Ganoderma lucidum total triterpenes induce apoptosis in MCF-7 cells and attenuate DMBA induced mammary and skin carcinomas in experimental animals

Exploring Nutrient Profiles, Phytochemical Composition, and the Antiproliferative Activity of Ganoderma lucidum and Ganoderma leucocontextum: A Comprehensive Comparative Study

Ganoderma, often hailed as a holistic "health package", comprises an array of nutritional components and active compounds, contributing to its esteemed status in the realm of healthy foods. In this study, a comprehensive analysis was performed to elucidate the diverse nutritional profiles, bioactive components, and antiproliferative activities between two Ganoderma species: G. lucidum (GLU) and G. leucocontextum (GLE). The results showed that GLE possessed a higher level of nutritional constituents, except for dietary fiber. Fatty acid analysis revealed comparable profiles rich in unsaturated fatty acids for both species. The ethanol extract of GLU and GLE exhibited potent antioxidant capabilities and remarkable inhibition of tumor cell proliferation via apoptosis induction, with greater potency in GLE. The heightened triterpene levels in GLE potentially contribute to its augmented antitumoral effects. The exploration emphasized the significance of comprehending the varied chemical compositions of Ganoderma species, providing insights into their potential health benefits applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

A review for cancer treatment with mushroom metabolites through targeting mitochondrial signaling pathway: In vitro and in vivo evaluations, clinical studies and future prospects for mycomedicine

Resistance to apoptosis stands as a roadblock to the successful pharmacological execution of anticancer drug effect. A comprehensive insight into apoptotic signaling pathways and an understanding of the mechanisms of apoptosis resistance are crucial to unveil new drug targets. At this juncture, researchers are heading towards natural sources in particular, mushroom as their potential drugs leads to being the reliable source of potent bioactive compounds. Given the continuous increase in cancer cases, the potent anticancer efficacy of mushrooms has inevitably become a fascinating object to researchers due to their higher safety margin and multitarget. This review aimed to collect and summarize all the available scientific data on mushrooms from their extracts to bioactive molecules in order to suggest their anticancer attributes via a mitochondrion -mediated intrinsic signaling mechanism. Compiled data revealed that bioactive components of mushrooms including polysaccharides, sterols and terpenoids as well as extracts prepared using 15 different solvents from 53 species could be effective in the supportive treatment of 20 various cancers. The underlying therapeutic mechanisms of the studied mushrooms are explored in this review through diverse and complementary investigations: in vitro assays, pre-clinical studies and clinical randomized controlled trials. The processes mainly involved were ROS production, mitochondrial membrane dysfunction, and action of caspase 3, caspase 9, XIAP, cIAP, p53, Bax, and Bcl-2. In summary, the study provides facts pertaining to the potential beneficial effect of mushroom extracts and their active compounds against various types of cancer and is shedding light on the underlying targeted signaling pathways.

A Comprehensive Review on the Chemical Composition, Pharmacology and Clinical Applications of Ganoderma

Ganoderma is the dried fruiting bodiy of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss.ex Fr.) Karst. or Ganoderma sinense Zhao, Xu et Zhang, belonging to the family Polyporaceae, which grows mainly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma has been used in China for more than 2000 years because of its medicinal properties, such as relieving cough and asthma, providing nourishment, and strengthening. Currently, more than 470 natural compounds have been obtained from the fungus, mainly including terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, phenols, and other types of compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Ganoderma has antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects. It is mainly used in clinical practice for the treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy and malignant tumors, with few side effects and high safety. This paper reviews the progress of research on its chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications, with the goal of providing a basis for the better development and utilization of Ganoderma.

