Epigenetics, hippocampal neurogenesis, and neuropsychiatric disorders: unraveling the genome to understand the mind

Current biomarkers and treatment strategies in Alzheimer disease: An overview and future perspectives

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive degenerative disorder first identified by Alois Alzheimer in 1907, poses a significant public health challenge. Despite its prevalence and impact, there is currently no definitive ante mortem diagnosis for AD pathogenesis. By 2050, the United States may face a staggering 13.8 million AD patients. This review provides a concise summary of current AD biomarkers, available treatments, and potential future therapeutic approaches. The review begins by outlining existing drug targets and mechanisms in AD, along with a discussion of current treatment options. We explore various approaches targeting Amyloid β (Aβ), Tau Protein aggregation, Tau Kinases, Glycogen Synthase kinase-3β, CDK-5 inhibitors, Heat Shock Proteins (HSP), oxidative stress, inflammation, metals, Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) modulators, and Notch signaling. Additionally, we examine the historical use of Estradiol (E2) as an AD therapy, as well as the outcomes of Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) that evaluated antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E) and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as alternative treatment options. Notably, positive effects of docosahexaenoic acid nutriment in older adults with cognitive impairment or AD are highlighted. Furthermore, this review offers insights into ongoing clinical trials and potential therapies, shedding light on the dynamic research landscape in AD treatment.

Different types of Status Epilepticus may lead to similar hippocampal epileptogenesis processes

About 1-2% of people worldwide suffer from epilepsy, which is characterized by unpredictable and intermittent seizure occurrence. Despite the fact that the exact origin of temporal lobe epilepsy is frequently unknown, it is frequently linked to an early triggering insult like brain damage, tumors, or Status Epilepticus (SE). We used an experimental approach consisting of electrical stimulation of the amygdaloid complex to induce two behaviorally and structurally distinct SE states: Type I (fully convulsive), with more severe seizure behaviors and more extensive brain damage, and Type II (partial convulsive), with less severe seizure behaviors and brain damage. Our goal was to better understand how the various types of SE impact the hippocampus leading to the development of epilepsy. Despite clear variations between the two behaviors in terms of neurodegeneration, study of neurogenesis revealed a comparable rise in the number of Ki-67 + cells and an increase in Doublecortin (DCX) in both kinds of SE.

Advances in the study of the molecular biological mechanisms of radiation-induced brain injury

Radiation therapy is one of the most commonly used treatments for head and neck cancers, but it often leads to radiation-induced brain injury. Patients with radiation-induced brain injury have a poorer quality of life, and no effective treatments are available. The pathogenesis of this condition is unknown. This review summarizes the molecular biological mechanism of radiation-induced brain injury and provides research directions for future studies. The molecular mechanisms of radiation-induced brain injury are diverse and complex. Radiation-induced chronic neuroinflammation, destruction of the blood-brain barrier, oxidative stress, neuronal damage, and physiopathological responses caused by specific exosome secretion lead to radiation-induced brain injury.

Risk Factors for Postpartum Depression Based on Genetic and Epigenetic Interactions

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a serious mood disorder that tends to occur after the delivery, which may bring lifelong consequences to women and their families in terms of family relationships, social relationships, and mental health. Currently, various risk factors including environmental factors and genetic factors that may induce postpartum depression have been extensively studied. In this review, we suggest that postpartum women's susceptibility to postpartum depression may be the result of the interaction between the genes associated with postpartum depression as well as the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. We reviewed the genes that have been studied in postpartum depression, including genes related to the synthesis, metabolism, and transport of monoamine neurotransmitters, key molecules of the HPA axis, and the kynurenine pathway. These studies have found more or less gene-gene and gene-environment interactions, so we will discuss these issues in more detail. However, so far, the conclusions of these risk factors, especially genetic factors, are not completely consistent in the occurrence and exacerbation of symptoms in postpartum depression, and it is not clear how these risk factors specifically participate in the pathological mechanism of the disease and play a role. We conclude that the role of genetic polymorphisms, including genetic and epigenetic processes, in the occurrence and development of postpartum depression, is complex and ambiguous. We also note that interactions between multiple candidate genes and the environment have been suggested as causes of depression, suggesting that more definitive research is needed to understand the heritability and susceptibility of PPD. Overall, our work supports the hypothesis that postpartum depression is more likely to be caused by a combination of multiple genetic and environmental factors than by a single genetic or environmental influence.

Effects of Positive Fighting Experience and Its Subsequent Deprivation on the Expression Profile of Mouse Hippocampal Genes Associated with Neurogenesis

The hippocampus is known as the brain region implicated in visuospatial processes and processes associated with learning and short- and long-term memory. An important functional characteristic of the hippocampus is lifelong neurogenesis. A decrease or increase in adult hippocampal neurogenesis is associated with a wide range of neurological diseases. We have previously shown that in adult male mice with a chronic positive fighting experience in daily agonistic interactions, there is an increase in the proliferation of progenitor neurons and the production of young neurons in the dentate gyrus (in hippocampus), and these neurogenesis parameters remain modified during 2 weeks of deprivation of further fights. The aim of the present work was to identify hippocampal genes associated with neurogenesis and involved in the formation of behavioral features in mice with the chronic experience of wins in aggressive confrontations, as well as during the subsequent 2-week deprivation of agonistic interactions. Hippocampal gene expression profiles were compared among three groups of adult male mice: chronically winning for 20 days in the agonistic interactions, chronically victorious for 20 days followed by the 2-week deprivation of fights, and intact (control) mice. Neurogenesis-associated genes were identified whose transcription levels changed during the social confrontations and in the subsequent period of deprivation of fights. In the experimental males, some of these genes are associated with behavioral traits, including abnormal aggression-related behavior, an abnormal anxiety-related response, and others. Two genes encoding transcription factors (Nr1d1 and Fmr1) were likely to contribute the most to the between-group differences. It can be concluded that the chronic experience of wins in agonistic interactions alters hippocampal levels of transcription of multiple genes in adult male mice. The transcriptome changes get reversed only partially after the 2-week period of deprivation of fights. The identified differentially expressed genes associated with neurogenesis and involved in the control of a behavior/neurological phenotype can be used in further studies to identify targets for therapeutic correction of the neurological disturbances that develop in winners under the conditions of chronic social confrontations.

