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Stahl A, Tomchik SM. Modeling neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders in the Drosophila mushroom body. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053816. [PMID: 38876485 PMCID: PMC11199955 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053816.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
The common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster provides a powerful platform to investigate the genetic, molecular, cellular, and neural circuit mechanisms of behavior. Research in this model system has shed light on multiple aspects of brain physiology and behavior, from fundamental neuronal function to complex behaviors. A major anatomical region that modulates complex behaviors is the mushroom body (MB). The MB integrates multimodal sensory information and is involved in behaviors ranging from sensory processing/responses to learning and memory. Many genes that underlie brain disorders are conserved, from flies to humans, and studies in Drosophila have contributed significantly to our understanding of the mechanisms of brain disorders. Genetic mutations that mimic human diseases-such as Fragile X syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 1, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease-affect MB structure and function, altering behavior. Studies dissecting the effects of disease-causing mutations in the MB have identified key pathological mechanisms, and the development of a complete connectome promises to add a comprehensive anatomical framework for disease modeling. Here, we review Drosophila models of human neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders via the effects of their underlying mutations on MB structure, function, and the resulting behavioral alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Stahl
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
| | - Seth M Tomchik
- Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Stead Family Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
- Hawk-IDDRC, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA
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2
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Suárez-Grimalt R, Grunwald Kadow IC, Scheunemann L. An integrative sensor of body states: how the mushroom body modulates behavior depending on physiological context. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053918. [PMID: 38876486 PMCID: PMC11199956 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053918.124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/16/2024]
Abstract
The brain constantly compares past and present experiences to predict the future, thereby enabling instantaneous and future behavioral adjustments. Integration of external information with the animal's current internal needs and behavioral state represents a key challenge of the nervous system. Recent advancements in dissecting the function of the Drosophila mushroom body (MB) at the single-cell level have uncovered its three-layered logic and parallel systems conveying positive and negative values during associative learning. This review explores a lesser-known role of the MB in detecting and integrating body states such as hunger, thirst, and sleep, ultimately modulating motivation and sensory-driven decisions based on the physiological state of the fly. State-dependent signals predominantly affect the activity of modulatory MB input neurons (dopaminergic, serotoninergic, and octopaminergic), but also induce plastic changes directly at the level of the MB intrinsic and output neurons. Thus, the MB emerges as a tightly regulated relay station in the insect brain, orchestrating neuroadaptations due to current internal and behavioral states leading to short- but also long-lasting changes in behavior. While these adaptations are crucial to ensure fitness and survival, recent findings also underscore how circuit motifs in the MB may reflect fundamental design principles that contribute to maladaptive behaviors such as addiction or depression-like symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Suárez-Grimalt
- Institute for Biology/Genetics, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Institut für Neurophysiologie and NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Lisa Scheunemann
- Institute for Biology/Genetics, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- Institut für Neurophysiologie and NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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3
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Davidson AM, Hige T. Roles of feedback and feed-forward networks of dopamine subsystems: insights from Drosophila studies. Learn Mem 2024; 31:a053807. [PMID: 38862171 PMCID: PMC11199952 DOI: 10.1101/lm.053807.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Across animal species, dopamine-operated memory systems comprise anatomically segregated, functionally diverse subsystems. Although individual subsystems could operate independently to support distinct types of memory, the logical interplay between subsystems is expected to enable more complex memory processing by allowing existing memory to influence future learning. Recent comprehensive ultrastructural analysis of the Drosophila mushroom body revealed intricate networks interconnecting the dopamine subsystems-the mushroom body compartments. Here, we review the functions of some of these connections that are beginning to be understood. Memory consolidation is mediated by two different forms of network: A recurrent feedback loop within a compartment maintains sustained dopamine activity required for consolidation, whereas feed-forward connections across compartments allow short-term memory formation in one compartment to open the gate for long-term memory formation in another compartment. Extinction and reversal of aversive memory rely on a similar feed-forward circuit motif that signals omission of punishment as a reward, which triggers plasticity that counteracts the original aversive memory trace. Finally, indirect feed-forward connections from a long-term memory compartment to short-term memory compartments mediate higher-order conditioning. Collectively, these emerging studies indicate that feedback control and hierarchical connectivity allow the dopamine subsystems to work cooperatively to support diverse and complex forms of learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Davidson
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Integrative Program for Biological and Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Toshihide Hige
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Integrative Program for Biological and Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
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4
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Yu J, Chen H, He J, Zeng X, Lei H, Liu J. Dual roles of dopaminergic pathways in olfactory learning and memory in the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis. PESTICIDE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 200:105825. [PMID: 38582589 PMCID: PMC10998931 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2024.105825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a key regulator of associative learning and memory in both vertebrates and invertebrates, and it is widely believed that DA plays a key role in aversive conditioning in invertebrates. However, the idea that DA is involved only in aversive conditioning has been challenged in recent studies on the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster), ants and crabs, suggesting diverse functions of DA modulation on associative plasticity. Here, we present the results of DA modulation in aversive olfactory conditioning with DEET punishment and appetitive olfactory conditioning with sucrose reward in the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis. Injection of DA receptor antagonist fluphenazine or chlorpromazine into these flies led to impaired aversive learning, but had no effect on the appetitive learning. DA receptor antagonists impaired both aversive and appetitive long-term memory retention. Interestingly, the impairment on appetitive memory was rescued not only by DA but also by octopamine (OA). Blocking the OA receptors also impaired the appetitive memory retention, but this impairment could only be rescued by OA, not by DA. Thus, we conclude that in B. dorsalis, OA and DA pathways mediate independently the appetitive and aversive learning, respectively. These two pathways, however, are organized in series in mediating appetitive memory retrieval with DA pathway being at upstream. Thus, OA and DA play dual roles in associative learning and memory retrieval, but their pathways are organized differently in these two cognitive processes - parallel organization for learning acquisition and serial organization for memory retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxin Yu
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Huiling Chen
- College of Art and Design, Hunan Applied Technology University, Changde, Hunan 415100, China
| | - Jiayi He
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Xinnian Zeng
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China
| | - Hong Lei
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA.
| | - Jiali Liu
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Insect Behavior Regulation, College of Plant Protection, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510642, China.
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5
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Wang CM, Wu CY, Lin CE, Hsu MC, Lin JC, Huang CC, Lien TY, Lin HK, Chang TW, Chiang HC. Forgotten memory storage and retrieval in Drosophila. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7153. [PMID: 37935667 PMCID: PMC10630420 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42753-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Inaccessibility of stored memory in ensemble cells through the forgetting process causes animals to be unable to respond to natural recalling cues. While accumulating evidence has demonstrated that reactivating memory-stored cells can switch cells from an inaccessible state to an accessible form and lead to recall of previously learned information, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms remain elusive. The current study used Drosophila as a model to demonstrate that the memory of one-trial aversive olfactory conditioning, although inaccessible within a few hours after learning, is stored in KCαβ and retrievable after mild retraining. One-trial aversive conditioning triggers protein synthesis to form a long-lasting cellular memory trace, approximately 20 days, via creb in KCαβ, and a transient cellular memory trace, approximately one day, via orb in MBON-α3. PPL1-α3 negatively regulates forgotten one-trial conditioning memory retrieval. The current study demonstrated that KCαβ, PPL1-α3, and MBON-α3 collaboratively regulate the formation of forgotten one-cycle aversive conditioning memory formation and retrieval.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Ming Wang
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chun-Yuan Wu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chen-En Lin
- Department of Medicine, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ming-Chi Hsu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Jing-Chun Lin
- Department of Medicine, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Chuan-Chin Huang
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ting-Yu Lien
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsin-Kai Lin
- Department of Medicine, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Ting-Wei Chang
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC
- Brain Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsueh-Cheng Chiang
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC.
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, ROC.