Anti-Cancer Potential of Edible/Medicinal Mushrooms in Breast Cancer

Edible/medicinal mushrooms have been traditionally used in Asian countries either in the cuisine or as dietary supplements and nutraceuticals. In recent decades, they have aroused increasing attention in Europe as well, due to their health and nutritional benefits. In particular, among the different pharmacological activities reported (antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antiviral, immunomodulating, antidiabetic, etc.), edible/medicinal mushrooms have been shown to exert in vitro and in vivo anticancer effects on several kinds of tumors, including breast cancer. In this article, we reviewed mushrooms showing antineoplastic activity again breast cancer cells, especially focusing on the possible bioactive compounds involved and their mechanisms of action. In particular, the following mushrooms have been considered: Agaricus bisporus, Antrodia cinnamomea, Cordyceps sinensis, Cordyceps militaris, Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, Lentinula edodes, and Pleurotus ostreatus. We also report insights into the relationship between dietary consumption of edible mushrooms and breast cancer risk, and the results of clinical studies and meta-analyses focusing on the effects of fungal extracts on breast cancer patients.

Therapeutic potential and nutritional significance of Ganoderma lucidum - a comprehensive review from 2010 to 2022

With a long history in traditional Asian medicine, Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a mushroom species suggested to improve health and extend life. Its medicinal reputation has merited it with numerous attributes and titles, and it is evidenced to be effective in the prevention and treatment of various metabolic disorders owing to its unique source of bioactive metabolites, primarily polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and polyphenols, attributed with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic activities, etc. These unique potential pharmaceutical properties have led to its demand as an important resource of nutrient supplements in the food industry. It is reported that the variety of therapeutic/pharmacological properties was mainly due to its extensive prebiotic and immunomodulatory functions. All literature summarized in this study was collated based on a systematic review of electronic libraries (PubMed, Scopus databases, Web of Science Core Collection, and Google Scholar) from 2010-2022. This review presents an updated and comprehensive summary of the studies on the immunomodulatory therapies and nutritional significance of G. lucidum, with the focus on recent advances in defining its immunobiological mechanisms and the possible applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries for the prevention and management of chronic diseases. In addition, toxicological evidence and the adoption of standard pharmaceutical methods for the safety assessment, quality assurance, and efficacy testing of G. lucidum-derived compounds will be the gateway to bringing them into health establishments.

Ganoderma lucidum: Unutilized natural medicine and promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa

Ganoderma lucidum is a well-known medicinal mushroom that has been used for the prevention and treatment of different ailments to enhance longevity and health specifically in China, Japan, and Korea. It was known as “God’s herb” in ancient China as it was believed to prolong life, enhance the youthful spirit and sustain/preserve vitality. G. lucidum is seldom collected from nature and is substantially cultivated on wood logs and sawdust in plastic bags or bottles to meet the international market demand. Both in vitro and in vivo studies on the copious metabolic activities of G. lucidum have been carried out. Varied groups of chemical compounds including triterpenoids, polysaccharides, proteins, amino acids, nucleosides, alkaloids, steroids, lactones, lectins, fatty acids, and enzymes with potent pharmacological activities have been isolated from the mycelia and fruiting bodies of G. lucidum. Several researchers have reported the abundance and diversification of its biological actions triggered by these chemical compounds. Triterpenoids and polysaccharides of G. lucidum have been reported to possess cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemic, antihistaminic effects, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic antiallergic, neuroprotective, antitumor, immunomodulatory and antiangiogenic activities. Various formulations have been developed, patented, and utilized as nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, and pharmaceuticals from G. lucidum extracts and active compounds. Thus, this review presents current updates on emerging infectious diseases and highlights the scope, dynamics, and advances in infectious disease management with a particular focus on Ganoderma lucidum, an unutilized natural medicine as a promising future solution to emerging diseases in Africa. However, details such as the chemical compound and mode of action of each bioactive against different emerging diseases were not discussed in this study.

Dried Wild-Grown Mushrooms Can Be Considered a Source of Selected Minerals

Dried mushrooms might be a source of mineral components, which are indispensable for human health. The aim of this study was to determine the contents of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and selenium (Se) in dried wild-grown mushrooms (Boletus edulis and Xerocomus badius) available for sale, and to evaluate these mushrooms’ contribution to the daily reference intake of the studied bioelements. The concentrations of mineral components in the mushroom samples were determined by the flame method (Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn) and the electrothermal (Se) atomic absorption spectrometry method. The mean Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn (in mg/kg), and Se concentrations (in µg/kg) in B. edulis were 82.1, 964.1, 233.4, 97.9, 25.3, 22.1, and 6501.6, respectively, whereas in X. badius: 67.5, 1060.2, 87.8, 197.2, 33.9, 19.8, and 282.4, respectively. We have shown that dried B. edulis can be considered a source of Se. In the case of the other microelements, the tested mushrooms may serve only as additional supplements. Therefore, the studied species of mushrooms cannot be regarded as potential nutritional sources of the macroelements in question. Consumers should be properly informed about this, which should be guaranteed by appropriate legal regulations.

Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) an edible mushroom; a comprehensive and critical review of its nutritional, cosmeceutical, mycochemical, pharmacological, clinical, and toxicological properties

Reishi owes an exceptional value in nutritional, cosmeceutical, and medical treatments; however, none of the studies has provided its future-driven critical assessment. This study documents an up-to-date review (2015-2020, wherever applicable) and provide valuable insights (preclinical and clinical evidence-based) with comprehensive and critical assessments. Various databases 'Google scholar', 'Web of Science', 'ScienceDirect', 'PubMed', 'Springer Link', books, theses, and library resources were used. The taxonomic chaos of G. lucidum and its related species was discussed in detail with solution-oriented emphasis. Reishi contains polysaccharides (α/β-D-glucans), alkaloids, triterpenoids (ganoderic acids, ganoderenic acids, ganoderol, ganoderiol, lucidenic acids), sterols/ergosterol, proteins (LZ-8, LZ-9), nucleosides (adenosine, inosine, uridine), and nucleotides (guanine, adenine). Some active drugs are explored at an optimum level to make them potential drug candidates. The pharmacological potential was observed in diabetes, inflammation, epilepsy, neurodegeneration, cancer, anxiety, sedation, cardiac diseases, depression, hepatic diseases, and immune disorders; however, most of the studies are preclinical with a number of drawbacks. In particular, quality clinical data are intensely needed to support pharmacological activities for human use. The presence of numerous micro-, macro, and trace elements imparts an essential nutritional and cosmeceutical value to Reishi, and various marketed products are available already, but the clinical studies regarding safety and efficacy, interactions with foods/drinks, chronic use, teratogenicity, mutagenicity, and genotoxicity are missing for Reishi. Reishi possesses many valuable pharmacological activities, and the number of patents and clinical trials is increasing for Reishi. Yet, a gap in research exists for Reishi, which is discussed in detail in the forthcoming sections.

Health risk assessment of exposure to toxic elements resulting from consumption of dried wild-grown mushrooms available for sale

Mushrooms exhibit a high ability to accumulate potentially toxic elements. The legal regulations in force in the European Union countries do not define the maximum content of elements in dried wild-grown mushrooms. This study presents the content of mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) determined in dried wild-grown mushrooms (Boletus edulis and Xerocomus badius) available for sale. Moreover, the health risk associated with their consumption is assessed. The inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Cd, Pb, As) and atomic absorption spectrometry (Hg) were used. The mean Hg, Cd, Pb and As concentration in Boletus edulis was 3.039±1.092, 1.983±1.145, 1.156±1.049 and 0.897±0.469 mg/kg and in Xerocomus badius 0.102±0.020, 1.154±0.596, 0.928±1.810 and 0.278±0.108 mg/kg, respectively. The maximum value of the hazard index (HI) showed that the consumption of a standard portion of dried Boletus edulis may have negative consequences for health and corresponded to 76.2%, 34.1%, 33% and 4.3% of the maximum daily doses of Hg, Cd, Pb and As, respectively. The results indicate that the content of toxic elements in dried wild-grown mushrooms should be monitored. The issue constitutes a legal niche where unfavourable EU regulations may pose a threat to food safety and consumer health.