Role of primary aging hallmarks in Alzheimer´s disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, which severely threatens the health of the elderly and causes significant economic and social burdens. The causes of AD are complex and include heritable but mostly aging-related factors. The primary aging hallmarks include genomic instability, telomere wear, epigenetic changes, and loss of protein stability, which play a dominant role in the aging process. Although AD is closely associated with the aging process, the underlying mechanisms involved in AD pathogenesis have not been well characterized. This review summarizes the available literature about primary aging hallmarks and their roles in AD pathogenesis. By analyzing published literature, we attempted to uncover the possible mechanisms of aberrant epigenetic markers with related enzymes, transcription factors, and loss of proteostasis in AD. In particular, the importance of oxidative stress-induced DNA methylation and DNA methylation-directed histone modifications and proteostasis are highlighted. A molecular network of gene regulatory elements that undergoes a dynamic change with age may underlie age-dependent AD pathogenesis, and can be used as a new drug target to treat AD.

Epigenetic regulation in the neurogenic niche of the adult dentate gyrus

The adult dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampal formation is a specialized region of the brain that creates new adult-born neurons from a pool of resident adult neural stem and progenitor cells (aNSPCs) throughout life. These aNSPCs undergo epigenetic and epitranscriptomic regulation, including 3D genome interactions, histone modifications, DNA modifications, noncoding RNA mechanisms, and RNA modifications, to precisely control the neurogenic process. Furthermore, the specialized neurogenic niche also uses epigenetic mechanisms in mature neurons and glial cells to communicate signals to direct the behavior of the aNSPCs. Here, we review recent advances of epigenetic regulation in aNSPCs and their surrounding niche cells within the adult DG.

Histone Methyltransferase Dot1L Contributes to RIPK1 Kinase-Dependent Apoptosis in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion

Background

Neuron apoptosis is a pivotal process for brain damage in cerebral ischemia. Dot1L (disruptor of telomeric silencing 1‐like) is only known histone H3K79 methyltransferase. It is not clear whether the role and mechanism of Dot1L on cerebral ischemia is related to regulate neuron apoptosis.

Methods and Results

We use a combination of mice middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke and neurons exposed to oxygen‐glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation to investigate the role and mechanism of Dot1L on cerebral ischemia. We find knockdown or inhibition of Dot1L reversed ischemia‐induced neuronal apoptosis and attenuated the neurons injury treated by oxygen‐glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation. Further, blockade of Dot1L prevents RIPK1 (receptor‐interacting protein kinase 1)‐dependent apoptosis through increased RIPK1 K63‐ubiquitylation and decreased formation of RIPK1/Caspase 8 complexes. In line with this, H3K79me3 enrichment in the promoter region of deubiquitin‐modifying enzyme A20 and deubiquitinase cylindromatosis gene promotes the increasing expression in oxygen‐glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation ‐induced neuronal cells, on the contrary, oxygen‐glucose deprivation followed by reoxygenation decreases H3K79me3 level in the promoter region of ubiquitin‐modifying enzyme cIAP1 (cellular inhibitors of apoptosis proteins), and both these factors ultimately cause K63‐deubiquitination of RIPK1. Importantly, knockdown or inhibition of Dot1L in vivo attenuates apoptosis in middle cerebral artery occlusion mice and reduces the extent of middle cerebral artery occlusion ‐induced brain injury.

Conclusions

These data support for the first time, to our knowledge, that Dot1L regulating RIPK1 to the apoptotic death trigger contributes to cerebral ischemia injury. Therefore, targeting Dot1L serves as a new therapeutic strategy for ischemia stroke.

The psychosocial genomics paradigm of hypnosis and mind-body integrated psychotherapy: Experimental evidence

The psychosocial genomics paradigm first proposed by Ernest Rossi established an epistemological shift in our application of hypnosis. We present original experimental research conducted within this paradigm that highlights the mind-gene relationship and, in particular, the positive health effects associated with hypnosis and mind-body integrated psychotherapy. We document that these approaches can stimulate epigenetic modifications and the expression of genes related to anti-inflammatory processes. These strategies strengthen the immune system and reduce oxidative stress both in normal and in oncological participants.

Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis and Alzheimer's Disease: Novel Application of Mesenchymal Stem Cells and their Role in Hippocampal Neurogenesis

The neurogenesis can occur in two regions of the adult mammalian brain throughout the lifespan: the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus, and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle. The proliferation and maturation of neural progenitor cells are tightly regulated through intrinsic and extrinsic factors. The integration of maturated cells into the circuitry of the adult hippocampus emphasizes the importance of adult hippocampal neurogenesis in learning and memory. There is a large body of evidence demonstrating that alteration in the neurogenesis process in the adult hippocampus results in an early event in the course of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In AD condition, the number and maturation of neurons declines progressively in the hippocampus. Innovative therapies are required to modulate brain homeostasis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold an immense potential to regulate the neurogenesis process, and are currently tested in some brain-related disorders, such as AD. Therefore, the aim of this review is to discuss the use of MSCs to regulate endogenous adult neurogenesis and their significant impact on future strategies for the treatment of AD.

The Transcription Regulator Patz1 Is Essential for Neural Stem Cell Maintenance and Proliferation

Proper regulation of neurogenesis, the process by which new neurons are generated from neural stem and progenitor cells (NS/PCs), is essential for embryonic brain development and adult brain function. The transcription regulator Patz1 is ubiquitously expressed in early mouse embryos and has a key role in embryonic stem cell maintenance. At later stages, the detection of Patz1 expression mainly in the developing brain suggests a specific involvement of Patz1 in neurogenesis. To address this point, we first got insights in Patz1 expression profile in different brain territories at both embryonic and postnatal stages, evidencing a general decreasing trend with respect to time. Then, we performed in vivo and ex vivo analysis of Patz1-knockout mice, focusing on the ventricular and subventricular zone, where we confirmed Patz1 enrichment through the analysis of public RNA-seq datasets. Both embryos and adults showed a significant reduction in the number of Patz1-null NS/PCs, as well as of their self-renewal capability, compared to controls. Consistently, molecular analysis revealed the downregulation of stemness markers in NS/PCs derived from Patz1-null mice. Overall, these data demonstrate the requirement of Patz1 for NS/PC maintenance and proliferation, suggesting new roles for this key transcription factor specifically in brain development and plasticity, with possible implications for neurodegenerative disorders and glial brain tumors.

