT protects against cerebral I/R injury by inhibiting the function of Drp1 in mice, suggesting that ogt may be a potential therapeutic target for cerebral I/R injury.

Dynamic Observation of the Effect of L-Theanine on Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging under Mathematical Model Analysis

This study was to use the partial differential mathematical model to analyze the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) images of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) and to dynamically observe the role of L-theanine in CIRI based on this. 30 patients with cerebral ischemia in a hospital in a certain area were selected and divided into a cerebral ischemia group and a L-theanine treatment group. The two groups of patients were examined by MRI within 48 hours, and the relative apparent diffusion coefficient (rADC) of the cerebral ischemic part of the patients was determined. The partial differential mathematical model was used for data processing to obtain the function of cerebral ischemia time and infarct area, and the data of patients in the cerebral ischemia group and L-theanine treatment group were compared and analyzed. The results showed that the partial differential mathematical model could effectively analyze the linear relationship between the rADC value and time in the treatment of CIRI using L-theanine. The rADC values of the four points of interest in the L-theanine treatment group all increased with time, and there was a positive correlation between the variables X and Y. In observing the efficacy indicators of L-theanine, the L-theanine treatment group showed a significant advantage in the neurospecific enolase (NSE) content compared with the cerebral ischemia group (P < 0.01), and the neurological function score of the L-theanine treatment group gradually decreased and showed a statistically obvious difference on the 7th day of treatment (P < 0.05). In summary, it was verified in this study that the role of L-theanine in the treatment of CIRI was of a great and positive significance for the subsequent treatment of patients with cerebral ischemia, providing reliable theoretical basis and data basis for clinical treatment of CIRI.

Genome-Wide Transcription Analysis of Electroacupuncture Precondition-Induced Ischemic Tolerance on SD Rat With Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Acupuncture promotes the recovery of neurological function by the overall improvement of ischemic brain injury. It is not only regarded as a rehabilitative treatment but also a pretreatment method for stroke. However, its mechanism has not been fully elucidated. In this study, rats were treated with electroacupuncture (EA) at Baihui (GV20) for 30 min/day for 6 days, ahead of conducting cerebral ischemia–reperfusion (I/R) injury. Infarction volume, Evans blue leakage, and neurological deficits were evaluated at 24 h after I/R injury. Then, the ipsilateral ischemic brain was isolated for RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) to identify molecular consequences. The results showed that EA pretreatment decreased blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability, reduced brain infarction volume, and improved neurological outcomes. EA pretreatment could upregulate expression of antivirus and immunity activity-associated genes (such as Ifit1, Ifit3, Irf7, and Oasla) and downregulate expression of matrix disruption-associated genes (Col24a1, Col11a1, Col27a1, etc.) in healthy rats. In addition, it could partially reverse or ameliorate genome-wide transcription changes of the ipsilateral ischemic brain. For the first time, this study provides insight into genomic network modulation of a healthy rat with EA treatment and a EA-preconditioned rat under subsequent I/R injury, which is helpful in explaining acupuncture precondition-induced ischemic tolerance of stroke. It also provides new strategies and targets for the prevention of ischemic stroke.

Mitochondrial Sirtuins in Reproduction

Mitochondria act as hubs of numerous metabolic pathways. Mitochondrial dysfunctions contribute to altering the redox balance and predispose to aging and metabolic alterations. The sirtuin family is composed of seven members and three of them, SIRT3-5, are housed in mitochondria. They catalyze NAD+-dependent deacylation and the ADP-ribosylation of mitochondrial proteins, thereby modulating gene expression and activities of enzymes involved in oxidative metabolism and stress responses. In this context, mitochondrial sirtuins (mtSIRTs) act in synergistic or antagonistic manners to protect from aging and aging-related metabolic abnormalities. In this review, we focus on the role of mtSIRTs in the biological competence of reproductive cells, organs, and embryos. Most studies are focused on SIRT3 in female reproduction, providing evidence that SIRT3 improves the competence of oocytes in humans and animal models. Moreover, SIRT3 protects oocytes, early embryos, and ovaries against stress conditions. The relationship between derangement of SIRT3 signaling and the imbalance of ROS and antioxidant defenses in testes has also been demonstrated. Very little is known about SIRT4 and SIRT5 functions in the reproductive system. The final goal of this work is to understand whether sirtuin-based signaling may be taken into account as potential targets for therapeutic applications in female and male infertility.