Antitumor Effect of Inula viscosa Extracts on DMBA-Induced Skin Carcinoma Are Mediated by Proteasome Inhibition

The aim of this work is to evaluate the antitumor effect mediated by the proteasome inhibitors of Inula viscosa extracts on skin carcinogenesis. Female Swiss albino mice were divided into five groups depending on the combination of skin cancer-inducing 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) and extract of Inula viscosa treatments. Histology of the affected skin and measurement of proteasome activity were performed to demonstrate the effect of Inula viscosa on mice. The identification of the molecules responsible for this inhibitory activity was carried out through the docking studies. The results showed that Inula viscosa extracts inhibit the development of papilloma in mice. Therefore, the best chemopreventive action of Inula viscosa was observed on mice in which extract treatment was performed before and after the induction of skin carcinogenesis. It was revealed that the ingestion of extracts Inula viscosa delays the formation of skin papillomas in animals and simultaneously decreases the size and number of papillomas, which is also reflected on the skin histology of the mice treated. Structure-activity relationship information obtained from component of Inula viscosa particularly tomentosin, inuviscolide, and isocosticacid demonstrated that distinct bonding modes in β ₁, β ₂, and β ₅ subunits determine its selectivity and potent inhibition for β ₅ subunit.

Antitumor effects of different Ganoderma lucidum spore powder in cell- and zebrafish-based bioassays

OBJECTIVE

Ganoderma lucidum spore (GLS) is gaining recognition as a medicinal part of G. lucidum and has been reported to possess various pharmacological properties, such as antitumor activity. In this work, wall-broken GLS powder (BGLSP) and wall-removed GLS powder (RGLSP), two kinds of GLS powder with different manufacturing techniques, were compared in terms of contents of active constituents and in vivo and in vitro antitumor effects.

METHODS

The ultraviolet and visible spectrophotometry method was used to determine the contents of polysaccharides and total triterpenoids in BGLSP and RGLSP. Seventeen individual triterpenoids were further quantified using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and quantitative analysis of multi-components by single marker. The antitumor effects of BGLSP and RGLSP were evaluated using in vitro cell viability assay against human gastric carcinoma SGC-7901, lung carcinoma A549 and lymphoma Ramos and further validated by in vivo zebrafish xenograft models with transplanted SGC-7901, A549 and Ramos.

RESULTS

The results showed that the contents of polysaccharides, total triterpenoids and individual triterpenoids of RGLSP were significantly higher than those of BGLSP. Although both BGLSP and RGLSP inhibited the three tumor cell lines in vitro in a dose-dependent manner, the inhibitory effects of RGLSP were much better than those of BGLSP. In the in vivo zebrafish assay, RGLSP exhibited more potent inhibitory activities against tumors transplanted into the zebrafish compared with BGLSP, and the inhibition rates of RGLSP reached approximately 78%, 31% and 83% on SGC-7901, A549 and Ramos, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the antitumor effects of GLS were positively correlated with the contents of the polysaccharides and triterpenoids and demonstrated that the wall-removing manufacturing technique could significantly improve the levels of active constituents, and thereby enhance the antitumor activity.

Cytotoxicity and Anticancer Activity of Donkioporiella mellea on MRC5 (Normal Human Lung) and A549 (Human Lung Carcinoma) Cells Lines

Polypores are mushrooms which are rich in bioactivities and for generations, they have been widely used as herbal remedies. Despite their significant importance in treatments of various health issues, only a few local species have been reported for their pharmacological potentials. The present study was carried out to establish cytotoxicity potentials of Donkioporiella mellea, a local polypore species collected from forested areas in Malaysia at cellular levels on normal human lung (MRC5) and human lung carcinoma (A549) cell lines. Survival and inhibition rates were analyzed by 3-(4, 5)-dimethylthiahiazo (-z-y-l)-2,5-diphenyltetrazoliumbromide (MTT) while monitoring changes on cellular shapes by inverted phase contrast microscopy. Survival rates of MRC5 cells were observed to be significantly higher than A549 after treatments with various concentrations of polypore extracts. MRC5 cells showed excellence in survival performance when treated with hot and cold aqueous extracts. Cold aqueous extract showed higher cytotoxicity activities compared to hot aqueous extract (p < 0.0001) with inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of 414.29 μg/ml and >1000 μg/ml, respectively. Treatments with tamoxifen as a control exhibited necrotic features in both cell lines. The results suggest that D. mellea possesses pharmacological potentials that can be utilized for human consumption as a new bioresource alternative, thus encouraging research advancement in mycological and nutraceutical studies.