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6
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Jelen M, Musso PY, Junca P, Gordon MD. Optogenetic induction of appetitive and aversive taste memories in Drosophila. eLife 2023; 12:e81535. [PMID: 37750673 PMCID: PMC10561975 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Tastes typically evoke innate behavioral responses that can be broadly categorized as acceptance or rejection. However, research in Drosophila melanogaster indicates that taste responses also exhibit plasticity through experience-dependent changes in mushroom body circuits. In this study, we develop a novel taste learning paradigm using closed-loop optogenetics. We find that appetitive and aversive taste memories can be formed by pairing gustatory stimuli with optogenetic activation of sensory neurons or dopaminergic neurons encoding reward or punishment. As with olfactory memories, distinct dopaminergic subpopulations drive the parallel formation of short- and long-term appetitive memories. Long-term memories are protein synthesis-dependent and have energetic requirements that are satisfied by a variety of caloric food sources or by direct stimulation of MB-MP1 dopaminergic neurons. Our paradigm affords new opportunities to probe plasticity mechanisms within the taste system and understand the extent to which taste responses depend on experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan Jelen
- Department of Zoology and Life Sciences Institute, University of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Pierre-Yves Musso
- Department of Zoology and Life Sciences Institute, University of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Pierre Junca
- Department of Zoology and Life Sciences Institute, University of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Michael D Gordon
- Department of Zoology and Life Sciences Institute, University of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
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7
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Shen P, Wan X, Wu F, Shi K, Li J, Gao H, Zhao L, Zhou C. Neural circuit mechanisms linking courtship and reward in Drosophila males. Curr Biol 2023; 33:2034-2050.e8. [PMID: 37160122 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Courtship has evolved to achieve reproductive success in animal species. However, whether courtship itself has a positive value remains unclear. In the present work, we report that courtship is innately rewarding and can induce the expression of appetitive short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) in Drosophila melanogaster males. Activation of male-specific P1 neurons is sufficient to mimic courtship-induced preference and memory performance. Surprisingly, P1 neurons functionally connect to a large proportion of dopaminergic neurons (DANs) in the protocerebral anterior medial (PAM) cluster. The acquisition of STM and LTM depends on two distinct subsets of PAM DANs that convey the courtship-reward signal to the restricted regions of the mushroom body (MB) γ and α/β lobes through two dopamine receptors, D1-like Dop1R1 and D2-like Dop2R. Furthermore, the retrieval of STM stored in the MB α'/β' lobes and LTM stored in the MB α/β lobe relies on two distinct MB output neurons. Finally, LTM consolidation requires two subsets of PAM DANs projecting to the MB α/β lobe and corresponding MB output neurons. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that courtship is a potent rewarding stimulus and reveal the underlying neural circuit mechanisms linking courtship and reward in Drosophila males.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Xiaolu Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Fengming Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Kai Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jing Li
- Institute of Molecular Physiology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518132, China
| | - Hongjiang Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lilin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Chuan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Biotic Interactions, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; Institute of Molecular Physiology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518132, China
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8
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Okray Z, Jacob PF, Stern C, Desmond K, Otto N, Talbot CB, Vargas-Gutierrez P, Waddell S. Multisensory learning binds neurons into a cross-modal memory engram. Nature 2023; 617:777-784. [PMID: 37100911 PMCID: PMC10208976 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06013-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Associating multiple sensory cues with objects and experience is a fundamental brain process that improves object recognition and memory performance. However, neural mechanisms that bind sensory features during learning and augment memory expression are unknown. Here we demonstrate multisensory appetitive and aversive memory in Drosophila. Combining colours and odours improved memory performance, even when each sensory modality was tested alone. Temporal control of neuronal function revealed visually selective mushroom body Kenyon cells (KCs) to be required for enhancement of both visual and olfactory memory after multisensory training. Voltage imaging in head-fixed flies showed that multisensory learning binds activity between streams of modality-specific KCs so that unimodal sensory input generates a multimodal neuronal response. Binding occurs between regions of the olfactory and visual KC axons, which receive valence-relevant dopaminergic reinforcement, and is propagated downstream. Dopamine locally releases GABAergic inhibition to permit specific microcircuits within KC-spanning serotonergic neurons to function as an excitatory bridge between the previously 'modality-selective' KC streams. Cross-modal binding thereby expands the KCs representing the memory engram for each modality into those representing the other. This broadening of the engram improves memory performance after multisensory learning and permits a single sensory feature to retrieve the memory of the multimodal experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Okray
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Pedro F Jacob
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Ciara Stern
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Kieran Desmond
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Nils Otto
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Institute of Anatomy and Molecular Neurobiology, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Clifford B Talbot
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits & Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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9
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Zhao J, Zhang X, Zhao B, Hu W, Diao T, Wang L, Zhong Y, Li Q. Genetic dissection of mutual interference between two consecutive learning tasks in Drosophila. eLife 2023; 12:83516. [PMID: 36897069 PMCID: PMC10030115 DOI: 10.7554/elife.83516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals can continuously learn different tasks to adapt to changing environments and, therefore, have strategies to effectively cope with inter-task interference, including both proactive interference (Pro-I) and retroactive interference (Retro-I). Many biological mechanisms are known to contribute to learning, memory, and forgetting for a single task, however, mechanisms involved only when learning sequential different tasks are relatively poorly understood. Here, we dissect the respective molecular mechanisms of Pro-I and Retro-I between two consecutive associative learning tasks in Drosophila. Pro-I is more sensitive to an inter-task interval (ITI) than Retro-I. They occur together at short ITI (<20 min), while only Retro-I remains significant at ITI beyond 20 min. Acutely overexpressing Corkscrew (CSW), an evolutionarily conserved protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2, in mushroom body (MB) neurons reduces Pro-I, whereas acute knockdown of CSW exacerbates Pro-I. Such function of CSW is further found to rely on the γ subset of MB neurons and the downstream Raf/MAPK pathway. In contrast, manipulating CSW does not affect Retro-I as well as a single learning task. Interestingly, manipulation of Rac1, a molecule that regulates Retro-I, does not affect Pro-I. Thus, our findings suggest that learning different tasks consecutively triggers distinct molecular mechanisms to tune proactive and retroactive interference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xuchen Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Bohan Zhao
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wantong Hu
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Tongxin Diao
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Liyuan Wang
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Zhong
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Li
- School of Life Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China
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10
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Pardo-Garcia TR, Gu K, Woerner RKR, Dus M. Food memory circuits regulate eating and energy balance. Curr Biol 2023; 33:215-227.e3. [PMID: 36528025 PMCID: PMC9877168 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, learning circuits play an essential role in energy balance by creating associations between sensory cues and the rewarding qualities of food. This process is altered by diet-induced obesity, but the causes and mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we exploited the relative simplicity and wealth of knowledge about the D. melanogaster reinforcement learning network, the mushroom body, in order to study the relationship between the dietary environment, dopamine-induced plasticity, and food associations. We show flies that are fed a high-sugar diet cannot make associations between sensory cues and the rewarding properties of sugar. This deficit was caused by diet exposure, not fat accumulation, and specifically by lower dopamine-induced plasticity onto mushroom body output neurons (MBONs) during learning. Importantly, food memories dynamically tune the output of MBONs during eating, which instead remains fixed in sugar-diet animals. Interestingly, manipulating the activity of MBONs influenced eating and fat mass, depending on the diet. Altogether, this work advances our fundamental understanding of the mechanisms, causes, and consequences of the dietary environment on reinforcement learning and ingestive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibaut R Pardo-Garcia
- The Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Kathleen Gu
- The Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Riley K R Woerner
- The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Monica Dus
- The Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA; The Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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11
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Villar ME, Pavão-Delgado M, Amigo M, Jacob PF, Merabet N, Pinot A, Perry SA, Waddell S, Perisse E. Differential coding of absolute and relative aversive value in the Drosophila brain. Curr Biol 2022; 32:4576-4592.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Menzel R. In Search for the Retrievable Memory Trace in an Insect Brain. Front Syst Neurosci 2022; 16:876376. [PMID: 35757095 PMCID: PMC9214861 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2022.876376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The search strategy for the memory trace and its semantics is exemplified for the case of olfactory learning in the honeybee brain. The logic of associative learning is used to guide the experimental approach into the brain by identifying the anatomical and functional convergence sites of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus pathways. Two of the several convergence sites are examined in detail, the antennal lobe as the first-order sensory coding area, and the input region of the mushroom body as a higher order integration center. The memory trace is identified as the pattern of associative changes on the level of synapses. The synapses are recruited, drop out, and change the transmission properties for both specifically associated stimulus and the non-associated stimulus. Several rules extracted from behavioral studies are found to be mirrored in the patterns of synaptic change. The strengths and the weaknesses of the honeybee as a model for the search for the memory trace are addressed in a comparison with Drosophila. The question is discussed whether the memory trace exists as a hidden pattern of change if it is not retrieved and whether an external reading of the content of the memory trace may ever be possible. Doubts are raised on the basis that the retrieval circuits are part of the memory trace. The concept of a memory trace existing beyond retrieval is defended by referring to two well-documented processes also in the honeybee, memory consolidation during sleep, and transfer of memory across brain areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randolf Menzel
- Institute Biology - Neurobiology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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13