Melatonin Protects Against Ischemic Brain Injury by Modulating PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway via Suppression of PTEN Activity

Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide with limited therapeutic options. Melatonin can attenuate ischemic brain damage with improved functional outcomes. However, the cellular mechanisms of melatonin-driven neuroprotection against post-stroke neuronal death remain unknown. Here, distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO) was performed in C57BL/6j mice to develop an ischemic stroke in vivo model. Melatonin was injected intraperitoneally immediately after ischemia, and 24 and 48 hours later. Melatonin treatment, with 5 to 20 mg/kg, elicited a dose-dependent decrease in infarct volume and concomitant increase in sensorimotor function. At the molecular level, phosphorylation of PTEN and Akt were increased, whereas PTEN activity was decreased in melatonin treated animals 72 hours after dMCAO. At the cellular level, oxygenglucose deprivation (OGD) challenge of neuronal cell line Neuro-2a (N2a) and primary neurons supported melatonin’s direct protection against neuronal cell death. Melatonin treatment reduced LDH release and neuronal apoptosis at various time points, markedly increased Akt phosphorylation in neuronal membrane, but significantly suppressed it in the cytoplasm of post-OGD neurons. Mechanistically, melatonin-induced Akt phosphorylation and neuronal survival was blocked by Wortmannin, a potent PIP3 inhibitor, exposing increased PI3K/Akt activation as a central player in melatonin-driven neuroprotection. Finally, PTEN knock-down through siRNA significantly inhibited PI3K/Akt activation and cell survival following melatonin treatment, suggesting that melatonin protection against ischemic brain damage, is at least partially, dependent on modulation of the PTEN/PI3K/Akt signaling axis.

Melatonin protects against focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in diabetic mice by ameliorating mitochondrial impairments: involvement of the Akt-SIRT3-SOD2 signaling pathway

Diabetic patients are more vulnerable to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (CIR) injury and have a worse prognosis and higher mortality after ischemic stroke than non-diabetic counterparts. Melatonin can exert neuroprotective effects against CIR injury in nondiabetic animal models. However, its effects on diabetic CIR injury and the underlying mechanisms remain unclarified. Herein, we found that melatonin administration improved neurological deficit, cerebral infarct volume, brain edema, and cell viability, reduced mitochondrial swelling, reactive oxygen species generation, and cytoplasmic cytochrome C release, and increased mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes activities, adenosine triphosphate production, and mitochondrial membrane potential in both streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice and high glucose-treated HT22 cells. Importantly, melatonin also activated protein kinase B (Akt) and sirtuin 3 (SIRT3)/superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) signaling and upregulated mitochondrial biogenesis-related transcription factors. However, these effects were largely attenuated by LY294002 (a specific Akt signaling blocker) administration. Additionally, 3-TYP (a selective SIRT3 inhibitor) and SIRT3 siRNA inhibited the above protective effects of melatonin as well as the upregulation of SIRT3 and the decrease of SOD2 acetylation but did not affect the p-Akt/Akt ratio. Overall, we demonstrate that melatonin can alleviate CIR injury in diabetic mice by activating Akt-SIRT3-SOD2 signaling and subsequently improving mitochondrial damage.

Insight into the effects of melatonin on endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrial function, and their cross-talk in the stroke

Ischemic stroke has remained a principal cause of mortality and neurological disabilities worldwide. Blood flow resumption, reperfusion, in the cerebral ischemia prompts a cascade in the brain characterized by various cellular mechanisms like mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stresses, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and excitotoxicity, finally resulting in programmed cell death. Any changes in the ER-mitochondria axis are probably responsible for both the onset and progression of central nervous system diseases. Melatonin, a neurohormone secreted by the pineal gland, has antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. Most studies have shown that it exerts neuroprotective effects against ischemic stroke. It was observed that melatonin therapy after the stroke not only leads to reduce mitochondrial dysfunction but also cause to alleviate ER stress and inflammation. This review discusses the impact of melatonin on mitochondrial, ER function, and on the crosstalk between two organelles as a therapeutic target for stroke. Given that the influences of melatonin on each organelle separately, its effects on mechanisms of crosstalk between ER and mitochondria are discussed.