Effect of aqueous extracts of Ficus vogeliana Miq and Tieghemella africana Pierre in 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene -induced skin cancer in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer responsible for considerable morbidity and mortality. Tieghemella africana and Ficus vogeliana are used in traditional medicine to treat cancers.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the antioxidant, antiangiogenic and anti-tumor activities of these plant extracts.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To achieve it, phytochemical screening, antioxidant activity and antiangiogenic activity were assessed. Thereafter, the anti-tumor activity was determined using skin tumorigenesis induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene.

RESULTS

The phytochemical result analysis showed that both plant extracts were rich in polyphenols, alkaloids and terpene compounds and possessed good antioxidant activity based on DPPH radical scavenging (IC₅₀ = 9.70 μg/mL and 4.60 μg/mL and AAI values of 5.20 and 10.88) and strong total antioxidant capacity (115.44 VtCE (mg)/g of dry plant extract and 87.37 VtCE (mg)/g of dry plant extract, respectively). Additionally, both plant extracts possessed antiangiogenic activities (IC₅₀ = 53.43 μg/mL and 92.68 μg/mL, respectively), which correlated with significant antitumor activities when using 35 mg/kg (65.02% and 77.54%) and 70 mg/kg of extracts (81.07% and 88.18%).

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, this study illustrates the promising usage of Tieghemella africana and Ficus vogeliana plant extracts in treating skin cancer. However, further characterization of the extracts must be performed to isolate the most active anticancer compound.

Mushroom extracts and compounds with suppressive action on breast cancer: evidence from studies using cultured cancer cells, tumor-bearing animals, and clinical trials

This article reviews mushrooms with anti-breast cancer activity. The mushrooms covered which are better known include the following: button mushroom Agaricus bisporus, Brazilian mushroom Agaricus blazei, Amauroderma rugosum, stout camphor fungus Antrodia camphorata, Jew's ear (black) fungus or black wood ear fungus Auricularia auricula-judae, reishi mushroom or Lingzhi Ganoderma lucidum, Ganoderma sinense, maitake mushroom or sheep's head mushroom Grifola frondosa, lion's mane mushroom or monkey head mushroom Hericium erinaceum, brown beech mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus, sulfur polypore mushroom Laetiporus sulphureus, Lentinula edodes (shiitake mushroom), Phellinus linteus (Japanese "meshimakobu," Chinese "song gen," Korean "sanghwang," American "black hoof mushroom"), abalone mushroom Pleurotus abalonus, king oyster mushroom Pleurotus eryngii, oyster mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus, tuckahoe or Fu Ling Poria cocos, and split gill mushroom Schizophyllum commune. Antineoplastic effectiveness in human clinical trials and mechanism of anticancer action have been reported for Antrodia camphorata, Cordyceps sinensis, Coriolus versicolor, Ganoderma lucidum, Grifola frondosa, and Lentinula edodes.

Water Extract of Sporoderm-Broken Spores of Ganoderma lucidum Induces Osteosarcoma Apoptosis and Restricts Autophagic Flux

Purpose

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a malignant bone tumor with easy metastasis and poor prognosis. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), a traditional Chinese medicine, was reported playing a critical role in suppressing multiple tumor progress. So we wanted to investigate the effects and molecular mechanisms of water extract of sporoderm-broken spores of G. lucidum (BSGLWE) on osteosarcoma.

Methods

In vitro, the effects on cell proliferation of BSGLWE in osteosarcoma cells were detected by CCK-8, colony formation assay and flow cytometry; migration ability of osteosarcoma cells was evaluated by cell scratch and transwell assays. Cell apoptosis and autophagy were tested by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Potential signaling pathways were detected by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. In xenograft orthotopic model, the luminescence intensity measured by an in vivo bioluminescence imaging system, and the expression of related proteins in tumor cells were assessed by IHC analysis.