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Klappenbach M, Lara AE, Locatelli FF. Honey bees can store and retrieve independent memory traces after complex experiences that combine appetitive and aversive associations. J Exp Biol 2022; 225:275573. [PMID: 35485192 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Real-world experiences do often mix appetitive and aversive events. Understanding the ability of animals to extract, store and use this information is an important issue in neurobiology. We used honey bees as model organism to study learning and memory after a differential conditioning that combines appetitive and aversive training trials. First of all, we describe an aversive conditioning paradigm that constitutes a clear opposite of the well known appetitive olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension response. A neutral odour is presented paired with the bitter substance quinine. Aversive memory is evidenced later as an odour-specific impairment in appetitive conditioning. Then we tested the effect of mixing appetitive and aversive conditioning trials distributed along the same training session. Differential conditioning protocols like this were used before to study the ability to discriminate odours, however they were not focused on whether appetitive and aversive memories are formed. We found that after a differential conditioning, honey bees establish independent appetitive and aversive memories that do not interfere with each other during acquisition or storage. Finally, we moved the question forward to retrieval and memory expression to evaluate what happens when appetitive and the aversive learned odours are mixed during test. Interestingly, opposite memories compete in a way that they do not cancel each other out. Honey bees showed the ability to switch from expressing appetitive to aversive memory depending on their satiation level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martín Klappenbach
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, Universidad de Buenos Aires-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Agustín E Lara
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, Universidad de Buenos Aires-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando F Locatelli
- Departamento de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Fisiología, Biología Molecular y Neurociencias, Universidad de Buenos Aires-CONICET), Ciudad Universitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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14
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Pribbenow C, Chen YC, Heim MM, Laber D, Reubold S, Reynolds E, Balles I, Fernández-d V Alquicira T, Suárez-Grimalt R, Scheunemann L, Rauch C, Matkovic T, Rösner J, Lichtner G, Jagannathan SR, Owald D. Postsynaptic plasticity of cholinergic synapses underlies the induction and expression of appetitive and familiarity memories in Drosophila. eLife 2022; 11:80445. [PMID: 36250621 PMCID: PMC9733945 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In vertebrates, several forms of memory-relevant synaptic plasticity involve postsynaptic rearrangements of glutamate receptors. In contrast, previous work indicates that Drosophila and other invertebrates store memories using presynaptic plasticity of cholinergic synapses. Here, we provide evidence for postsynaptic plasticity at cholinergic output synapses from the Drosophila mushroom bodies (MBs). We find that the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit α5 is required within specific MB output neurons for appetitive memory induction but is dispensable for aversive memories. In addition, nAChR α2 subunits mediate memory expression and likely function downstream of α5 and the postsynaptic scaffold protein discs large (Dlg). We show that postsynaptic plasticity traces can be induced independently of the presynapse, and that in vivo dynamics of α2 nAChR subunits are changed both in the context of associative and non-associative (familiarity) memory formation, underlying different plasticity rules. Therefore, regardless of neurotransmitter identity, key principles of postsynaptic plasticity support memory storage across phyla.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlotta Pribbenow
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Yi-chun Chen
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - M-Marcel Heim
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Desiree Laber
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Silas Reubold
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Eric Reynolds
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Isabella Balles
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Tania Fernández-d V Alquicira
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Raquel Suárez-Grimalt
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany,Einstein Center for Neurosciences BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Lisa Scheunemann
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany,NeuroCure, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany,Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Carolin Rauch
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - Tanja Matkovic
- Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Jörg Rösner
- NWFZ, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthGreifswaldGermany
| | - Gregor Lichtner
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany,Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care, Emergency and Pain MedicineGreifswaldGermany
| | - Sridhar R Jagannathan
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
| | - David Owald
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany,Einstein Center for Neurosciences BerlinBerlinGermany,NeuroCure, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of HealthBerlinGermany
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15
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Devineni AV, Deere JU, Sun B, Axel R. Individual bitter-sensing neurons in Drosophila exhibit both ON and OFF responses that influence synaptic plasticity. Curr Biol 2021; 31:5533-5546.e7. [PMID: 34731675 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The brain generates internal representations that translate sensory stimuli into appropriate behavior. In the taste system, different tastes activate distinct populations of sensory neurons. We investigated the temporal properties of taste responses in Drosophila and discovered that different types of taste sensory neurons show striking differences in their response dynamics. Strong responses to stimulus onset (ON responses) and offset (OFF responses) were observed in bitter-sensing neurons in the labellum, whereas bitter neurons in the leg and other classes of labellar taste neurons showed only an ON response. Individual labellar bitter neurons generate both ON and OFF responses through a cell-intrinsic mechanism that requires canonical bitter receptors. A single receptor complex likely generates both ON and OFF responses to a given bitter ligand. These ON and OFF responses in the periphery are propagated to dopaminergic neurons that mediate aversive learning, and the presence of the OFF response impacts synaptic plasticity when bitter is used as a reinforcement cue. These studies reveal previously unknown features of taste responses that impact neural circuit function and may be important for behavior. Moreover, these studies show that OFF responses can dramatically influence timing-based synaptic plasticity, which is thought to underlie associative learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita V Devineni
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA.
| | - Julia U Deere
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Bei Sun
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Richard Axel
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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16
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Castillo Díaz F, Caffino L, Fumagalli F. Bidirectional role of dopamine in learning and memory-active forgetting. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 131:953-963. [PMID: 34655655 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic neurons projecting from the Substantia Nigra to the Striatum play a critical role in motor functions while dopaminergic neurons originating in the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) and projecting to the Nucleus Accumbens, Hippocampus and other cortical structures regulate rewarding learning. While VTA mainly consists of dopaminergic neurons, excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (GABA) VTA-neurons have also been described: these neurons may also modulate and contribute to shape the final dopaminergic response, which is critical for memory formation. However, given the large amount of information that is handled daily by our brain, it is essential that irrelevant information be deleted. Recently, apart from the well-established role of dopamine (DA) in learning, it has been shown that DA plays a critical role in the intrinsic active forgetting mechanisms that control storage information, contributing to the deletion of a consolidated memory. These new insights may be instrumental to identify therapies for those disorders that involve memory alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Castillo Díaz
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
| | - Lucia Caffino
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Fabio Fumagalli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy
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17
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Lesar A, Tahir J, Wolk J, Gershow M. Switch-like and persistent memory formation in individual Drosophila larvae. eLife 2021; 10:e70317. [PMID: 34636720 PMCID: PMC8510578 DOI: 10.7554/elife.70317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Associative learning allows animals to use past experience to predict future events. The circuits underlying memory formation support immediate and sustained changes in function, often in response to a single example. Larval Drosophila is a genetic model for memory formation that can be accessed at molecular, synaptic, cellular, and circuit levels, often simultaneously, but existing behavioral assays for larval learning and memory do not address individual animals, and it has been difficult to form long-lasting memories, especially those requiring synaptic reorganization. We demonstrate a new assay for learning and memory capable of tracking the changing preferences of individual larvae. We use this assay to explore how activation of a pair of reward neurons changes the response to the innately aversive gas carbon dioxide (CO2). We confirm that when coupled to CO2 presentation in appropriate temporal sequence, optogenetic reward reduces avoidance of CO2. We find that learning is switch-like: all-or-none and quantized in two states. Memories can be extinguished by repeated unrewarded exposure to CO2 but are stabilized against extinction by repeated training or overnight consolidation. Finally, we demonstrate long-lasting protein synthesis dependent and independent memory formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Lesar
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Javan Tahir
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Jason Wolk
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Marc Gershow
- Department of Physics, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
- NYU Neuroscience Institute, New York University Langone Medical CenterNew YorkUnited States
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18
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Wissink M, Nehring V. Appetitive olfactory learning suffers in ants when octopamine or dopamine receptors are blocked. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:271209. [PMID: 34357377 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Associative learning relies on the detection of coincidence between a stimulus and a reward or punishment. In the insect brain, this process is carried out in the mushroom bodies under the control of octopaminergic and dopaminergic neurons. It was assumed that appetitive learning is governed by octopaminergic neurons, while dopamine is required for aversive learning. This view has recently been challenged: both neurotransmitters are involved in both types of learning in bees and flies. Here, we tested which neurotransmitters are required for appetitive learning in ants. We trained Lasius niger workers to discriminate two mixtures of linear hydrocarbons and to associate one of them with a sucrose reward. We analysed the walking paths of the ants using machine learning and found that the ants spent more time near the rewarded odour than near the other, a preference that was stable for at least 24 h. We then treated the ants before learning with either epinastine, an octopamine receptor blocker, or flupentixol, a dopamine receptor blocker. Ants with blocked octopamine receptors did not prefer the rewarded odour. Octopamine signalling is thus necessary for appetitive learning of olfactory cues, probably because it signals information about odours or reward to the mushroom body. In contrast, ants with blocked dopamine receptors initially learned the rewarded odour but failed to retrieve this memory 24 h later. Dopamine is thus probably required for long-term memory consolidation, independent of short-term memory formation. Our results show that appetitive olfactory learning depends on both octopamine and dopamine signalling in ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Wissink
- Evolutionary Biology & Ecology, Institute for Biology I (Zoology), University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Volker Nehring
- Evolutionary Biology & Ecology, Institute for Biology I (Zoology), University of Freiburg, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
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19