Potential Role of Melatonin as an Adjuvant for Atherosclerotic Carotid Arterial Stenosis

Carotid artery stenosis (CAS) is an atherosclerotic disease characterized by a narrowing of the artery lumen and a high risk of ischemic stroke. Risk factors of atherosclerosis, including smoking, hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, aging, and disrupted circadian rhythm, may potentiate atherosclerosis in the carotid artery and further reduce the arterial lumen. Ischemic stroke due to severe CAS and cerebral ischemic/reperfusion (I/R) injury after the revascularization of CAS also adversely affect clinical outcomes. Melatonin is a pluripotent agent with potent anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and neuroprotective properties. Although there is a shortage of direct clinical evidence demonstrating the benefits of melatonin in CAS patients, previous studies have shown that melatonin may be beneficial for patients with CAS in terms of reducing endothelial damage, stabilizing arterial plaque, mitigating the harm from CAS-related ischemic stroke and cerebral I/R injury, and alleviating the adverse effects of the related risk factors. Additional pre-clinical and clinical are required to confirm this speculation.

Nutraceutical based SIRT3 activators as therapeutic targets in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, and its incidence is increasing worldwide with increased lifespan. Currently, there is no effective treatment to cure or prevent the progression of AD, which indicates the need to develop novel therapeutic targets and agents. Sirtuins, especially SIRT3, a mitochondrial deacetylase, are NAD-dependent histone deacetylases involved in aging and longevity. Accumulating evidence indicates that SIRT3 dysfunction is strongly associated with pathologies of AD, hence, therapeutic modulation of SIRT3 activity may be a novel application to ameliorate the pathologies of AD. Natural products commonly used in traditional medicine have wide utility and appear to have therapeutic benefits for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. The present review summarizes the currently available natural SIRT3 activators and their potentially neuroprotective molecular mechanisms of action that make them a promising agent in the treatment and management of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD.

COP9 Signalosome Subunit 3 Restricts Neuroinflammatory Responses During Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury Through Stabilizing Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 3 Protein

BACKGROUND

The suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3) is a specific negative regulator of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) signaling, which is predominantly activated to induce neuroinflammatory response in microglia and functions essential roles during cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Constitutive photomorphogenesis 9 (COP9) signalosome (CSN) is a signaling platform controlling protein stability by remodeling of cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases, which is recently reported to specifically recognize proteins with SOCS-box domains. However, whether SOCS3 is related to COP9 signalosome in neuroinflammation during cerebral I/R injury is completely unclear.

METHODS

Mice subjected to transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and reperfusion, and BV2 microglia cells treated with oxygen-glucose deprivation and reoxygenation (OGD/R) were used to mimic cerebral I/R injury. Western blot, qRTPCR, immunofluorescence, and co-Immunoprecipitation assays were performed to explore the regulatory mechanism of SOCS3 on neuroinflammation and the relationship of SOCS3 and COP9 signalosome during cerebral I/R injury.

RESULTS

SOCS3 expression is significantly upregulated in microglia during OGD/R treatment, and overexpression of SOCS3 suppresses OGD/R-induced STAT3 activation and inflammatory factor expression. Furthermore, we find that COP9 signalosome subunit 3 (CSN3) interacts with SOCS3 protein to enhance its stability, thereby resulting in restricting OGD/R-induced STAT3 activation and inflammatory response. Moreover, we find that knockdown of CSN3 evidently accelerates STAT3 activation, and aggravates cerebral I/R injury in vivo.

CONCLUSION

CSN3 restricts neuroinflammatory responses during cerebral I/R injury through stabilizing SOCS3 protein and indicates that CSN3 a potential therapeutic target for cerebral I/R injury.