Proteomic Profiling of Lysine Acetylation Indicates Mitochondrial Dysfunction in the Hippocampus of Gut Microbiota-Absent Mice

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability around the world and contributes greatly to the global burden of disease. Mounting evidence suggests that gut microbiota dysbiosis may be involved in the pathophysiology of MDD through the microbiota–gut–brain axis. Recent research suggests that epigenetic modifications might relate to depression. However, our knowledge of the role of epigenetics in host–microbe interactions remains limited. In the present study, we used a combination of affinity enrichment and high-resolution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis to identify hippocampal acetylated proteins in germ-free and specific pathogen-free mice. In total, 986 lysine acetylation sites in 543 proteins were identified, of which 747 sites in 427 proteins were quantified. Motif analysis identified several conserved sequences surrounding the acetylation sites, including D^∗Kac, DKac, KacY, KacD, and D^∗∗Kac. Gene ontology annotations revealed that these differentially expressed acetylated proteins were involved in multiple biological functions and were mainly located in mitochondria. In addition, pathway enrichment analysis demonstrated that oxidative phosphorylation and the tricarboxylic acid cycle II (eukaryotic), both of which are exclusively localized to the mitochondria, were the primarily disturbed functions. Taken together, this study indicates that lysine acetylation alterations may play a pivotal role in mitochondrial dysfunction and may be a mechanism by which gut microbiota regulate brain function and behavioral phenotypes.

A Psychosocial Genomics Pilot Study in Oncology for Verifying Clinical, Inflammatory and Psychological Effects of Mind-Body Transformations-Therapy (MBT-T) in Breast Cancer Patients: Preliminary Results

Several studies have highlighted the key role of chronic inflammation in breast cancer development, progression, metastasis, and therapeutic outcome. These processes are mediated through a variety of cytokines and hormones that exert their biological actions either locally or distantly via systemic circulation. Recent findings suggest that positive psychosocial experiences, including psychotherapeutic interventions and therapeutic mind-body protocols, can modulate the inflammatory response by reducing the expression of genes/proteins associated with inflammation and stress-related pathways. Our preliminary results indicate that a specific mind-body therapy (MBT-T) could induce a significant reduction of the release of different cytokines and chemokines, such as SCGFβ, SDF-1α, MCP3, GROα, LIF, and IL-18, in the sera of breast cancer patients compared to a control group, suggesting that MBT-T could represent a promising approach to improve the wellness and outcome of breast cancer patients.

Epigenetic Regulation of the Hippocampus, with Special Reference to Radiation Exposure

The hippocampus is crucial in learning, memory and emotion processing, and is involved in the development of different neurological and neuropsychological disorders. Several epigenetic factors, including DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNAs, have been shown to regulate the development and function of the hippocampus, and the alteration of epigenetic regulation may play important roles in the development of neurocognitive and neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the epigenetic modifications of various cell types and processes within the hippocampus and their resulting effects on cognition, memory and overall hippocampal function. In addition, the effects of exposure to radiation that may induce a myriad of epigenetic changes in the hippocampus are reviewed. By assessing and evaluating the current literature, we hope to prompt a more thorough understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie radiation-induced epigenetic changes, an area which can be further explored.

Subacute cannabidiol alters genome-wide DNA methylation in adult mouse hippocampus

Use of cannabidiol (CBD), the most abundant non-psychoactive compound found in cannabis (Cannabis sativa), has recently increased as a result of widespread availability of CBD-containing products. CBD is FDA-approved for the treatment of epilepsy and exhibits anxiolytic, antipsychotic, prosocial, and other behavioral effects in animal studies and clinical trials, however, the underlying mechanisms governing these phenotypes are still being elucidated. The epigenome, particularly DNA methylation, is responsive to environmental input and can govern persistent patterns of gene regulation affecting phenotype across the life course. In order to understand the epigenomic activity of cannabidiol exposure in the adult brain, 12-week-old male wild-type a/a Agouti viable yellow (A^vy ) mice were exposed to either 20 mg/kg CBD or vehicle daily by oral administration for 14 days. Hippocampal tissue was collected and reduced-representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS) was performed. Analyses revealed 3,323 differentially methylated loci (DMLs) in CBD-exposed animals with a small skew toward global hypomethylation. Genes for cell adhesion and migration, dendritic spine development, and excitatory postsynaptic potential were found to be enriched in a gene ontology term analysis of DML-containing genes, and disease ontology enrichment revealed an overrepresentation of DMLs in gene sets associated with autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and other phenotypes. These results suggest that the epigenome may be a key substrate for CBD's behavioral effects and provides a wealth of gene regulatory information for further study.

Epigenetic modulation of the MAPK pathway prevents isoflurane-induced neuronal apoptosis and cognitive decline in aged rats

Isoflurane is a broadly used inhalation anesthetic that causes cognitive impairment in rodent models as well as humans. Although previous studies suggested an association between isoflurane exposure and neuro-inflammation, apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction, the pathogenesis of isoflurane-induced cognitive decline remains elusive. In the present study, 22-month-old male Sprague-Dawley male rats (n=96) were divided into three groups: Control (Cont), isoflurane (ISO) and MS-275 pre-treated groups. The rats were sacrificed following exposure to isoflurane and a cognitive test. The hippocampus of each animal was harvested for quantitative PCR, TUNEL staining and western blot analysis. Histone deacetylases (HDAC)-1, -2 and -3 exhibited a significant increase at the gene and protein expression levels, whereas negligible mRNA expressions were observed for genes HDAC 4-11 (P>0.05; compared with Cont). Pre-treatment with the HDAC inhibitor MS-275 significantly inhibited the increase in TUNEL-positive cells induced by isoflurane exposure (70.72% decrease; P<0.001; compared with ISO). Furthermore, MS-275 significantly decreased caspase-3 and Bax expression levels while increasing Bcl-2 protein expression. The isoflurane-induced changes in the MAPK pathway signaling proteins ERK1/2, JNK and p38 were also reversed with MS-275 pre-treatment. Finally, in a Morris water maze test, the time to find a hidden platform was reduced in MS-275 pre-treated rats, compared with the ISO group. Therefore, the present study provided insight into the effect of isoflurane exposure on neuronal apoptosis pathways, as well as cognitive decline via epigenetic programming of MAPK signaling in aged rats.

The Evaluation of a Mind-Body Intervention (MBT-T) for Stress Reduction in Academic Settings: A Pilot Study

This study is aimed at evaluating the outcomes of mind-body transformation therapy (MBT-T), previously known as the creative psychosocial genomic healing experience© (CPGHE). The intervention was aimed at reducing the perceived level of stress in two non-clinical groups of students with different educational levels and different expertise in the domain of well-being. Whereas participants from the first group were first-year university students, participants from the second group were students attending a post-graduate program in psychotherapy. All participants (n = 159) were exposed to a single session of MBT-T, each group in a separate session. The results of two paired-samples t-tests, conducted separately on the two samples, showed that there was a statistically significant reduction in the participants' perceived level of stress between pre- and post-intervention states in both samples (t₈₈ = 5.39, p < 0.001; t₅₃ = 4.56, p < 0.001 respectively). The results, therefore, showed that a single session of MBT-T was beneficial in reducing the perceived level of stress in both first-year university students and students attending a post-graduate program in psychotherapy, regardless of educational level and expertise in the domain of well-being.