Results

BSGLWE suppressed the proliferation and migration of osteosarcoma cells in a dose-dependent manner, and osteosarcoma cell cycle progression at the G2/M phase was arrested by the BSGLWE. In addition, increased apoptosis-related protein expression meant BSFLWE induced caspase-dependent apoptosis of osteosarcoma cells. TEM results indicated that BSGLWE promoted the formation of apoptotic bodies and autophagosomes in HOS and U2 cells. Western blotting or immunofluorescence and rescue assay revealed that BSGLWE blocked autophagic flux by inducing initiation of autophagy and increasing autophagosome accumulation of osteosarcoma cells. BSGLWE not only repressed the angiogenesis in the mouse model, but also induced apoptosis and blocked autophagy in vivo.

Conclusion

BSGLWE inhibits osteosarcoma progression.

Advances in research on the active constituents and physiological effects of Ganoderma lucidum

Background

Ganoderma lucidum, a double-walled basidiospore produced by porous basidiomycete fungi, has been used as a traditional medicine for thousands of years. It is considered a valuable Chinese medicine for strengthening body resistance, invigorating the spleen, and replenishing Qi. G. lucidum contains a variety of active ingredients, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, nucleosides, sterols, alkaloids, polypeptides, fatty acids, steroids, and inorganic elements, and has anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotection, hypoglycemic, anti-melanogenesis, anti-aging, and skin barrier-repairing activity.

Conclusions

The review summarizes the traditional usages, distribution, active constituents, structure, and biological effects of G. lucidum, with an aim to offer directions for further research and better usage of G. lucidum as a medicinal raw material.

Ganoderma lucidum Extract Reduces the Motility of Breast Cancer Cells Mediated by the RAC⁻Lamellipodin Axis

Breast cancer (BC) is the second leading cause of cancer death among women worldwide. The main cause of BC morbidity and mortality is the invasiveness capacity of cancer cells that may lead to metastasis. Here, we aimed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of Ganoderma lucidum extract (GLE)—a medicinal mushroom with anticancer properties—on BC motility via the Rac/Lamellipodin pathway. GLE treatment effects were tested on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The effects were tested on cell viability, migration and invasion. Pulldowns, immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence were used to measure Rac activity and the expression of proteins involved in cell migration and in lamellipodia formation, respectively. As a result, GLE suppressed BC cell viability, migration, and invasion capacity. GLE impaired Rac activity, as well as downregulated Lamellipodin, ENA/VASP, p-FAK (Tyr925), Cdc42, and c-Myc expression. Lamellipodia formation was significantly reduced by GLE. In conclusion, we demonstrate that GLE reduces Rac activity and downregulates signaling molecules involved in lamellipodia formation. These novel findings serve as basis for further studies to elucidate the potential of GLE as a therapeutic agent regulating the Rac/Lamellipodin pathway in BC metastasis.

Lack of adverse effects in subchronic and chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity studies on the glyphosate-resistant genetically modified maize NK603 in Wistar Han RCC rats

In 2012, a controversial study on the long-term toxicity of a Roundup herbicide and the glyphosate-tolerant genetically modified (GM) maize NK603 was published. The EC-funded G-TwYST research consortium tested the potential subchronic and chronic toxicity as well as the carcinogenicity of the glyphosate-resistant genetically modified maize NK603 by performing two 90-day feeding trials, one with GM maize inclusion rates of 11 and 33% and one with inclusion rates of up to 50%, as well as a 2-year feeding trial with inclusion rates of 11 and 33% in male and female Wistar Han RCC rats by taking into account OECD Guidelines for the testing of chemicals and EFSA recommendations on the safety testing of whole-food/feed in laboratory animals. In all three trials, the NK603 maize, untreated and treated once with Roundup during its cultivation, and the conventional counterpart were tested. Differences between each test group and the control group were evaluated. Equivalence was assessed by comparing the observed difference to differences between non-GM reference groups in previous studies. In case of significant differences, whether the effects were dose-related and/or accompanied by changes in related parameters including histopathological findings was evaluated. It is concluded that no adverse effects related to the feeding of the NK603 maize cultivated with or without Roundup for up to 2 years were observed. Based on the outcome of the subchronic and combined chronic toxicity/carcinogenicity studies, recommendations on the scientific justification and added value of long-term feeding trials in the GM plant risk assessment process are presented.

