1
|
Kang J, Huang G, Ma L, Tong Y, Shahapal A, Chen P, Shen J. Cell-autonomous role of leucine-rich repeat kinase in the protection of dopaminergic neuron survival. eLife 2024; 12:RP92673. [PMID: 38856715 PMCID: PMC11164531 DOI: 10.7554/elife.92673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, whether LRRK2 mutations cause PD and degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons via a toxic gain-of-function or a loss-of-function mechanism is unresolved and has pivotal implications for LRRK2-based PD therapies. In this study, we investigate whether Lrrk2 and its functional homolog Lrrk1 play a cell-intrinsic role in DA neuron survival through the development of DA neuron-specific Lrrk conditional double knockout (cDKO) mice. Unlike Lrrk germline DKO mice, DA neuron-restricted Lrrk cDKO mice exhibit normal mortality but develop age-dependent loss of DA neurons, as shown by the progressive reduction of DA neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) at the ages of 20 and 24 months. Moreover, DA neurodegeneration is accompanied with increases in apoptosis and elevated microgliosis in the SNpc as well as decreases in DA terminals in the striatum, and is preceded by impaired motor coordination. Taken together, these findings provide the unequivocal evidence for the cell-intrinsic requirement of LRRK in DA neurons and raise the possibility that LRRK2 mutations may impair its protection of DA neurons, leading to DA neurodegeneration in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jongkyun Kang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Guodong Huang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Long Ma
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Youren Tong
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Anu Shahapal
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Phoenix Chen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s HospitalBostonUnited States
- Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li D, Yu SF, Lin L, Guo JR, Huang SM, Wu XL, You HL, Cheng XJ, Zhang QY, Zeng YQ, Pan XD. Deficiency of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 aggravates thioacetamide-induced acute liver failure and hepatic encephalopathy in mice. J Neuroinflammation 2024; 21:123. [PMID: 38725082 PMCID: PMC11084037 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-024-03125-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is closely associated with inflammatory responses. However, as a crucial regulator of the immune and inflammatory responses, the role of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) in the pathogenesis of HE remains unraveled. Herein, we investigated this issue in thioacetamide (TAA)-induced HE following acute liver failure (ALF). METHODS TAA-induced HE mouse models of LRRK2 wild type (WT), LRRK2 G2019S mutation (Lrrk2G2019S) and LRRK2 knockout (Lrrk2-/-) were established. A battery of neurobehavioral experiments was conducted. The biochemical indexes and pro-inflammatory cytokines were detected. The prefrontal cortex (PFC), striatum (STR), hippocampus (HIP), and liver were examined by pathology and electron microscopy. The changes of autophagy-lysosomal pathway and activity of critical Rab GTPases were analyzed. RESULTS The Lrrk2-/--HE model reported a significantly lower survival rate than the other two models (24% vs. 48%, respectively, p < 0.05), with no difference found between the WT-HE and Lrrk2G2019S-HE groups. Compared with the other groups, after the TAA injection, the Lrrk2-/- group displayed a significant increase in ammonium and pro-inflammatory cytokines, aggravated hepatic inflammation/necrosis, decreased autophagy, and abnormal phosphorylation of lysosomal Rab10. All three models reported microglial activation, neuronal loss, disordered vesicle transmission, and damaged myelin structure. The Lrrk2-/--HE mice presented no severer neuronal injury than the other genotypes. CONCLUSIONS LRRK2 deficiency may exacerbate TAA-induced ALF and HE in mice, in which inflammatory response is evident in the brain and aggravated in the liver. These novel findings indicate a need of sufficient clinical awareness of the adverse effects of LRRK2 inhibitors on the liver.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dan Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29, Xinquan Road, Fujian, 350001, China.
- Fujian Clinical Research Center for Digestive System Tumors and Upper Gastrointestinal Diseases, Fujian, 350001, China.
| | - Shu-Fang Yu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29, Xinquan Road, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Lin Lin
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Vascular Aging, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350001, Fujian, China
| | - Jie-Ru Guo
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29, Xinquan Road, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Si-Mei Huang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29, Xinquan Road, Fujian, 350001, China
| | - Xi-Lin Wu
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Institute of Clinical Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Han-Lin You
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Xiao-Juan Cheng
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Qiu-Yang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Yu-Qi Zeng
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Xiao-Dong Pan
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Institute of Geriatrics, Center for Cognitive Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China.
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China.
- Fujian Key Laboratory of Vascular Aging, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, 350001, Fujian, China.
- Institute of Clinical Neurology, Fujian Medical University, 29 Xinquan Road, Fuzhou, 350001, China.