A mind-body intervention for stress reduction as an adjunct to an information session on stress management in university students

INTRODUCTION

This study describes the implementation of a mind-body intervention to reduce the perceived level of stress in a nonclinical group of university students. We used a novel approach including a single session of a mind-body technique known as the brain wave modulation (BWM) as an adjunct to a single information session on stress management.

METHODS

Three hundred and six students participated in the study. A quasi-experimental design was adopted: Students in the experimental group were exposed to an information session on stress management followed by a single session of the BWM, while the other students were exposed to the information session alone.

RESULTS

A 2 × 2 mixed factor analysis of variance demonstrated that the single session of the BWM was effective in reducing the perceived level of stress in the experimental group as compared to the control group.

CONCLUSION

The BWM is a very easy-to-learn technique that presents certain advantages over traditional mind-body methods.

Global epigenetic analysis of BDNF Val66Met mice hippocampus reveals changes in dendrite and spine remodeling genes

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a neurotrophin highly expressed in the hippocampus, plays crucial roles in cognition, neuroplasticity, synaptic function, and dendritic remodeling. The common human Val66Met polymorphism of BDNF has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders, and in the outcome of pro-adaptive and therapeutic treatments. Altered gene-expression profile has been previously shown in BDNF Val66Met knock-in mice, which recapitulate the phenotypic hallmarks of individuals carrying the BDNF Met allele. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism in the knock-in mouse model on two hippocampal epigenetic marks for transcriptional repression and activation, respectively: trimethylation of lysine 27 on histone H3 (H3K27me3) and acetylation of histone H3 (AcH3), using a genome-wide approach. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by deep sequencing of immunoprecipitated DNA (ChIP-Seq) was carried out with specific antibodies for H3K27me3 and AcH3. Our results revealed broad alteration of H3K27me3 and AcH3 marks association profiles in BDNF^Met/Met , compared to BDNF^Val/Val mice. Bioinformatics analysis showed changes in several biological functions and related pathways, affected by the presence of the polymorphism. In particular, a number of networks of functional interaction contained BDNF as central node. Quantitative PCR analysis confirmed epigenetically related significant changes in the expression of five genes: Dvl1, Nos3, Reln, Lypd6, and Sh3gl2. The first three are involved in dendrite and spine remodeling, morphological features altered in BDNF^Met/Met mice. This work in homozygous knock-in mice shows that the human BDNF Val66Met polymorphism induces an array of histone H3 epigenetic modifications, in turn altering the expression of select genes crucial for structural and functional neuronal features.

Increased H3K9 methylation and impaired expression of Protocadherins are associated with the cognitive dysfunctions of the Kleefstra syndrome

Kleefstra syndrome, a disease with intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders and other developmental defects is caused in humans by haploinsufficiency of EHMT1. Although EHMT1 and its paralog EHMT2 were shown to be histone methyltransferases responsible for deposition of the di-methylated H3K9 (H3K9me2), the exact nature of epigenetic dysfunctions in Kleefstra syndrome remains unknown. Here, we found that the epigenome of Ehmt1+/- adult mouse brain displays a marked increase of H3K9me2/3 which correlates with impaired expression of protocadherins, master regulators of neuronal diversity. Increased H3K9me3 was present already at birth, indicating that aberrant methylation patterns are established during embryogenesis. Interestingly, we found that Ehmt2+/- mice do not present neither the marked increase of H3K9me2/3 nor the cognitive deficits found in Ehmt1+/- mice, indicating an evolutionary diversification of functions. Our finding of increased H3K9me3 in Ehmt1+/- mice is the first one supporting the notion that EHMT1 can quench the deposition of tri-methylation by other Histone methyltransferases, ultimately leading to impaired neurocognitive functioning. Our insights into the epigenetic pathophysiology of Kleefstra syndrome may offer guidance for future developments of therapeutic strategies for this disease.

Diazepam Inhibits Post-Traumatic Neurogenesis and Blocks Aberrant Dendritic Development

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) triggers a robust increase in neurogenesis within the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, but these new neurons undergo aberrant maturation and dendritic outgrowth. Because gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)_A receptors (GABA_ARs) modulate dendritic outgrowth during constitutive neurogenesis and GABA_AR-modulating sedatives are often administered to human patients after TBI, we investigated whether the benzodiazepine, diazepam (DZP), alters post-injury hippocampal neurogenesis. We used a controlled cortical impact (CCI) model of TBI in adult mice, and administered DZP or vehicle continuously for 1 week after injury via osmotic pump. Although DZP did not affect the neurogenesis rate in control mice, it almost completely prevented the TBI-induced increase in hippocampal neurogenesis as well as the aberrant dendritic growth of neurons born after TBI. DZP did not reduce cortical injury, reactive gliosis, or cell proliferation early after injury, but decreased c-Fos activation in the dentate gyrus at both early and late time-points after TBI, suggesting an association between neuronal activity and post-injury neurogenesis. Because DZP blocks post-injury neurogenesis, further studies are warranted to assess whether benzodiazepines alter cognitive recovery or the development of complications after TBI.

Gestational Hypoxia and Developmental Plasticity

Hypoxia is one of the most common and severe challenges to the maintenance of homeostasis. Oxygen sensing is a property of all tissues, and the response to hypoxia is multidimensional involving complicated intracellular networks concerned with the transduction of hypoxia-induced responses. Of all the stresses to which the fetus and newborn infant are subjected, perhaps the most important and clinically relevant is that of hypoxia. Hypoxia during gestation impacts both the mother and fetal development through interactions with an individual's genetic traits acquired over multiple generations by natural selection and changes in gene expression patterns by altering the epigenetic code. Changes in the epigenome determine "genomic plasticity," i.e., the ability of genes to be differentially expressed according to environmental cues. The genomic plasticity defined by epigenomic mechanisms including DNA methylation, histone modifications, and noncoding RNAs during development is the mechanistic substrate for phenotypic programming that determines physiological response and risk for healthy or deleterious outcomes. This review explores the impact of gestational hypoxia on maternal health and fetal development, and epigenetic mechanisms of developmental plasticity with emphasis on the uteroplacental circulation, heart development, cerebral circulation, pulmonary development, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and adipose tissue. The complex molecular and epigenetic interactions that may impact an individual's physiology and developmental programming of health and disease later in life are discussed.