Phytochemical composition, antioxidant and antiproliferative activities and effects on nuclear DNA of ethanolic extract from an Italian mycelial isolate of Ganoderma lucidum

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst. (also known as Linghzhi and Reishi) is the most appreciated and revered medicinal mushroom across many Asian countries, but its properties have also attracted interest in Western countries. Indeed, in the West, it is now commercially available as a dietary supplement in preparations mainly made from spores, fruiting bodies and mycelia. It is employed in both nutraceutical and pharmacological formulations either for its immuno-modulating anti-inflammatory properties or as an effective adjuvant therapy in the treatment of several chronic diseases as well as in cancer treatment.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this investigation was to show the phytochemical composition and antioxidant and antiproliferative activities of an ethanolic extract from an Italian mycelial isolate of Ganoderma lucidum and to assess its effects on nuclear DNA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LC/ESI-MS and tandem mass spectrometry MSMS were used to obtain structural identification of ethanolic G. lucidum extract constituents. Antioxidant activities were determined by the DPPH method, chelating effect on Fe²⁺ and lipoxygenase inhibition while cytotoxic activities using the MTT assay. Effects on nuclear DNA were evaluated using the DNA nicking assay in a cell-free system and the fast halo assay performed on oxidatively injured human U937 cells; apoptosis induction was investigated using the non-denaturing fast halo assay and DNA laddering detection.

RESULTS

This extract was rich in several bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic and triterpenic acids. It showed antioxidant activity and protective effects in oxidatively injured DNA in cell-free analyses and antiproliferative, genotoxic, and proapoptotic effects in the cell model.

CONCLUSIONS

Italian G. lucidum mycelium isolate appears to be a source of various natural compounds that may have applications as chemopreventive agents or functional foods.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanism of Ganoderma (Lingzhi) Against Tumor

The anticancer potential of Ganoderma (Lingzhi) and its extracts has been widely demonstrated, including antiproliferative and apoptosis inductive, antimetastatic, antiangiogenic, and multidrug resistance reversional activities, involving a variety of cellular and molecular mechanisms besides antitumor immunology. Intrinsic- and extrinsic-initiated apoptotic pathway in association with cell cycle arresting, telomerase inhibiting, autophagy, and oxidative stress is involved in the antiproliferative and apoptosis inductive activities of Ganoderma and its extracts. The inhibition of tumor cell adhesion, invasion, and migration by Ganoderma and its extracts involves molecular mechanisms such as AP-1, NF-κB, MMP, cadherin, β-integrin, c-Met, FAK, EMT, and so on. Targeting the major pro-angiogenic stimulus, VEGF, and its receptor contributes to the inhibition of tumor angiogenesis by Ganoderma and its extracts. Inhibition against the ATP-dependent transmembrane drug transporter such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) on the surface of resistant tumor cells to prevent reduction of the intracellular accumulation of anticancer drugs by pumping out the drugs plays an important role in the activities of Ganoderma and its extracts to reverse tumor cell multidrug resistance.

Anticarcinogenic effect of indole-3-carbinol (I3C) on human hepatocellular carcinoma SNU449 cells

Many cruciferous vegetables, including cabbage, contain indole-3-carbinol (I3C), which is a known anticarcinogen. However, the anticarcinogenic effects of I3C on liver cancer have not been investigated. Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the anticarcinogenic effects of I3C in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) SNU449 cells. The results of MTT and WST-1 assays indicated that treatment of SNU449 cells with I3C decreased viability in dose- and time-dependent manners, while colony formation assays indicated that I3C also inhibited proliferation of SNU449 cells. Moreover, fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis showed that I3C induced apoptosis in SNU449 cells in dose- and time-dependent manners. Furthermore, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling revealed that I3C induced DNA fragmentation in SNU449 cells in a time-dependent manner, while Western blotting showed that apoptotic proteins such as p53, cleaved PARP, caspase-3, and caspase-7 were activated in SNU449 cells following treatment with I3C. Finally, reactive oxygen species-related protein peroxiredoxin-1 and thioredoxin-1 expression decreased in I3C-treated SNU449 cells. The aim of our study is to investigate the unknown mechanisms responsible for the apoptotic effects of I3C on human HCC SNU449 cells, and the results suggest that I3C may be useful for the prevention and treatment of liver cancer.