Thymus-Pineal Gland Axis: Revisiting Its Role in Human Life and Ageing

For years the thymus gland (TG) and the pineal gland (PG) have been subject of increasingly in-depth studies, but only recently a link that can associate the activities of the two organs has been identified. Considering, on the one hand, the well-known immune activity of thymus and, on the other, the increasingly emerging immunological roles of circadian oscillators and the rhythmically secreted main pineal product, melatonin, many studies aimed to analyse the possible existence of an interaction between these two systems. Moreover, data confirmed that the immune system is functionally associated with the nervous and endocrine systems determining an integrated dynamic network. In addition, recent researches showed a similar, characteristic involution process both in TG and PG. Since the second half of the 20th century, evidence led to the definition of an effectively interacting thymus-pineal axis (TG-PG axis), but much has to be done. In this sense, the aim of this review is to summarize what is actually known about this topic, focusing on the impact of the TG-PG axis on human life and ageing. We would like to give more emphasis to the implications of this dynamical interaction in a possible therapeutic strategy for human health. Moreover, we focused on all the products of TG and PG in order to collect what is known about the role of peptides other than melatonin. The results available today are often unclear and not linear. These peptides have not been well studied and defined over the years. In this review we hope to awake the interest of the scientific community in them and in their future pharmacological applications.

TGR5 deficiency aggravates hepatic ischemic/reperfusion injury via inhibiting SIRT3/FOXO3/HIF-1ɑ pathway

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is responsible for liver injury during hepatic resection and liver transplantation. The plasma membrane-bound G protein-coupled bile acid receptor (TGR5) could regulate immune response in multiple liver diseases. Nevertheless, the underlying role of TGR5 in hepatic I/R injury remains largely unknown. This study aimed to investigate the potential mechanism of TGR5 in hepatic I/R injury. Wild-type (WT) and TGR5 knockout (TGR5KO) mice were used to perform hepatic I/R, and macrophages were isolated from mice for in vitro experiments. The results demonstrated that knockout of TGR5 in mice significantly exacerbated liver injury and inflammatory response. TGR5KO mice infused with WT macrophages showed relieved liver injury. Further study revealed that TGR5 knockout inhibited sirtuin 3 (SIRT3) and forkhead box O3 (FOXO3) expression. In vitro experiments indicated that SIRT3 inhibited acetylation, ubiquitination and degradation of FOXO3. FOXO3 inhibited HIF-1α transcription by binding to its promoter. TGR5 knockout inhibited SIRT3 expression, thus promoted the acetylation, ubiquitination, and degradation of FOXO3, which resulted in increased HIF-1α transcription and macrophages proinflammatory response. Collectively, TGR5 plays a critical protective role in hepatic I/R injury. FOXO3 deacetylation mediated by SIRT3 can attenuate hepatic I/R injury. TGR5 deficiency aggravates hepatic I/R injury via inhibiting SIRT3/FOXO3/HIF-1α pathway.

Targeting Host Defense System and Rescuing Compromised Mitochondria to Increase Tolerance against Pathogens by Melatonin May Impact Outcome of Deadly Virus Infection Pertinent to COVID-19

Fighting infectious diseases, particularly viral infections, is a demanding task for human health. Targeting the pathogens or targeting the host are different strategies, but with an identical purpose, i.e., to curb the pathogen's spreading and cure the illness. It appears that targeting a host to increase tolerance against pathogens can be of substantial advantage and is a strategy used in evolution. Practically, it has a broader protective spectrum than that of only targeting the specific pathogens, which differ in terms of susceptibility. Methods for host targeting applied in one pandemic can even be effective for upcoming pandemics with different pathogens. This is even more urgent if we consider the possible concomitance of two respiratory diseases with potential multi-organ afflictions such as Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and seasonal flu. Melatonin is a molecule that can enhance the host's tolerance against pathogen invasions. Due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunoregulatory activities, melatonin has the capacity to reduce the severity and mortality of deadly virus infections including COVID-19. Melatonin is synthesized and functions in mitochondria, which play a critical role in viral infections. Not surprisingly, melatonin synthesis can become a target of viral strategies that manipulate the mitochondrial status. For example, a viral infection can switch energy metabolism from respiration to widely anaerobic glycolysis even if plenty of oxygen is available (the Warburg effect) when the host cell cannot generate acetyl-coenzyme A, a metabolite required for melatonin biosynthesis. Under some conditions, including aging, gender, predisposed health conditions, already compromised mitochondria, when exposed to further viral challenges, lose their capacity for producing sufficient amounts of melatonin. This leads to a reduced support of mitochondrial functions and makes these individuals more vulnerable to infectious diseases. Thus, the maintenance of mitochondrial function by melatonin supplementation can be expected to generate beneficial effects on the outcome of viral infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19.