Pilot Study on Epigenetic Response to A Mind-Body Treatment

In the last years, epigenetics and functional genomics methods to evaluate the genomic effects and mechanisms of mind-body therapies have increasingly grown. DNA microarray technology has been used to show the involvement of the stress response pathways both in the case of disease and stress and as an effect of mind-body therapies. In the present research, the DNA samples obtained from 20 individuals who experienced a mind-body therapeutic protocol (MBT-T), were analysed from the bio-molecular point of view by means of an epigenetic marker (MSAP molecular tool), in order to estimate the different status of methylation. The subjects were compared at 3 different times: prior to, 1 hour after, and 24 hours after the treatment. The molecular data were processed through different biostatistics approaches: the Bayesian statistics approach, in order to estimate the clustering membership of the subjects (Structure), and the statistical estimation of the DNA methylation level (MSAP statistical tool). The structure analysis revealed that the clusters and their membership changed among the three time points moving from higher heterogeneous distribution to higher homogeneous clusters. Before the treatment, the subjects' epigenetic profiles were heterogeneous; after the mind-body treatment we found that epigenetic profiles converged to homogeneous DNA methylation status. DNA epigenetic status of the subjects was affected by the MBT-T treatment.

Pilot Study on Epigenetic Response to A Mind-Body Treatment

In the last years, epigenetics and functional genomics methods to evaluate the genomic effects and mechanisms of mind-body therapies have increasingly grown. DNA microarray technology has been used to show the involvement of the stress response pathways both in the case of disease and stress and as an effect of mind-body therapies. In the present research, the DNA samples obtained from 20 individuals who experienced a mind-body therapeutic protocol (MBT-T), were analysed from the bio-molecular point of view by means of an epigenetic marker (MSAP molecular tool), in order to estimate the different status of methylation. The subjects were compared at 3 different times: prior to, 1 hour after, and 24 hours after the treatment. The molecular data were processed through different biostatistics approaches: the Bayesian statistics approach, in order to estimate the clustering membership of the subjects (Structure), and the statistical estimation of the DNA methylation level (MSAP statistical tool). The structure analysis revealed that the clusters and their membership changed among the three time points moving from higher heterogeneous distribution to higher homogeneous clusters. Before the treatment, the subjects' epigenetic profiles were heterogeneous; after the mind-body treatment we found that epigenetic profiles converged to homogeneous DNA methylation status. DNA epigenetic status of the subjects was affected by the MBT-T treatment.

Capsaicin upregulates HDAC2 via TRPV1 and impairs neuronal maturation in mice

Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) affects mood and neuroplasticity in the brain, where its role is poorly understood. In the present study we investigated whether capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-trans-6-nonenamide), an agonist of TRPV1, induced chromatin remodeling and thereby altered gene expression related to synaptic plasticity. We found that capsaicin treatment resulted in upregulation of histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC2) in the mouse hippocampus and HDAC2 was enriched at Psd95, synaptophysin, GLUR1, GLUR2 promoters. Viral-mediated hippocampal knockdown of HDAC2 induced expression of Synapsin I and prevented the detrimental effects of capsaicin on Synapsin I expression in mice, supporting the role of HDAC2 in regulation of capsaicin-induced Synapsin I expression. Taken together, our findings implicate HDAC2 in capsaicin-induced transcriptional regulation of synaptic molecules and support the view that HDAC2 is a molecular link between TRPV1 activity and synaptic plasticity.

Integrated transcriptional analysis unveils the dynamics of cellular differentiation in the developing mouse hippocampus

The ability to assign expression patterns to the individual cell types that constitute a tissue is a major challenge. This especially applies to brain, given its plethora of different, functionally interconnected cell types. Here, we derived cell type-specific transcriptome signatures from existing single cell RNA data and integrated these signatures with a newly generated dataset of expression (bulk RNA-Seq) of the postnatal developing mouse hippocampus. This integrated analysis allowed us to provide a comprehensive and unbiased prediction of the differentiation drivers for 11 different hippocampal cell types and describe how the different cell types interact to support crucial developmental stages. Our results provide a reliable resource of predicted differentiation drivers and insights into the multifaceted aspects of the cells in hippocampus during development.

DNA Methylation and Adult Neurogenesis

The role of DNA methylation in brain development is an intense area of research because the brain has particularly high levels of CpG and mutations in many of the proteins involved in the establishment, maintenance, interpretation, and removal of DNA methylation impact brain development and/or function. These include DNA methyltransferase (DNMT), Ten-Eleven Translocation (TET), and Methyl-CpG binding proteins (MBPs). Recent advances in sequencing breadth and depth as well the detection of different forms of methylation have greatly expanded our understanding of the diversity of DNA methylation in the brain. The contributions of DNA methylation and associated proteins to embryonic and adult neurogenesis will be examined. Particular attention will be given to the impact on adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN), which is a key mechanism contributing to brain plasticity, learning, memory and mood regulation. DNA methylation influences multiple aspects of neurogenesis from stem cell maintenance and proliferation, fate specification, neuronal differentiation and maturation, and synaptogenesis. In addition, DNA methylation during neurogenesis has been shown to be responsive to many extrinsic signals, both under normal conditions and during disease and injury. Finally, crosstalk between DNA methylation, Methyl-DNA binding domain (MBD) proteins such as MeCP2 and MBD1 and histone modifying complexes is used as an example to illustrate the extensive interconnection between these epigenetic regulatory systems.

Cross-talk between the epigenome and neural circuits in drug addiction

Drug addiction is a behavioral disorder characterized by dysregulated learning about drugs and associated cues that result in compulsive drug seeking and relapse. Learning about drug rewards and predictive cues is a complex process controlled by a computational network of neural connections interacting with transcriptional and molecular mechanisms within each cell to precisely guide behavior. The interplay between rapid, temporally specific neuronal activation, and longer-term changes in transcription is of critical importance in the expression of appropriate, or in the case of drug addiction, inappropriate behaviors. Thus, these factors and their interactions must be considered together, especially in the context of treatment. Understanding the complex interplay between epigenetic gene regulation and circuit connectivity will allow us to formulate novel therapies to normalize maladaptive reward behaviors, with a goal of modulating addictive behaviors, while leaving natural reward-associated behavior unaffected.