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Traniello IM, Robinson GE. Neural and Molecular Mechanisms of Biological Embedding of Social Interactions. Annu Rev Neurosci 2021; 44:109-128. [PMID: 34236891 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-092820-012959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Animals operate in complex environments, and salient social information is encoded in the nervous system and then processed to initiate adaptive behavior. This encoding involves biological embedding, the process by which social experience affects the brain to influence future behavior. Biological embedding is an important conceptual framework for understanding social decision-making in the brain, as it encompasses multiple levels of organization that regulate how information is encoded and used to modify behavior. The framework we emphasize here is that social stimuli provoke short-term changes in neural activity that lead to changes in gene expression on longer timescales. This process, simplified-neurons are for today and genes are for tomorrow-enables the assessment of the valence of a social interaction, an appropriate and rapid response, and subsequent modification of neural circuitry to change future behavioral inclinations in anticipation of environmental changes. We review recent research on the neural and molecular basis of biological embedding in the context of social interactions, with a special focus on the honeybee.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Traniello
- Neuroscience Program and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA;
| | - Gene E Robinson
- Neuroscience Program and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA; .,Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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20
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Thoener J, König C, Weiglein A, Toshima N, Mancini N, Amin F, Schleyer M. Associative learning in larval and adult Drosophila is impaired by the dopamine-synthesis inhibitor 3-Iodo-L-tyrosine. Biol Open 2021; 10:269081. [PMID: 34106227 PMCID: PMC8214425 DOI: 10.1242/bio.058198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Across the animal kingdom, dopamine plays a crucial role in conferring reinforcement signals that teach animals about the causal structure of the world. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, dopaminergic reinforcement has largely been studied using genetics, whereas pharmacological approaches have received less attention. Here, we apply the dopamine-synthesis inhibitor 3-Iodo-L-tyrosine (3IY), which causes acute systemic inhibition of dopamine signaling, and investigate its effects on Pavlovian conditioning. We find that 3IY feeding impairs sugar-reward learning in larvae while leaving task-relevant behavioral faculties intact, and that additional feeding of a precursor of dopamine (L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine, L-DOPA), rescues this impairment. Concerning a different developmental stage and for the aversive valence domain. Moreover, we demonstrate that punishment learning by activating the dopaminergic neuron PPL1-γ1pedc in adult flies is also impaired by 3IY feeding, and can likewise be rescued by L-DOPA. Our findings exemplify the advantages of using a pharmacological approach in combination with the genetic techniques available in D. melanogaster to manipulate neuronal and behavioral function. Summary: We surveyed the effects of a dopamine-synthesis inhibitor on associative learning in larval and adult Drosophila. This approach can supplement genetic tools in investigating the conserved reinforcing function of dopamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Thoener
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Christian König
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Aliće Weiglein
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Naoko Toshima
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Nino Mancini
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Fatima Amin
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleyer
- Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, Department of Genetics, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
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21
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Strausfeld N, Sayre ME. Shore crabs reveal novel evolutionary attributes of the mushroom body. eLife 2021; 10:65167. [PMID: 33559601 PMCID: PMC7872517 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural organization of mushroom bodies is largely consistent across insects, whereas the ancestral ground pattern diverges broadly across crustacean lineages resulting in successive loss of columns and the acquisition of domed centers retaining ancestral Hebbian-like networks and aminergic connections. We demonstrate here a major departure from this evolutionary trend in Brachyura, the most recent malacostracan lineage. In the shore crab Hemigrapsus nudus, instead of occupying the rostral surface of the lateral protocerebrum, mushroom body calyces are buried deep within it with their columns extending outwards to an expansive system of gyri on the brain’s surface. The organization amongst mushroom body neurons reaches extreme elaboration throughout its constituent neuropils. The calyces, columns, and especially the gyri show DC0 immunoreactivity, an indicator of extensive circuits involved in learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcel E Sayre
- Lund Vision Group, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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22
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Wu Y, Funato Y, Meschi E, Jovanoski KD, Miki H, Waddell S. Magnesium efflux from Drosophila Kenyon cells is critical for normal and diet-enhanced long-term memory. eLife 2020; 9:61339. [PMID: 33242000 PMCID: PMC7843133 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dietary magnesium (Mg2+) supplementation can enhance memory in young and aged rats. Memory-enhancing capacity was largely ascribed to increases in hippocampal synaptic density and elevated expression of the NR2B subunit of the NMDA-type glutamate receptor. Here we show that Mg2+ feeding also enhances long-term memory in Drosophila. Normal and Mg2+-enhanced fly memory appears independent of NMDA receptors in the mushroom body and instead requires expression of a conserved CNNM-type Mg2+-efflux transporter encoded by the unextended (uex) gene. UEX contains a putative cyclic nucleotide-binding homology domain and its mutation separates a vital role for uex from a function in memory. Moreover, UEX localization in mushroom body Kenyon cells (KCs) is altered in memory-defective flies harboring mutations in cAMP-related genes. Functional imaging suggests that UEX-dependent efflux is required for slow rhythmic maintenance of KC Mg2+. We propose that regulated neuronal Mg2+ efflux is critical for normal and Mg2+-enhanced memory. The proverbial saying ‘you are what you eat’ perfectly summarizes the concept that our diet can influence both our mental and physical health. We know that foods that are good for the heart, such as nuts, oily fish and berries, are also good for the brain. We know too that vitamins and minerals are essential for overall good health. But is there any evidence that increasing your intake of specific vitamins or minerals could help boost your brain power? While it might sound almost too good to be true, there is some evidence that this is the case for at least one mineral, magnesium. Studies in rodents have shown that adding magnesium supplements to food improves how well the animals perform on memory tasks. Both young and old animals benefit from additional magnesium. Even elderly rodents with a condition similar to Alzheimer’s disease show less memory loss when given magnesium supplements. But what about other species? Wu et al. now show that magnesium supplements also boost memory performance in fruit flies. One group of flies was fed with standard cornmeal for several days, while the other group received cornmeal supplemented with magnesium. Both groups were then trained to associate an odor with a food reward. Flies that had received the extra magnesium showed better memory for the odor when tested 24 hours after training. Wu et al. show that magnesium improves memory in the flies via a different mechanism to that reported previously for rodents. In rodents, magnesium increased levels of a receptor protein for a brain chemical called glutamate. In fruit flies, by contrast, the memory boost depended on a protein that transports magnesium out of neurons. Mutant flies that lacked this transporter showed memory impairments. Unlike normal flies, those without the transporter showed no memory improvement after eating magnesium-enriched food. The results suggest that the transporter may help adjust magnesium levels inside brain cells in response to neural activity. Humans produce four variants of this magnesium transporter, each encoded by a different gene. One of these transporters has already been implicated in brain development. The findings of Wu et al. suggest that the transporters may also act in the adult brain to influence cognition. Further studies are needed to test whether targeting the magnesium transporter could ultimately hold promise for treating memory impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanying Wu
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yosuke Funato
- Department of Cellular Regulation, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Eleonora Meschi
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kristijan D Jovanoski
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Hiroaki Miki
- Department of Cellular Regulation, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
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23
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Lee WP, Chiang MH, Chang LY, Lee JY, Tsai YL, Chiu TH, Chiang HC, Fu TF, Wu T, Wu CL. Mushroom body subsets encode CREB2-dependent water-reward long-term memory in Drosophila. PLoS Genet 2020; 16:e1008963. [PMID: 32780743 PMCID: PMC7418956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1008963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term memory (LTM) formation depends on the conversed cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB)-dependent gene transcription followed by de novo protein synthesis. Thirsty fruit flies can be trained to associate an odor with water reward to form water-reward LTM (wLTM), which can last for over 24 hours without a significant decline. The role of de novo protein synthesis and CREB-regulated gene expression changes in neural circuits that contribute to wLTM remains unclear. Here, we show that acute inhibition of protein synthesis in the mushroom body (MB) αβ or γ neurons during memory formation using a cold-sensitive ribosome-inactivating toxin disrupts wLTM. Furthermore, adult stage-specific expression of dCREB2b in αβ or γ neurons also disrupts wLTM. The MB αβ and γ neurons can be further classified into five different neuronal subsets including αβ core, αβ surface, αβ posterior, γ main, and γ dorsal. We observed that the neurotransmission from αβ surface and γ dorsal neuron subsets is required for wLTM retrieval, whereas the αβ core, αβ posterior, and γ main are dispensable. Adult stage-specific expression of dCREB2b in αβ surface and γ dorsal neurons inhibits wLTM formation. In vivo calcium imaging revealed that αβ surface and γ dorsal neurons form wLTM traces with different dynamic properties, and these memory traces are abolished by dCREB2b expression. Our results suggest that a small population of neurons within the MB circuits support long-term storage of water-reward memory in Drosophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang-Pao Lee
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | - Meng-Hsuan Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | - Li-Yun Chang
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | - Jhen-Yi Lee
- School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Lun Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Hsiang Chiu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
| | | | - Tsai-Feng Fu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chi Nan University, Taiwan
| | - Tony Wu
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Lin Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
- * E-mail:
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24
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Jacob PF, Waddell S. Spaced Training Forms Complementary Long-Term Memories of Opposite Valence in Drosophila. Neuron 2020; 106:977-991.e4. [PMID: 32289250 PMCID: PMC7302427 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Forming long-term memory (LTM) often requires repetitive experience spread over time. Studies in Drosophila suggest aversive olfactory LTM is optimal after spaced training, multiple trials of differential odor conditioning with rest intervals. Memory after spaced training is frequently compared to that after the same number of trials without intervals. Here we show that, after spaced training, flies acquire additional information and form an aversive memory for the shock-paired odor and a slowly emerging and more persistent "safety-memory" for the explicitly unpaired odor. Safety-memory acquisition requires repetition, order, and spacing of the training trials and relies on triggering specific rewarding dopaminergic neurons. Co-existence of aversive and safety memories is evident as depression of odor-specific responses at different combinations of junctions in the mushroom body output network; combining two outputs appears to signal relative safety. Having complementary aversive and safety memories augments LTM performance after spaced training by making the odor preference more certain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro F Jacob
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK
| | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TA, UK.