Melatonin Plays a Protective Role by Regulating miR-26a-5p-NRSF and JAK2-STAT3 Pathway to Improve Autophagy, Inflammation and Oxidative Stress of Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Background

Melatonin (MT) has potential protective effect on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI), but its underlying regulatory mechanism has not been identified.

Purpose

This study aimed to explore the role of miR-26a-5p-neuron-restrictive silencing factor (NRSF/REST), Janus kinase-2 (JAK2)-signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) pathway in the protection mechanism of MT against CIRI in vivo and in vitro.

Methods

Sprague Dawley rats were induced with ischemia-reperfusion (IR) in vivo model; PC12 cells were induced with oxygen-glucose deprivation/reperfusion (OGD/R) in vitro model; and MT intervention was conducted before the model was established. The effect of MT on autophagy factors (LC3II/LC3I, P62), inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10) and oxidative stress indexes (MDA, GSHPx, SOD) was explored, and then the above three indexes were determined by real-time quantitative PCR, ELISA, and detection kit corresponding to oxidative stress indexes. The neuroprotective effect of MT pretreatment on brain IR injury was evaluated by neurological deficit scores and TUNEL method. The levels of miR-26a-5p and NRSF were detected by real-time quantitative PCR and Western blot, and the interaction between them was evaluated by dual luciferase report. The role of JAK2-STAT3 pathway in MT protection mechanism was verified by pathway blocker (AG490) and Western blot.

Results

MT pretreatment can significantly reduce neurological deficit score and neuronal apoptosis, inhibit CIRI autophagy, inflammation and oxidative stress in vivo and in vitro, reduce LC3II/LC3I, TNF-α, IL-6, MDA and increase P62, IL-10, GSHPx, SOD. Further analysis identifies that downregulating miR-26a-5p or upregulating NRSF can eliminate the protective effect of MT, and NRSF is the direct target of miR-26a-5p. The protective effect of MT can also be eliminated under AG490 intervention.

Conclusion

MT plays a protective role by regulating miR-26a-5p-NRSF and JAK2-STAT3 pathway to improve CIRI autophagy, inflammation and oxidative stress.

Neuroprotective Effect of Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Against Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Neural Functional Injury: A Pivotal Role for AMPK and JAK2/STAT3/NF-κB Signaling Pathway Modulation

Introduction

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI) is the main factor that leads to poor prognosis of cerebral ischemia. Apoptosis has been shown to occur during the process of CIRI. Extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs-EVs) have shown broad potential for treating brain dysfunction and eliciting neuroprotective effects after stroke through neurogenesis and angiogenesis. However, the mechanism of action of extracellular vesicles during CIRI is not well known.

Methods

A middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was induced by the modified Longa method, and MSCs-EVs were injected via the tail vein.

Results

Our results showed that MSCs-EVs significantly alleviated neurological deficits, reduced the volume of cerebral infarction and brain water content, improved pathological lesions in cortical brain tissue, and attenuated neuronal apoptosis in the cortex at 24 h and 48 h after MCAO in rats. Western blotting analysis showed that MSCs-EVs significantly upregulated p-AMPK and downregulated p-JAK2, p-STAT3 and p-NF-κB. In addition, an AMPK pathway blocker reversed the effect of MSCs-EVs on brain damage.

Conclusion

These results indicate that MSCs-EVs protected MCAO-injured rats, possibly by regulating the AMPK and JAK2/STAT3/NF-κB signaling pathways. This study supports the use of MSCs-EVs as a potential treatment strategy for MCAO in the future.