Methyl-CpG-Binding Protein MBD1 Regulates Neuronal Lineage Commitment through Maintaining Adult Neural Stem Cell Identity

Methyl-CpG-binding domain 1 (MBD1) belongs to a family of methyl-CpG-binding proteins that are epigenetic "readers" linking DNA methylation to transcriptional regulation. MBD1 is expressed in neural stem cells residing in the dentate gyrus of the adult hippocampus (aNSCs) and MBD1 deficiency leads to reduced neuronal differentiation, impaired neurogenesis, learning deficits, and autism-like behaviors in mice; however, the precise function of MBD1 in aNSCs remains unexplored. Here, we show that MBD1 is important for maintaining the integrity and stemness of NSCs, which is critical for their ability to generate neurons. MBD1 deficiency leads to the accumulation of undifferentiated NSCs and impaired transition into the neuronal lineage. Transcriptome analysis of neural stem and progenitor cells isolated directly from the dentate gyrus of MBD1 mutant (KO) and WT mice showed that gene sets related to cell differentiation, particularly astrocyte lineage genes, were upregulated in KO cells. We further demonstrated that, in NSCs, MBD1 binds and represses directly specific genes associated with differentiation. Our results suggest that MBD1 maintains the multipotency of NSCs by restraining the onset of differentiation genes and that untimely expression of these genes in MBD1-deficient stem cells may interfere with normal cell lineage commitment and cause the accumulation of undifferentiated cells. Our data reveal a novel role for MBD1 in stem cell maintenance and provide insight into how epigenetic regulation contributes to adult neurogenesis and the potential impact of its dysregulation.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) in the hippocampus self-renew and generate neurons throughout life. We show that methyl-CpG-binding domain 1 (MBD1), a DNA methylation "reader," is important for maintaining the integrity of NSCs, which is critical for their neurogenic potency. Our data reveal a novel role for MBD1 in stem cell maintenance and provide insight into how epigenetic regulation preserves the multipotency of stem cells for subsequent differentiation.

New neurons in adult brain: distribution, molecular mechanisms and therapies

"Are new neurons added in the adult mammalian brain?" "Do neural stem cells activate following CNS diseases?" "How can we modulate their activation to promote recovery?" Recent findings in the field provide novel insights for addressing these questions from a new perspective. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge about adult neurogenesis and neural stem cell niches in healthy and pathological conditions. We will first overview the milestones that have led to the discovery of the classical ventricular and hippocampal neural stem cell niches. In adult brain, new neurons originate from proliferating neural precursors located in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and in the subgranular zone of the hippocampus. However, recent findings suggest that new neuronal cells can be added to the adult brain by direct differentiation (e.g., without cell proliferation) from either quiescent neural precursors or non-neuronal cells undergoing conversion or reprogramming to neuronal fate. Accordingly, in this review we will also address critical aspects of the newly described mechanisms of quiescence and direct conversion as well as the more canonical activation of the neurogenic niches and neuroblast reservoirs in pathological conditions. Finally, we will outline the critical elements involved in neural progenitor proliferation, neuroblast migration and differentiation and discuss their potential as targets for the development of novel therapeutic drugs for neurodegenerative diseases.

Adult neurogenesis and neurodegenerative diseases: A systems biology perspective

New neurons are generated throughout adulthood in two regions of the brain, the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, and are incorporated into the hippocampal network circuitry; disruption of this process has been postulated to contribute to neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Known modulators of adult neurogenesis include signal transduction pathways, the vascular and immune systems, metabolic factors, and epigenetic regulation. Multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as neurotrophic factors, transcription factors, and cell cycle regulators control neural stem cell proliferation, maintenance in the adult neurogenic niche, and differentiation into mature neurons; these factors act in networks of signaling molecules that influence each other during construction and maintenance of neural circuits, and in turn contribute to learning and memory. The immune system and vascular system are necessary for neuronal formation and neural stem cell fate determination. Inflammatory cytokines regulate adult neurogenesis in response to immune system activation, whereas the vasculature regulates the neural stem cell niche. Vasculature, immune/support cell populations (microglia/astrocytes), adhesion molecules, growth factors, and the extracellular matrix also provide a homing environment for neural stem cells. Epigenetic changes during hippocampal neurogenesis also impact memory and learning. Some genetic variations in neurogenesis related genes may play important roles in the alteration of neural stem cells differentiation into new born neurons during adult neurogenesis, with important therapeutic implications. In this review, we discuss mechanisms of and interactions between these modulators of adult neurogenesis, as well as implications for neurodegenerative disease and current therapeutic research. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Pathogenesis of cerebral palsy through the prism of immune regulation of nervous tissue homeostasis: literature review

BACKGROUND

The cerebral palsy is highly actual issue of pediatrics, causing significant neurological disability. Though the great progress in the neuroscience has been recently achieved, the pathogenesis of cerebral palsy is still poorly understood.

METHODS

In this work, we reviewed available experimental and clinical data concerning the role of immune cells in pathogenesis of cerebral palsy. Maintaining of homeostasis in nervous tissue and its transformation in case of periventricular leukomalacia were analyzed.

RESULTS

The reviewed data demonstrate involvement of immune regulatory cells in the formation of nervous tissue imbalance and chronicity of inborn brain damage. The supported opinion, that periventricular leukomalacia is not a static phenomenon, but developing process, encourages our optimism about the possibility of its correction.

CONCLUSIONS

The further studies of changes of the nervous and immune systems in cerebral palsy are needed to create fundamentally new directions of the specific therapy and individual schemes of rehabilitation.

A single day of 5-azacytidine exposure during development induces neurodegeneration in neonatal mice and neurobehavioral deficits in adult mice

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the immediate and long-term effects of a single-day exposure to 5-Azacytidine (5-AzaC), a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, on neurobehavioral abnormalities in mice. Our findings suggest that the 5-AzaC treatment significantly inhibited DNA methylation, impaired extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) activation and reduced expression of the activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (Arc). These events lead to the activation of caspase-3 (a marker for neurodegeneration) in several brain regions, including the hippocampus and cortex, two brain areas that are essential for memory formation and memory storage, respectively. 5-AzaC treatment of P7 mice induced significant deficits in spatial memory, social recognition, and object memory in adult mice and deficits in long-term potentiation (LTP) in adult hippocampal slices. Together, these data demonstrate that the inhibition of DNA methylation by 5-AzaC treatment in P7 mice causes neurodegeneration and impairs ERK1/2 activation and Arc protein expression in neonatal mice and induces behavioral abnormalities in adult mice. DNA methylation-mediated mechanisms appear to be necessary for the proper maturation of synaptic circuits during development, and disruption of this process by 5-AzaC could lead to abnormal cognitive function.

Epigenetic Research in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: the "Tissue Issue"

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Evidence has linked neuropsychiatric disorders with epigenetic marks as either a biomarker of disease, biomarker of exposure, or mechanism of disease processes. Neuropsychiatric epidemiologic studies using either target brain tissue or surrogate blood tissue each have methodological challenges and distinct advantages.

RECENT FINDINGS

Brain tissue studies are challenged by small sample sizes of cases and controls, incomplete phenotyping, post-mortem timing, and cellular heterogeneity, but the use of a primary disease relevant tissue is critical. Blood-based studies have access to much larger sample sizes and more replication opportunities, as well as the potential for longitudinal measurements, both prior to onset and during the course of treatments. Yet, blood studies also are challenged by cell-type heterogeneity, and many question the validity of using peripheral tissues as a brain biomarker. Emerging evidence suggests that these limitations to blood-based epigenetic studies are surmountable, but confirmation in target tissue remains important.