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25
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Scaplen KM, Talay M, Nunez KM, Salamon S, Waterman AG, Gang S, Song SL, Barnea G, Kaun KR. Circuits that encode and guide alcohol-associated preference. eLife 2020; 9:48730. [PMID: 32497004 PMCID: PMC7272191 DOI: 10.7554/elife.48730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A powerful feature of adaptive memory is its inherent flexibility. Alcohol and other addictive substances can remold neural circuits important for memory to reduce this flexibility. However, the mechanism through which pertinent circuits are selected and shaped remains unclear. We show that circuits required for alcohol-associated preference shift from population level dopaminergic activation to select dopamine neurons that predict behavioral choice in Drosophila melanogaster. During memory expression, subsets of dopamine neurons directly and indirectly modulate the activity of interconnected glutamatergic and cholinergic mushroom body output neurons (MBON). Transsynaptic tracing of neurons important for memory expression revealed a convergent center of memory consolidation within the mushroom body (MB) implicated in arousal, and a structure outside the MB implicated in integration of naïve and learned responses. These findings provide a circuit framework through which dopamine neuronal activation shifts from reward delivery to cue onset, and provide insight into the maladaptive nature of memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin M Scaplen
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Mustafa Talay
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Kavin M Nunez
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Sarah Salamon
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Amanda G Waterman
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Sydney Gang
- Department of Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Sophia L Song
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Gilad Barnea
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
| | - Karla R Kaun
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, Providence, United States
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26
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Boto T, Stahl A, Tomchik SM. Cellular and circuit mechanisms of olfactory associative learning in Drosophila. J Neurogenet 2020; 34:36-46. [PMID: 32043414 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2020.1715971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent years have witnessed significant progress in understanding how memories are encoded, from the molecular to the cellular and the circuit/systems levels. With a good compromise between brain complexity and behavioral sophistication, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the preeminent animal models of learning and memory. Here we review how memories are encoded in Drosophila, with a focus on short-term memory and an eye toward future directions. Forward genetic screens have revealed a large number of genes and transcripts necessary for learning and memory, some acting cell-autonomously. Further, the relative numerical simplicity of the fly brain has enabled the reverse engineering of learning circuits with remarkable precision, in some cases ascribing behavioral phenotypes to single neurons. Functional imaging and physiological studies have localized and parsed the plasticity that occurs during learning at some of the major loci. Connectomics projects are significantly expanding anatomical knowledge of the nervous system, filling out the roadmap for ongoing functional/physiological and behavioral studies, which are being accelerated by simultaneous tool development. These developments have provided unprecedented insight into the fundamental neural principles of learning, and lay the groundwork for deep understanding in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Boto
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Aaron Stahl
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
| | - Seth M Tomchik
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USA
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27
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Mendl M, Paul ES. Animal affect and decision-making. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 112:144-163. [PMID: 31991192 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The scientific study of animal affect (emotion) is an area of growing interest. Whilst research on mechanism and causation has predominated, the study of function is less advanced. This is not due to a lack of hypotheses; in both humans and animals, affective states are frequently proposed to play a pivotal role in coordinating adaptive responses and decisions. However, exactly how they might do this (what processes might implement this function) is often left rather vague. Here we propose a framework for integrating animal affect and decision-making that is couched in modern decision theory and employs an operational definition that aligns with dimensional concepts of core affect and renders animal affect empirically tractable. We develop a model of how core affect, including short-term (emotion-like) and longer-term (mood-like) states, influence decision-making via processes that we label affective options, affective predictions, and affective outcomes and which correspond to similar concepts in schema of the links between human emotion and decision-making. Our framework is generalisable across species and generates questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Mendl
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, UK.
| | - Elizabeth S Paul
- Centre for Behavioural Biology, Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, UK
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28
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Ehmann
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dennis Pauls
- Department of Animal Physiology, Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig, Germany
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29
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Senapati B, Tsao CH, Juan YA, Chiu TH, Wu CL, Waddell S, Lin S. A neural mechanism for deprivation state-specific expression of relevant memories in Drosophila. Nat Neurosci 2019; 22:2029-2039. [PMID: 31659341 PMCID: PMC6885014 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-019-0515-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Motivational states modulate how animals value sensory stimuli and engage in goal-directed behaviors. The motivational states of thirst and hunger are represented in the brain by shared and unique neuromodulatory systems. However, it is unclear how such systems interact to coordinate the expression of appropriate state-specific behavior. We show that the activity of two brain neurons expressing leucokinin neuropeptide is elevated in thirsty and hungry flies, and that leucokinin release is necessary for state-dependent expression of water- and sugar-seeking memories. Leucokinin inhibits two types of mushroom-body-innervating dopaminergic neurons (DANs) to promote thirst-specific water memory expression, whereas it activates other mushroom-body-innervating DANs to facilitate hunger-dependent sugar memory expression. Selection of hunger- or thirst-appropriate memory emerges from competition between leucokinin and other neuromodulatory hunger signals at the level of the DANs. Therefore, coordinated modulation of the dopaminergic system allows flies to prioritize the expression of the relevant state-dependent motivated behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhagyashree Senapati
- Molecular and Cell Biology, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica and Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Hui Tsao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-An Juan
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Institute of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Hsiang Chiu
- Department of Biochemistry and Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Lin Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
- Department of Neurology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Suewei Lin
- Molecular and Cell Biology, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica and Graduate Institute of Life Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan.
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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30
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Amin H, Lin AC. Neuronal mechanisms underlying innate and learned olfactory processing in Drosophila. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 36:9-17. [PMID: 31280185 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Olfaction allows animals to adapt their behavior in response to different chemical cues in their environment. How does the brain efficiently discriminate different odors to drive appropriate behavior, and how does it flexibly assign value to odors to adjust behavior according to experience? This review traces neuronal mechanisms underlying these processes in adult Drosophila melanogaster from olfactory receptors to higher brain centers. We highlight neural circuit principles such as lateral inhibition, segregation and integration of olfactory channels, temporal accumulation of sensory evidence, and compartmentalized synaptic plasticity underlying associative memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoger Amin
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew C Lin
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Firth Court, Western Bank, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom.
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31
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Traniello IM, Chen Z, Bagchi VA, Robinson GE. Valence of social information is encoded in different subpopulations of mushroom body Kenyon cells in the honeybee brain. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20190901. [PMID: 31506059 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.0901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Over 600 Myr of evolutionary divergence between vertebrates and invertebrates is associated with considerable neuroanatomical variation both across and within these lineages. By contrast, valence encoding is an important behavioural trait that is evolutionarily conserved across vertebrates and invertebrates, and enables individuals to distinguish between positive (potentially beneficial) and negative (potentially harmful) situations. We tested the hypothesis that social interactions of positive and negative valence are modularly encoded in the honeybee brain (i.e. encoded in different cellular subpopulations) as in vertebrate brains. In vertebrates, neural activation patterns are distributed across distinct parts of the brain, suggesting that discrete circuits encode positive or negative stimuli. Evidence for this hypothesis would suggest a deep homology of neural organization between insects and vertebrates for valence encoding, despite vastly different brain sizes. Alternatively, overlapping localization of valenced social information in the brain would imply a 're-use' of circuitry in response to positive and negative social contexts, potentially to overcome the energetic constraints of a tiny brain. We used immediate early gene expression to map positively and negatively valenced social interactions in the brain of the western honeybee Apis mellifera. We found that the valence of a social signal is represented by distinct anatomical subregions of the mushroom bodies, an invertebrate sensory neuropil associated with social behaviour, multimodal sensory integration, learning and memory. Our results suggest that the modularization of valenced social information in the brain is a fundamental property of neuroanatomical organization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Traniello
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Zhenqing Chen
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Vikram A Bagchi
- Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Gene E Robinson
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.,Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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32
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Siegenthaler D, Escribano B, Bräuler V, Pielage J. Selective suppression and recall of long-term memories in Drosophila. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000400. [PMID: 31454345 PMCID: PMC6711512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptive decision-making depends on the formation of novel memories. In Drosophila, the mushroom body (MB) is the site of associative olfactory long-term memory (LTM) storage. However, due to the sparse and stochastic representation of olfactory information in Kenyon cells (KCs), genetic access to individual LTMs remains elusive. Here, we develop a cAMP response element (CRE)-activity–dependent memory engram label (CAMEL) tool that genetically tags KCs responding to the conditioned stimulus (CS). CAMEL activity depends on protein-synthesis–dependent aversive LTM conditioning and reflects the time course of CRE binding protein 2 (CREB2) activity during natural memory formation. We demonstrate that inhibition of LTM-induced CAMEL neurons reduces memory expression and that artificial optogenetic reactivation is sufficient to evoke aversive behavior phenocopying memory recall. Together, our data are consistent with CAMEL neurons marking a subset of engram KCs encoding individual memories. This study provides new insights into memory circuitry organization and an entry point towards cellular and molecular understanding of LTM storage. A novel genetic approach enables the visualization and manipulation of memory engram cells in Drosophila, providing a key methodological opportunity to characterize associative memory at the cellular and circuit level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Siegenthaler
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Benjamin Escribano
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Vanessa Bräuler
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Jan Pielage
- Division of Neurobiology and Zoology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany
- * E-mail:
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33
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Yamazaki D, Hiroi M, Abe T, Shimizu K, Minami-Ohtsubo M, Maeyama Y, Horiuchi J, Tabata T. Two Parallel Pathways Assign Opposing Odor Valences during Drosophila Memory Formation. Cell Rep 2019; 22:2346-2358. [PMID: 29490271 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
During olfactory associative learning in Drosophila, odors activate specific subsets of intrinsic mushroom body (MB) neurons. Coincident exposure to either rewards or punishments is thought to activate extrinsic dopaminergic neurons, which modulate synaptic connections between odor-encoding MB neurons and MB output neurons to alter behaviors. However, here we identify two classes of intrinsic MB γ neurons based on cAMP response element (CRE)-dependent expression, γCRE-p and γCRE-n, which encode aversive and appetitive valences. γCRE-p and γCRE-n neurons act antagonistically to maintain neutral valences for neutral odors. Activation or inhibition of either cell type upsets this balance, toggling odor preferences to either positive or negative values. The mushroom body output neurons, MBON-γ5β'2a/β'2mp and MBON-γ2α'1, mediate the actions of γCRE-p and γCRE-n neurons. Our data indicate that MB neurons encode valence information, as well as odor information, and this information is integrated through a process involving MBONs to regulate learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Yamazaki
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan.