Transcriptional profiling provides new insights into the role of nitric oxide in enhancing Ganoderma oregonense resistance to heat stress

Ganoderma is well known for its use in traditional Chinese medicine and is widely cultivated in China, Korea, and Japan. Increased temperatures associated with global warming are negatively influencing the growth and development of Ganoderma. Nitric oxide is reported to play an important role in alleviating fungal heat stress (HS). However, the transcriptional profiling of Ganoderma oregonense in response to HS, as well as the transcriptional response regulated by NO to cope with HS has not been reported. We used RNA-Seq technology to generate large-scale transcriptome data from G. oregonense mycelia subjected to HS (32 °C) and exposed to concentrations of exogenous NO. The results showed that heat shock proteins (HSPs), "probable stress-induced proteins", and unigenes involved in "D-amino-acid oxidase activity" and "oxidoreductase activity" were significantly up-regulated in G. oregonense subjected to HS (P < 0.05). The significantly up-regulated HSPs, "monooxygenases", "alcohol dehydrogenase", and "FAD/NAD(P)-binding domain-containing proteins" (P < 0.05) regulated by exogenous NO may play important roles in the enhanced HS tolerance of G. oregonense. These results provide insights into the transcriptional response of G. oregonense to HS and the mechanism by which NO enhances the HS tolerance of fungi at the gene expression level.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide inhibits prostate cancer cell migration via the protein arginine methyltransferase 6 signaling pathway

Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of malignant tumor of men worldwide and the incidence and mortality rate is gradually increasing. At present, the molecular mechanisms of growth and migration in human prostate cancer have not been completely elucidated. Studies have demonstrated that Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP) can inhibit cancer. Therefore the present study investigated the effect and molecular mechanism of GLP on cell growth and migration of LNCaP human prostate cancer cells. LNCaP cells were transfected with either a protein arginine methyltransferase 6 (PRMT6) overexpression plasmid or PRMT6 small interfering (si)RNA. The cell growth and migration, and the expression of PRMT6 signaling-associated proteins, were investigated following treatment with 5 and 20 µg/ml GLP. The results demonstrated that GLP inhibited cell growth, induced cell cycle arrest, decreased PRMT6, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and steroid receptor coactivator, (SRC) expression, and increased p21 expression in LNCaP cells, as determined by using a Coulter counter, flow cytometry, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, respectively. Furthermore, GLP significantly inhibited cell migration, as determined by Transwell migration and scratch assays, and altered CDK2, FAK, SRC and p21 expression in LNCaP cells transfected with the PRMT6 overexpression plasmid. By contrast, PRMT6 knockdown by siRNA reduced the effect of GLP on cell migration. These results indicate that GLP was effective in inhibiting cell growth, the cell cycle and cell migration, and the suppressive effect of GLP on cell migration may occur via the PRMT6 signaling pathway. Therefore, it is suggested that GLP may act as a tumor suppressor with applications in the treatment of prostate cancer. The results of the present study provide both the preliminary theoretical and experimental basis for the investigation of GLP as a therapeutic agent.

A Critical Review on Health Promoting Benefits of Edible Mushrooms through Gut Microbiota

Mushrooms have long been used for medicinal and food purposes for over a thousand years, but a complete elucidation of the health-promoting properties of mushrooms through regulating gut microbiota has not yet been fully exploited. Mushrooms comprise a vast, and yet largely untapped, source of powerful new pharmaceutical substances. Mushrooms have been used in health care for treating simple and common diseases, like skin diseases and pandemic diseases like AIDS. This review is aimed at accumulating the health-promoting benefits of edible mushrooms through gut microbiota. Mushrooms are proven to possess anti-allergic, anti-cholesterol, anti-tumor, and anti-cancer properties. Mushrooms are rich in carbohydrates, like chitin, hemicellulose, β and α-glucans, mannans, xylans, and galactans, which make them the right choice for prebiotics. Mushrooms act as a prebiotics to stimulate the growth of gut microbiota, conferring health benefits to the host. In the present review, we have summarized the beneficial activities of various mushrooms on gut microbiota via the inhibition of exogenous pathogens and, thus, improving the host health.