- Clinical Research Center for Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Neurological Diseases of Fujian Province, Fuzhou, 350001, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kang J, Huang G, Ma L, Tong Y, Shahapal A, Chen P, Shen J. Cell autonomous role of leucine-rich repeat kinase in protection of dopaminergic neuron survival. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.06.561293. [PMID: 37873418 PMCID: PMC10592668 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.06.561293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD), which is the leading neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). However, whether LRRK2 mutations cause PD and degeneration of DA neurons via a toxic gain-of-function or a loss-of-function mechanism is unresolved and has pivotal implications for LRRK2-based PD therapies. In this study, we investigate whether LRRK2 and its functional homologue LRRK1 play an essential, intrinsic role in DA neuron survival through the development of DA neuron-specific LRRK conditional double knockout (cDKO) mice. We first generated and characterized floxed LRRK1 and LRRK2 mice and then confirmed that germline deletions of the floxed LRRK1 and LRRK2 alleles result in null mutations, as evidenced by the absence of LRRK1 and LRRK2 mRNA and protein in the respective homozygous deleted mutant mice. We further examined the specificity of Cre-mediated recombination driven by the dopamine transporter-Cre (DAT-Cre) knockin (KI) allele using a GFP reporter line and confirmed that DAT-Cre-mediated recombination is restricted to DA neurons in the SNpc. Crossing these validated floxed LRRK1 and LRRK2 mice with DAT-Cre KI mice, we then generated DA neuron-restricted LRRK cDKO mice and further showed that levels of LRRK1 and LRRK2 are reduced in dissected ventral midbrains of LRRK cDKO mice. While DA neuron-restricted LRRK cDKO mice of both sexes exhibit normal mortality and body weight, they develop age-dependent loss of DA neurons in the SNpc, as demonstrated by the progressive reduction of DA neurons in the SNpc of LRRK cDKO mice at the ages of 20 and 24 months but the unaffected number of DA neurons at the age of 15 months. Moreover, DA neurodegeneration is accompanied with increases of apoptosis and elevated microgliosis in the SNpc as well as decreases of DA terminals in the striatum, and is preceded by impaired motor coordination. Taken together, these findings provide the unequivocal evidence for the importance of LRRK in DA neurons and raise the possibility that LRRK2 mutations may impair its protection of DA neurons, leading to DA neurodegeneration in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jongkyun Kang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Guodong Huang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Long Ma
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Youren Tong
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Anu Shahapal
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Phoenix Chen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
- Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang P, Lu Y, Li Y, Wang K, An H, Tan Y. Genome-wide DNA methylation analysis in schizophrenia with tardive dyskinesia: a preliminary study. Genes Genomics 2023; 45:1317-1328. [PMID: 37414911 DOI: 10.1007/s13258-023-01414-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tardive dyskinesia (TD) develops in 20-30% of schizophrenia patients and up to 50% in patients > 50 years old. DNA methylation may play an important role in the development of TD. OBJECTIVE DNA methylation analyses in schizophrenia with TD. METHODS We conducted a genome-wide DNA methylation analysis in schizophrenia with TD using methylated DNA immunoprecipitation coupled with next-generation sequencing (MeDIP-Seq) in a Chinese sample including five schizophrenia patients with TD and five without TD (NTD), and five healthy controls. The results were expressed as the log2FC, fold change of normalized tags between two groups within the differentially methylated region (DMR). For validation, the pyrosequencing was used to quantify DNA methylation levels of several methylated genes in an independent sample (n = 30). RESULTS Through genome-wide MeDIP-Seq analysis, we identified 116 genes that were significantly differentially methylated in promotor regions in comparison of TD group with NTD group including 66 hypermethylated genes (top 4 genes are GABRR1, VANGL2, ZNF534, and ZNF746) and 50 hypomethylated genes (top 4 genes are DERL3, GSTA4, KNCN, and LRRK1). Part of these genes (such as DERL3, DLGAP2, GABRR1, KLRG2, LRRK1, VANGL2, and ZP3) were previously reported to be associated with methylation in schizophrenia. Gene Ontology enrichment and KEGG pathway analyses identified several pathways. So far, we have confirmed the methylation of 3 genes (ARMC6, WDR75, and ZP3) in schizophrenia with TD using pyrosequencing. CONCLUSIONS This study identified number of methylated genes and pathways for TD and will provide potential biomarkers for TD and serve as a resource for replication in other populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping Zhang
- Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital, Peking University HuiLongGuan Clinical Medical School, Beijing, 100096, China
| | - Yongke Lu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Joan C. Edwards School of Medicine, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, 25755, USA
| | - Yanli Li
- Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital, Peking University HuiLongGuan Clinical Medical School, Beijing, 100096, China
| | - Kesheng Wang
- Department of Family and Community Health, School of Nursing, Health Sciences Center, West Virginia University, Office 6419, Post Office Box 9600, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA.