| | - Makoto Hiroi
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Takashi Abe
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Kazumichi Shimizu
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Maki Minami-Ohtsubo
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Yuko Maeyama
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
| | - Junjiro Horiuchi
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Tabata
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan.
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34
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Shih MFM, Davis FP, Henry GL, Dubnau J. Nuclear Transcriptomes of the Seven Neuronal Cell Types That Constitute the Drosophila Mushroom Bodies. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2019; 9:81-94. [PMID: 30397017 PMCID: PMC6325895 DOI: 10.1534/g3.118.200726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The insect mushroom body (MB) is a conserved brain structure that plays key roles in a diverse array of behaviors. The Drosophila melanogaster MB is the primary invertebrate model of neural circuits related to memory formation and storage, and its development, morphology, wiring, and function has been extensively studied. MBs consist of intrinsic Kenyon Cells that are divided into three major neuron classes (γ, α'/β' and α/β) and 7 cell subtypes (γd, γm, α'/β'ap, α'/β'm, α/βp, α/βs and α/βc) based on their birth order, morphology, and connectivity. These subtypes play distinct roles in memory processing, however the underlying transcriptional differences are unknown. Here, we used RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) to profile the nuclear transcriptomes of each MB neuronal cell subtypes. We identified 350 MB class- or subtype-specific genes, including the widely used α/β class marker Fas2 and the α'/β' class marker trio Immunostaining corroborates the RNA-seq measurements at the protein level for several cases. Importantly, our data provide a full accounting of the neurotransmitter receptors, transporters, neurotransmitter biosynthetic enzymes, neuropeptides, and neuropeptide receptors expressed within each of these cell types. This high-quality, cell type-level transcriptome catalog for the Drosophila MB provides a valuable resource for the fly neuroscience community.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fred Pejman Davis
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA; National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Gilbert Lee Henry
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA; Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY
| | - Josh Dubnau
- Department of Anesthesiology, Stony Brook School of Medicine; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY
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35
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Abramson CI, Wells H. An Inconvenient Truth: Some Neglected Issues in Invertebrate Learning. Perspect Behav Sci 2018; 41:395-416. [PMID: 31976402 PMCID: PMC6701716 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-018-00178-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The burgeoning field of invertebrate behavior is moving into what was the realm of human psychology concepts. This invites comparative studies not only between invertebrate and vertebrate species but also among the diverse taxa within the invertebrates, diverse even when considering only the insects. In order to make lasting progress two issues must be addressed. The first is inconsistent use of fundamental terms defining learning. The second is a focus on similarities, giving little attention to dissimilarities. In addition, much work is needed on whether behavioral similarities are grounded in the same neuronal architecture when considering disparate phyla. These concerns identify are "inconvenient truths" that weaken comparative behavioral analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles I. Abramson
- Laboratory of Comparative Psychology and Behavioral Biology, Oklahoma State University, 116 N. Murray, Stillwater, OK 74078 USA
| | - Harrington Wells
- Department of Biological Science, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74021 USA
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36
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Schatton A, Scharff C. FoxP expression identifies a Kenyon cell subtype in the honeybee mushroom bodies linking them to fruit fly αβ c neurons. Eur J Neurosci 2018; 46:2534-2541. [PMID: 28921711 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 08/31/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The arthropod mushroom bodies (MB) are a higher order sensory integration centre. In insects, they play a central role in associative olfactory learning and memory. In Drosophila melanogaster (Dm), the highly ordered connectivity of heterogeneous MB neuron populations has been mapped using sophisticated molecular genetic and anatomical techniques. The MB-core subpopulation was recently shown to express the transcription factor FoxP with relevance for decision-making. Here, we report the development and adult distribution of a FoxP-expressing neuron population in the MB of honeybees (Apis mellifera, Am) using in situ hybridisation and a custom-made antiserum. We found the same expression pattern in adult bumblebees (Bombus terrestris, Bt). We also designed a new Dm transgenic line that reports FoxP transcriptional activity in the MB-core region, clarifying previously conflicting data of two other reporter lines. Considering developmental, anatomical and molecular similarities, our data are consistent with the concept of deep homology of FoxP expression in neuron populations coding reinforcement-based learning and habit formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Schatton
- Department of Animal Behavior, Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustraße 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Constance Scharff
- Department of Animal Behavior, Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Takustraße 6, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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37
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Croset V, Treiber CD, Waddell S. Cellular diversity in the Drosophila midbrain revealed by single-cell transcriptomics. eLife 2018; 7:34550. [PMID: 29671739 PMCID: PMC5927767 DOI: 10.7554/elife.34550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the brain, molecular details need to be overlaid onto neural wiring diagrams so that synaptic mode, neuromodulation and critical signaling operations can be considered. Single-cell transcriptomics provide a unique opportunity to collect this information. Here we present an initial analysis of thousands of individual cells from Drosophila midbrain, that were acquired using Drop-Seq. A number of approaches permitted the assignment of transcriptional profiles to several major brain regions and cell-types. Expression of biosynthetic enzymes and reuptake mechanisms allows all the neurons to be typed according to the neurotransmitter or neuromodulator that they produce and presumably release. Some neuropeptides are preferentially co-expressed in neurons using a particular fast-acting transmitter, or monoamine. Neuromodulatory and neurotransmitter receptor subunit expression illustrates the potential of these molecules in generating complexity in neural circuit function. This cell atlas dataset provides an important resource to link molecular operations to brain regions and complex neural processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Croset
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Christoph D Treiber
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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38
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Cyclic AMP-dependent plasticity underlies rapid changes in odor coding associated with reward learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 115:E448-E457. [PMID: 29284750 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1709037115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Learning and memory rely on dopamine and downstream cAMP-dependent plasticity across diverse organisms. Despite the central role of cAMP signaling, it is not known how cAMP-dependent plasticity drives coherent changes in neuronal physiology that encode the memory trace, or engram. In Drosophila, the mushroom body (MB) is critically involved in olfactory classical conditioning, and cAMP signaling molecules are necessary and sufficient for normal memory in intrinsic MB neurons. To evaluate the role of cAMP-dependent plasticity in learning, we examined how cAMP manipulations and olfactory classical conditioning modulate olfactory responses in the MB with in vivo imaging. Elevating cAMP pharmacologically or optogenetically produced plasticity in MB neurons, altering their responses to odorants. Odor-evoked Ca2+ responses showed net facilitation across anatomical regions. At the single-cell level, neurons exhibited heterogeneous responses to cAMP elevation, suggesting that cAMP drives plasticity to discrete subsets of MB neurons. Olfactory appetitive conditioning enhanced MB odor responses, mimicking the cAMP-dependent plasticity in directionality and magnitude. Elevating cAMP to equivalent levels as appetitive conditioning also produced plasticity, suggesting that the cAMP generated during conditioning affects odor-evoked responses in the MB. Finally, we found that this plasticity was dependent on the Rutabaga type I adenylyl cyclase, linking cAMP-dependent plasticity to behavioral modification. Overall, these data demonstrate that learning produces robust cAMP-dependent plasticity in intrinsic MB neurons, which is biased toward naturalistic reward learning. This suggests that cAMP signaling may serve to modulate intrinsic MB responses toward salient stimuli.