SUMMARY

Epigenetic mechanisms have the potential to help elucidate biology connecting experiential risk factors with neuropsychiatric disease manifestation. Cross-tissue studies as well as advanced epidemiologic methods should be employed to more effectively conduct neuropsychiatric epigenetic research.

Epigenetic mechanisms in neurogenesis

In the embryonic and adult brain, neural stem cells proliferate and give rise to neurons and glia through highly regulated processes. Epigenetic mechanisms - including DNA and histone modifications, as well as regulation by non-coding RNAs - have pivotal roles in different stages of neurogenesis. Aberrant epigenetic regulation also contributes to the pathogenesis of various brain disorders. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of epigenetic regulation in neurogenesis and its dysregulation in brain disorders, including discussion of newly identified DNA cytosine modifications. We also briefly cover the emerging field of epitranscriptomics, which involves modifications of mRNAs and long non-coding RNAs.

[Integrated management of patients with schizophrenia: beyond psychotropic drugs]

INTRODUCTION

Schizophrenia is a complex disease with severe functional repercussions; therefore it merits treatment which goes beyond drugs.

THEME DEVELOPMENT

It requires an approach that considers a diathesis-stress process that includes rehabilitation, psychotherapeutic strategies for persistent cognitive, negative and psychotic symptoms, psychoeducation of patient and communities, community adaptation strategies, such as the introduction to the work force, and the community model, such as a change in the asylum paradigm.

DISCUSSION

It is necessary to establish private and public initiatives for the integrated care of schizophrenia in the country, advocating the well-being of those with the disease.

CONCLUSIONS

The integrated management of schizophrenic patients requires a global view of the patient and his/her disease, and its development is essential.

Role of Epigenetics in Stem Cell Proliferation and Differentiation: Implications for Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases

The main objectives of this review are to survey the current literature on the role of epigenetics in determining the fate of stem cells and to assess how this information can be used to enhance the treatment strategies for some neurodegenerative disorders, like Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Some of these epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation and histone modifications, which have a direct impact on the way that genes are expressed in stem cells and how they drive these cells into a mature lineage. Understanding how the stem cells are behaving and giving rise to mature cells can be used to inform researchers on effective ways to design stem cell-based treatments. In this review article, the way in which the basic understanding of how manipulating this process can be utilized to treat certain neurological diseases will be presented. Different genetic factors and their epigenetic changes during reprogramming of stem cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have significant potential for enhancing the efficacy of cell replacement therapies.

Chromatin Remodeling Factor Brg1 Supports the Early Maintenance and Late Responsiveness of Nestin-Lineage Adult Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells

Insights from embryonic development suggest chromatin remodeling is important in adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) maintenance and self-renewal, but this concept has not been fully explored in the adult brain. To assess the role of chromatin remodeling in adult neurogenesis, we inducibly deleted Brg1--the core subunit of SWI/SNF-like Brg1/Brm-associated factor chromatin remodeling complexes--in nestin-expressing aNSCs and their progeny in vivo and in culture. This resulted in abnormal adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, which initially reduced hippocampal aNSCs and progenitor maintenance, and later reduced its responsiveness to physiological stimulation. Mechanistically, deletion of Brg1 appeared to impair cell cycle progression, which is partially due to elevated p53 pathway and p21 expression. Knockdown of p53 rescued the neurosphere growth defects caused by Brg1 deletion. Our results show that epigenetic chromatin remodeling (via a Brg1 and p53/p21-dependent process) determines the aNSCs and progenitor maintenance and responsiveness of neurogenesis.

ChIP-Seq analysis of the adult male mouse brain after developmental exposure to arsenic

Exposure to the common environmental contaminant arsenic impacts the epigenetic landscape, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, of several cell types. Developmental arsenic exposure (DAE) increases acetylation and methylation of histone proteins and the protein expression of several chromatin-modifying enzymes in the dentate gyrus (DG) subregion of the adult male mouse brain [26]. To complement and support these data, ChIP-Seq analysis of DNA associated with trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) derived from the adult male DG after DAE was performed. DAE induced differential H3K4me3 enrichment on genes in pathways associated with cellular development and growth, cell death and survival, and neurological disorders, particularly as they relate to cancer, in the adult male brain. Comparison of H3K4me3 enrichment in controls revealed mechanisms that are potentially lacking in arsenic-exposed animals, including neurotransmission, neuronal growth and development, hormonal regulation, protein synthesis, and cellular homeostasis. New pathways impacted by arsenic include cytoskeleton organization, cell signaling, and potential disruption of immune function and warrant further investigation using this DAE paradigm in the mouse brain.

Adult neural progenitor cells from Huntington's disease mouse brain exhibit increased proliferation and migration due to enhanced calcium and ROS signals

OBJECTIVES

Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited human neurodegenerative disorder characterized by uncontrollable movement, psychiatric disturbance and cognitive decline. Impaired proliferative/differentiational potentials of adult neural progenitor cells (ANPCs) have been thought to be a pathogenic mechanism involved in it. In this study, we aimed to elucidate intrinsic properties of ANPCs subjected to neurodegenerative condition in YAC128 HD mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ANPCs were isolated from the SVZ regions of 4-month-old WT and YAC128 mice. Cell proliferation, migration and neuronal differentiation in vitro were compared between these two genotypes with/without Ca(2+) inhibitors or ROS scavenger treatments. Differences in ANPC proliferation and differentiation capabilities in vivo between the two genotypes were evaluated using Ki-67 and Doublecortin (DCX) immunofluorescence respectively.

RESULTS

Compared to WT ANPCs, YAC128 ANPCs had significantly enhanced cell proliferation, migration and neuronal differentiation in vitro, accompanied by increased Ca(2+) and ROS signals. Raised proliferation and migration in YAC128 ANPCs were abolished by Ca(2+) signalling antagonists and ROS scavenging. However, in vivo, HD ANPCs failed to show any elevated proliferation or differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased Ca(2+) signalling and higher level of ROS conferred HD ANPC enhancement of proliferation and migration potentials. However, the in vivo micro-environment did not support endogenous ANPCs to respond appropriately to neuronal loss in these YAC128 mouse brains.