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39
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Bozler J, Kacsoh BZ, Chen H, Theurkauf WE, Weng Z, Bosco G. A systems level approach to temporal expression dynamics in Drosophila reveals clusters of long term memory genes. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1007054. [PMID: 29084214 PMCID: PMC5679645 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to integrate experiential information and recall it in the form of memory is observed in a wide range of taxa, and is a hallmark of highly derived nervous systems. Storage of past experiences is critical for adaptive behaviors that anticipate both adverse and positive environmental factors. The process of memory formation and consolidation involve many synchronized biological events including gene transcription, protein modification, and intracellular trafficking: However, many of these molecular mechanisms remain illusive. With Drosophila as a model system we use a nonassociative memory paradigm and a systems level approach to uncover novel transcriptional patterns. RNA sequencing of Drosophila heads during and after memory formation identified a number of novel memory genes. Tracking the dynamic expression of these genes over time revealed complex gene networks involved in long term memory. In particular, this study focuses on two functional gene clusters of signal peptides and proteases. Bioinformatics network analysis and prediction in combination with high-throughput RNA sequencing identified previously unknown memory genes, which when genetically knocked down resulted in behaviorally validated memory defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julianna Bozler
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States of America
| | - Balint Z. Kacsoh
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States of America
| | - Hao Chen
- Bioinformatics Program, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States of America
| | - William E. Theurkauf
- Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States of America
| | - Zhiping Weng
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, United States of America
| | - Giovanni Bosco
- Department of Molecular and Systems Biology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States of America
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40
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Origins of Cell-Type-Specific Olfactory Processing in the Drosophila Mushroom Body Circuit. Neuron 2017; 95:357-367.e4. [PMID: 28728024 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
How cell-type-specific physiological properties shape neuronal functions in a circuit remains poorly understood. We addressed this issue in the Drosophila mushroom body (MB), a higher olfactory circuit, where neurons belonging to distinct glomeruli in the antennal lobe feed excitation to three types of intrinsic neurons, α/β, α'/β', and γ Kenyon cells (KCs). Two-photon optogenetics and intracellular recording revealed that whereas glomerular inputs add similarly in all KCs, spikes were generated most readily in α'/β' KCs. This cell type was also the most competent in recruiting GABAergic inhibition fed back by anterior paired lateral neuron, which responded to odors either locally within a lobe or globally across all lobes depending on the strength of stimuli. Notably, as predicted from these physiological properties, α'/β' KCs had the highest odor detection speed, sensitivity, and discriminability. This enhanced discrimination required proper GABAergic inhibition. These results link cell-type-specific mechanisms and functions in the MB circuit.
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41
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Eichler K, Li F, Litwin-Kumar A, Park Y, Andrade I, Schneider-Mizell CM, Saumweber T, Huser A, Eschbach C, Gerber B, Fetter RD, Truman JW, Priebe CE, Abbott LF, Thum AS, Zlatic M, Cardona A. The complete connectome of a learning and memory centre in an insect brain. Nature 2017; 548:175-182. [PMID: 28796202 PMCID: PMC5806122 DOI: 10.1038/nature23455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Associating stimuli with positive or negative reinforcement is essential for survival, but a complete wiring diagram of a higher-order circuit supporting associative memory has not been previously available. Here we reconstruct one such circuit at synaptic resolution, the Drosophila larval mushroom body. We find that most Kenyon cells integrate random combinations of inputs but that a subset receives stereotyped inputs from single projection neurons. This organization maximizes performance of a model output neuron on a stimulus discrimination task. We also report a novel canonical circuit in each mushroom body compartment with previously unidentified connections: reciprocal Kenyon cell to modulatory neuron connections, modulatory neuron to output neuron connections, and a surprisingly high number of recurrent connections between Kenyon cells. Stereotyped connections found between output neurons could enhance the selection of learned behaviours. The complete circuit map of the mushroom body should guide future functional studies of this learning and memory centre.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Eichler
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Feng Li
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Ashok Litwin-Kumar
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Youngser Park
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 100 Whitehead Hall, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - Ingrid Andrade
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Casey M Schneider-Mizell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Timo Saumweber
- Abteilung Genetik von Lernen und Gedächtnis, Leibniz Institut für Neurobiologie, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Annina Huser
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Claire Eschbach
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Bertram Gerber
- Abteilung Genetik von Lernen und Gedächtnis, Leibniz Institut für Neurobiologie, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
- Otto von Guericke Universität Magdeburg, Institut für Biologie, Verhaltensgenetik, Universitätsplatz 2, D-39106 Magdeburg, Germany
- Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Universitätsplatz 2, D-39106 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Richard D Fetter
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - James W Truman
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
| | - Carey E Priebe
- Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 100 Whitehead Hall, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, USA
| | - L F Abbott
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, 3227 Broadway, New York, New York 10027, USA
- Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, Columbia University, Russ Berrie Pavilion, 1150 St Nicholas Avenue, New York, New York 10032, USA
| | - Andreas S Thum
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Marta Zlatic
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Albert Cardona
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Drive, Ashburn, Virginia 20147, USA
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, UK
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42
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Takemura SY, Aso Y, Hige T, Wong A, Lu Z, Xu CS, Rivlin PK, Hess H, Zhao T, Parag T, Berg S, Huang G, Katz W, Olbris DJ, Plaza S, Umayam L, Aniceto R, Chang LA, Lauchie S, Ogundeyi O, Ordish C, Shinomiya A, Sigmund C, Takemura S, Tran J, Turner GC, Rubin GM, Scheffer LK. A connectome of a learning and memory center in the adult Drosophila brain. eLife 2017; 6. [PMID: 28718765 PMCID: PMC5550281 DOI: 10.7554/elife.26975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding memory formation, storage and retrieval requires knowledge of the underlying neuronal circuits. In Drosophila, the mushroom body (MB) is the major site of associative learning. We reconstructed the morphologies and synaptic connections of all 983 neurons within the three functional units, or compartments, that compose the adult MB’s α lobe, using a dataset of isotropic 8 nm voxels collected by focused ion-beam milling scanning electron microscopy. We found that Kenyon cells (KCs), whose sparse activity encodes sensory information, each make multiple en passant synapses to MB output neurons (MBONs) in each compartment. Some MBONs have inputs from all KCs, while others differentially sample sensory modalities. Only 6% of KC>MBON synapses receive a direct synapse from a dopaminergic neuron (DAN). We identified two unanticipated classes of synapses, KC>DAN and DAN>MBON. DAN activation produces a slow depolarization of the MBON in these DAN>MBON synapses and can weaken memory recall. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.26975.001
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ya Takemura
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Yoshinori Aso
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Toshihide Hige
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Allan Wong
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Zhiyuan Lu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - C Shan Xu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Patricia K Rivlin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Harald Hess
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Ting Zhao
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Toufiq Parag
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Stuart Berg
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Gary Huang
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - William Katz
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Donald J Olbris
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Stephen Plaza
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Lowell Umayam
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Roxanne Aniceto
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Lei-Ann Chang
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Shirley Lauchie
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Omotara Ogundeyi
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Christopher Ordish
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Aya Shinomiya
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Christopher Sigmund
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Satoko Takemura
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Julie Tran
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Glenn C Turner
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Gerald M Rubin
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Louis K Scheffer
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
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43
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Hu W, Zhang X, Wang L, Liu ZJ, Zhong Y, Li Q. Preferential distribution of nuclear MAPK signal in α/β core neurons during long-term memory consolidation in Drosophila. Protein Cell 2017; 8:780-783. [PMID: 28421388 PMCID: PMC5636746 DOI: 10.1007/s13238-017-0404-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Wantong Hu
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Xuchen Zhang
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Lianzhang Wang
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Zhong-Jian Liu
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory for Orchid Conservation and Utilization, The National Orchid Conservation Center of China and The Orchid Conservation & Research Center of Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518114, China.,The Center for Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yi Zhong
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Qian Li
- Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
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44
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Kinoshita M, Homberg U. Insect Brains: Minute Structures Controlling Complex Behaviors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-4-431-56469-0_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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45
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Desmedt L, Baracchi D, Devaud JM, Giurfa M, d'Ettorre P. Aversive learning of odor-heat associations in ants. J Exp Biol 2017; 220:4661-4668. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.161737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Ants have recently emerged as useful models for the study of olfactory learning. In this framework, the development of a protocol for the appetitive conditioning of the maxilla-labium extension response (MaLER) provided the possibility of studying Pavlovian odor-food learning in a controlled environment. Here we extend these studies by introducing the first Pavlovian aversive learning protocol for harnessed ants in the laboratory. We worked with carpenter ants Camponotus aethiops and first determined the capacity of different temperatures applied to the body surface to elicit the typical aversive mandible opening response (MOR). We determined that 75°C is the optimal temperature to induce MOR and chose the hind legs as the stimulated body region due to their high sensitivity. We then studied the ability of ants to learn and remember odor-heat associations using 75°C as unconditioned stimulus. We studied learning and short-term retention after absolute (one odor paired with heat) and differential conditioning (a punished odor versus an unpunished odor). Our results show that ants successfully learn the odor-heat association under a differential-conditioning regime and thus exhibit conditioned MOR to the punished odor. Yet, their performance under an absolute-conditioning regime is poor. These results demonstrate that ants are capable of aversive learning and confirm previous findings about the different attentional resources solicited by differential and absolute conditioning in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Desmedt
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
| | - David Baracchi
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Jean-Marc Devaud
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Martin Giurfa
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Patrizia d'Ettorre
- Laboratory of Experimental and Comparative Ethology, University of Paris 13, Sorbonne Paris Cité, France
- Research Centre on Animal Cognition, Center for Integrative Biology, CNRS, University of Toulouse, 118 route de Narbonne, F-31062 Toulouse Cedex 09, France
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46
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Neurexin regulates nighttime sleep by modulating synaptic transmission. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38246. [PMID: 27905548 PMCID: PMC5131284 DOI: 10.1038/srep38246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurexins are cell adhesion molecules involved in synaptic formation and synaptic transmission. Mutations in neurexin genes are linked to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which are frequently associated with sleep problems. However, the role of neurexin-mediated synaptic transmission in sleep regulation is unclear. Here, we show that lack of the Drosophila α-neurexin homolog significantly reduces the quantity and quality of nighttime sleep and impairs sleep homeostasis. We report that neurexin expression in Drosophila mushroom body (MB) αβ neurons is essential for nighttime sleep. We demonstrate that reduced nighttime sleep in neurexin mutants is due to impaired αβ neuronal output, and show that neurexin functionally couples calcium channels (Cac) to regulate synaptic transmission. Finally, we determine that αβ surface (αβs) neurons release both acetylcholine and short neuropeptide F (sNPF), whereas αβ core (αβc) neurons release sNPF to promote nighttime sleep. Our findings reveal that neurexin regulates nighttime sleep by mediating the synaptic transmission of αβ neurons. This study elucidates the role of synaptic transmission in sleep regulation, and might offer insights into the mechanism of sleep disturbances in patients with autism disorders.
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47
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Hirano Y, Ihara K, Masuda T, Yamamoto T, Iwata I, Takahashi A, Awata H, Nakamura N, Takakura M, Suzuki Y, Horiuchi J, Okuno H, Saitoe M. Shifting transcriptional machinery is required for long-term memory maintenance and modification in Drosophila mushroom bodies. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13471. [PMID: 27841260 PMCID: PMC5114576 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that transcriptional regulation is required for maintenance of long-term memories (LTMs). Here we characterize global transcriptional and epigenetic changes that occur during LTM storage in the Drosophila mushroom bodies (MBs), structures important for memory. Although LTM formation requires the CREB transcription factor and its coactivator, CBP, subsequent early maintenance requires CREB and a different coactivator, CRTC. Late maintenance becomes CREB independent and instead requires the transcription factor Bx. Bx expression initially depends on CREB/CRTC activity, but later becomes CREB/CRTC independent. The timing of the CREB/CRTC early maintenance phase correlates with the time window for LTM extinction and we identify different subsets of CREB/CRTC target genes that are required for memory maintenance and extinction. Furthermore, we find that prolonging CREB/CRTC-dependent transcription extends the time window for LTM extinction. Our results demonstrate the dynamic nature of stored memory and its regulation by shifting transcription systems in the MBs. Transcriptional regulation is necessary for maintaining long-term memories (LTM) but the mechanistic details are not completely defined. Here the authors identify transcriptional machinery and histone modifiers required for LTM maintenance in Drosophila and show that transcriptional regulation for LTM maintenance is distinct from that for LTM formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukinori Hirano
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.,Japan Science and Technology Agency, PRESTO, 4-4-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| | - Kunio Ihara
- Center of Gene Research, Nagoya University, Huro-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan
| | - Tomoko Masuda
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-0057, Japan
| | - Takuya Yamamoto
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Department of Reprogramming Science, Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.,Institute for Integrated Cell-Material Sciences (WPI-iCeMS), Kyoto University, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.,AMED-CREST, AMED 1-7-1 Otemach, Chiyodaku, Tokyo 100-0004, Japan
| | - Ikuko Iwata
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Aya Takahashi
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Hiroko Awata
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Naosuke Nakamura
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.,Kyoto Sangyo University, Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto City 603-8555, Japan
| | - Mai Takakura
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yusuke Suzuki
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Junjiro Horiuchi
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-0057, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Okuno
- SK Project, Medical Innovation Center, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, 53 Shogoin Kawahara-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Minoru Saitoe
- Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, 2-1-6 Kamikitazawa, Setagaya, Tokyo 156-0057, Japan
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48
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Memory Elicited by Courtship Conditioning Requires Mushroom Body Neuronal Subsets Similar to Those Utilized in Appetitive Memory. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0164516. [PMID: 27764141 PMCID: PMC5072562 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0164516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An animal’s ability to learn and to form memories is essential for its survival. The fruit fly has proven to be a valuable model system for studies of learning and memory. One learned behavior in fruit flies is courtship conditioning. In Drosophila courtship conditioning, male flies learn not to court females during training with an unreceptive female. He retains a memory of this training and for several hours decreases courtship when subsequently paired with any female. Courtship conditioning is a unique learning paradigm; it uses a positive-valence stimulus, a female fly, to teach a male to decrease an innate behavior, courtship of the female. As such, courtship conditioning is not clearly categorized as either appetitive or aversive conditioning. The mushroom body (MB) region in the fruit fly brain is important for several types of memory; however, the precise subsets of intrinsic and extrinsic MB neurons necessary for courtship conditioning are unknown. Here, we disrupted synaptic signaling by driving a shibirets effector in precise subsets of MB neurons, defined by a collection of split-GAL4 drivers. Out of 75 lines tested, 32 showed defects in courtship conditioning memory. Surprisingly, we did not have any hits in the γ lobe Kenyon cells, a region previously implicated in courtship conditioning memory. We did find that several γ lobe extrinsic neurons were necessary for courtship conditioning memory. Overall, our memory hits in the dopaminergic neurons (DANs) and the mushroom body output neurons were more consistent with results from appetitive memory assays than aversive memory assays. For example, protocerebral anterior medial DANs were necessary for courtship memory, similar to appetitive memory, while protocerebral posterior lateral 1 (PPL1) DANs, important for aversive memory, were not needed. Overall, our results indicate that the MB circuits necessary for courtship conditioning memory coincide with circuits necessary for appetitive memory.
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49
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Busto GU, Guven-Ozkan T, Chakraborty M, Davis RL. Developmental inhibition of miR-iab8-3p disrupts mushroom body neuron structure and adult learning ability. Dev Biol 2016; 419:237-249. [PMID: 27634569 PMCID: PMC5204246 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 09/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that inhibit protein expression post-transcriptionally. They have been implicated in many different physiological processes, but little is known about their individual involvement in learning and memory. We recently identified several miRNAs that either increased or decreased intermediate-term memory when inhibited in the central nervous system, including miR-iab8-3p. We report here a new developmental role for this miRNA. Blocking the expression of miR-iab8-3p during the development of the organism leads to hypertrophy of individual mushroom body neuron soma, a reduction in the field size occupied by axonal projections, and adult intellectual disability. We further identified four potential mRNA targets of miR-iab8-3p whose inhibition modulates intermediate-term memory including ceramide phosphoethanolamine synthase, which may account for the behavioral effects produced by miR-iab8-3p inhibition. Our results offer important new information on a microRNA required for normal neurodevelopment and the capacity to learn and remember normally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germain U Busto
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter FL 33458, USA.
| | - Tugba Guven-Ozkan
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter FL 33458, USA
| | - Molee Chakraborty
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter FL 33458, USA
| | - Ronald L Davis
- Department of Neuroscience, The Scripps Research Institute Florida, Jupiter FL 33458, USA.
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50
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Koenig S, Wolf R, Heisenberg M. Visual Attention in Flies-Dopamine in the Mushroom Bodies Mediates the After-Effect of Cueing. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161412. [PMID: 27571359 PMCID: PMC5003349 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual environments may simultaneously comprise stimuli of different significance. Often such stimuli require incompatible responses. Selective visual attention allows an animal to respond exclusively to the stimuli at a certain location in the visual field. In the process of establishing its focus of attention the animal can be influenced by external cues. Here we characterize the behavioral properties and neural mechanism of cueing in the fly Drosophila melanogaster. A cue can be attractive, repulsive or ineffective depending upon (e.g.) its visual properties and location in the visual field. Dopamine signaling in the brain is required to maintain the effect of cueing once the cue has disappeared. Raising or lowering dopamine at the synapse abolishes this after-effect. Specifically, dopamine is necessary and sufficient in the αβ-lobes of the mushroom bodies. Evidence is provided for an involvement of the αβposterior Kenyon cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Koenig
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Joseph-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Reinhard Wolf
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Joseph-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Martin Heisenberg
- Rudolf Virchow Center for Experimental Biomedicine, University of Würzburg, Joseph-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080, Würzburg, Germany
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