Functional differentiation of adult-born neurons along the septotemporal axis of the dentate gyrus

Over the past several decades, the proliferation and integration of adult-born neurons into existing hippocampal circuitry has been implicated in a wide range of behaviors, including novelty recognition, pattern separation, spatial learning, anxiety behaviors, and antidepressant response. In this review, we suggest that the diversity in behavioral requirements for new neurons may be partly caused by separate functional roles of individual neurogenic niches. Growing evidence shows that the hippocampal formation can be compartmentalized not only along the classic trisynaptic circuit, but also along a longitudinal septotemporal axis. We suggest that subpopulations of hippocampal adult-born neurons may be specialized for distinct mnemonic- or mood-related behavioral tasks. We will examine the literature supporting a functional and anatomical dissociation of the hippocampus along the longitudinal axis and discuss techniques to functionally dissect the roles of adult-born hippocampal neurons in these distinct subregions.

The epigenetics of aging and neurodegeneration

Epigenetics is a quickly growing field encompassing mechanisms regulating gene expression that do not involve changes in the genotype. Epigenetics is of increasing relevance to neuroscience, with epigenetic mechanisms being implicated in brain development and neuronal differentiation, as well as in more dynamic processes related to cognition. Epigenetic regulation covers multiple levels of gene expression; from direct modifications of the DNA and histone tails, regulating the level of transcription, to interactions with messenger RNAs, regulating the level of translation. Importantly, epigenetic dysregulation currently garners much attention as a pivotal player in aging and age-related neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease, where it may mediate interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors, or directly interact with disease-specific pathological factors. We review current knowledge about the major epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation and DNA demethylation, chromatin remodeling and non-coding RNAs, as well as the involvement of these mechanisms in normal aging and in the pathophysiology of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. Additionally, we examine the current state of epigenetics-based therapeutic strategies for these diseases, which either aim to restore the epigenetic homeostasis or skew it to a favorable direction to counter disease pathology. Finally, methodological challenges of epigenetic investigations and future perspectives are discussed.

Developmental exposure to 50 parts-per-billion arsenic influences histone modifications and associated epigenetic machinery in a region- and sex-specific manner in the adult mouse brain

Epidemiological studies report that arsenic exposure via drinking water adversely impacts cognitive development in children and, in adults, can lead to greater psychiatric disease susceptibility, among other conditions. While it is known that arsenic toxicity has a profound effect on the epigenetic landscape, very few studies have investigated its effects on chromatin architecture in the brain. We have previously demonstrated that exposure to a low level of arsenic (50ppb) during all three trimesters of fetal/neonatal development induces deficits in adult hippocampal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus (DG), depressive-like symptoms, and alterations in gene expression in the adult mouse brain. As epigenetic processes control these outcomes, here we assess the impact of our developmental arsenic exposure (DAE) paradigm on global histone posttranslational modifications and associated chromatin-modifying proteins in the dentate gyrus and frontal cortex (FC) of adult male and female mice. DAE influenced histone 3K4 trimethylation with increased levels in the male DG and FC and decreased levels in the female DG (no change in female FC). The histone methyltransferase MLL exhibited a similar sex- and region-specific expression profile as H3K4me3 levels, while histone demethylase KDM5B expression trended in the opposite direction. DAE increased histone 3K9 acetylation levels in the male DG along with histone acetyltransferase (HAT) expression of GCN5 and decreased H3K9ac levels in the male FC along with decreased HAT expression of GCN5 and PCAF. DAE decreased expression of histone deacetylase enzymes HDAC1 and HDAC2, which were concurrent with increased H3K9ac levels but only in the female DG. Levels of H3 and H3K9me3 were not influenced by DAE in either brain region of either sex. These findings suggest that exposure to a low, environmentally relevant level of arsenic during development leads to long-lasting changes in histone methylation and acetylation in the adult brain due to aberrant expression of epigenetic machinery based on region and sex.

Mechanisms and correlates of a healthy brain: a commentary

In this monograph, the message is that early inactivity and obesity lead to later chronic disease, and, as such, physical inactivity should be recognized as a public health crisis. Sedentary behavior, to some extent, serves a purpose in our current culture (e.g., keeping children indoors keeps them safe), and, as such, may not be amenable to change. Thus, it is important that we understand the underpinnings of later-developing chronic disease as this complex public health issue may have roots that go deeper than sedentary behavior. In this commentary, I speculate on the mechanisms for physical activity exacting positive changes on cognitive abilities. Three potential mechanisms are discussed: glucose transport, postnatal neurogenesis, and vitamin synthesis, all of which are inextricably linked to nutrition. This discussion of mechanisms is followed by a discussion of tractable correlates of the progression to non-communicable disease in the adult.

Impact of electromagnetic fields on stem cells: common mechanisms at the crossroad between adult neurogenesis and osteogenesis

In the recent years adult neural and mesenchymal stem cells have been intensively investigated as effective resources for repair therapies. In vivo and in vitro studies have provided insights on the molecular mechanisms underlying the neurogenic and osteogenic processes in adulthood. This knowledge appears fundamental for the development of targeted strategies to manipulate stem cells. Here we review recent literature dealing with the effects of electromagnetic fields on stem cell biology that lends support to their use as a promising tool to positively influence the different steps of neurogenic and osteogenic processes. We will focus on recent studies revealing that extremely-low frequency electromagnetic fields enhance adult hippocampal neurogenesis by inducing epigenetic modifications on the regulatory sequences of genes responsible for neural stem cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation. In light of the emerging critical role played by chromatin modifications in maintaining the stemness as well as in regulating stem cell differentiation, we will also attempt to exploit epigenetic changes that can represent common targets for electromagnetic field effects on neurogenic and osteogenic processes.

Antidepressant activity of fingolimod in mice

Recent findings indicate that fingolimod, the first oral drug approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS), acts as a direct inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs) and enhances the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the CNS. Both mechanisms are relevant to the pathophysiology and treatment of major depression. We examined the antidepressant activity of fingolimod in mice subjected to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS), a model of reactive depression endowed with face and pharmacological validity. Chronic treatment with fingolimod (3 mg kg(-1), i.p., once a day for 4 weeks) reduced the immobility time in the forced swim test (FST) in a large proportion of CUS mice. This treatment also caused anxiogenic-like effects in the social interaction test without affecting anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze or spatial learning in the water maze. CUS mice showed reduced BDNF levels and enhanced HDAC2 levels in the hippocampus. These changes were reversed by fingolimod exclusively in mice that showed a behavioral response to the drug in the FST. Fingolimod treatment also enhanced H3 histone K14-acetylation and adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus of CUS mice. Fingolimod did not affect most of the parameters we have tested in unstressed control mice. The antidepressant-like activity of fingolimod was confirmed in mice chronically treated with corticosterone. These findings show for the first time that fingolimod exerts antidepressant-like effect acting in a "disease-dependent" manner, and raise the interesting possibility that the drug could relieve depressive symptoms in MS patients independently of its disease-modifying effect on MS.