| | - Huimei An
- Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital, Peking University HuiLongGuan Clinical Medical School, Beijing, 100096, China
| | - Yunlong Tan
- Beijing HuiLongGuan Hospital, Peking University HuiLongGuan Clinical Medical School, Beijing, 100096, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhuo Y, Li X, He Z, Lu M. Pathological mechanisms of neuroimmune response and multitarget disease-modifying therapies of mesenchymal stem cells in Parkinson's disease. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:80. [PMID: 37041580 PMCID: PMC10091615 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03280-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN); the etiology and pathological mechanism of the disease are still unclear. Recent studies have shown that the activation of a neuroimmune response plays a key role in the development of PD. Alpha-synuclein (α-Syn), the primary pathological marker of PD, can gather in the SN and trigger a neuroinflammatory response by activating microglia which can further activate the dopaminergic neuron's neuroimmune response mediated by reactive T cells through antigen presentation. It has been shown that adaptive immunity and antigen presentation processes are involved in the process of PD and further research on the neuroimmune response mechanism may open new methods for its prevention and therapy. While current therapeutic regimens are still focused on controlling clinical symptoms, applications such as immunoregulatory strategies can delay the symptoms and the process of neurodegeneration. In this review, we summarized the progression of the neuroimmune response in PD based on recent studies and focused on the use of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy and challenges as a strategy of disease-modifying therapy with multiple targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhuo
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University/Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, 410000, Hunan, China
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Animal Peptide Drug Development, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410006, Hunan, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University/Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, 410000, Hunan, China
| | - Zhengwen He
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University/Hunan Cancer Hospital, Changsha, 410000, Hunan, China.
| | - Ming Lu
- The National and Local Joint Engineering Laboratory of Animal Peptide Drug Development, College of Life Sciences, Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410006, Hunan, China.
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurorestoratology, The Second Affiliated Hospital (the 921st Hospital of PLA), Hunan Normal University, Changsha, 410003, Hunan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Is Glial Dysfunction the Key Pathogenesis of LRRK2-Linked Parkinson's Disease? Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13010178. [PMID: 36671564 PMCID: PMC9856048 DOI: 10.3390/biom13010178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Leucine rich-repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is the most well-known etiologic gene for familial Parkinson's disease (PD). Its gene product is a large kinase with multiple functional domains that phosphorylates a subset of Rab small GTPases. However, studies of autopsy cases with LRRK2 mutations indicate a varied pathology, and the molecular functions of LRRK2 and its relationship to PD pathogenesis are largely unknown. Recently, non-autonomous neurodegeneration associated with glial cell dysfunction has attracted attention as a possible mechanism of dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Molecular studies of LRRK2 in astrocytes and microglia have also suggested that LRRK2 is involved in the regulation of lysosomal and other organelle dynamics and inflammation. In this review, we describe the proposed functions of LRRK2 in glial cells and discuss its involvement in the pathomechanisms of PD.
Collapse
|
7
|
Volta M. Lysosomal Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease: Insights From LRRK2 and GBA1 Rodent Models. Neurotherapeutics 2023; 20:127-139. [PMID: 36085537 PMCID: PMC10119359 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-022-01290-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of mutations in LRRK2 and GBA1 that are linked to Parkinson's disease provided further evidence that autophagy and lysosome pathways are likely implicated in the pathogenic process. Their protein products are important regulators of lysosome function. LRRK2 has kinase-dependent effects on lysosome activity, autophagic efficacy and lysosomal Ca2+ signaling. Glucocerebrosidase (encoded by GBA1) is a hydrolytic enzyme contained in the lysosomes and contributes to the degradation of alpha-synuclein. PD-related mutations in LRRK2 and GBA1 slow the degradation of alpha-synuclein, thus directly implicating the dysfunction of the process in the neuropathology of Parkinson's disease. The development of genetic rodent models of LRRK2 and GBA1 provided hopes of obtaining reliable preclinical models in which to study pathogenic processes and perform drug validation studies. Here, I will review the extensive characterization of these models, their impact on understanding lysosome alterations in the course of Parkinson's disease and what novel insights have been obtained. In addition, I will discuss how these models fare with respect to the features of a "gold standard" animal models and what could be attempted in future studies to exploit LRRK2 and GBA1 rodent models in the fight against Parkinson's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mattia Volta
- Institute for Biomedicine, Eurac Research - Affiliated Institute of the University of Lübeck, via Volta 21, Bolzano, 39100, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bao F, Zhou L, Xiao J, Liu X. Mitolysosome exocytosis: a novel mitochondrial quality control pathway linked with parkinsonism-like symptoms. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:1773-1783. [PMID: 36484629 DOI: 10.1042/bst20220726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Quality control of mitochondria is essential for their homeostasis and function. Light chain 3 (LC3) associated autophagosomes-mediated mitophagy represents a canonical mitochondrial quality control pathway. Alternative quality control processes, such as mitochondrial-derived vesicles (MDVs), have been discovered, but the intact mitochondrial quality control remains unknown. We recently discovered a novel mitolysosome exocytosis mechanism for mitochondrial quality control in flunarizine (FNZ)-induced mitochondria clearance, where autophagosomes are not required, but rather mitochondria are engulfed directly by lysosomes, mediating mitochondrial secretion. As FNZ results in parkinsonism, we propose that excessive mitolysosome exocytosis is the cause.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Feixiang Bao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, China-New Zealand Joint Laboratory on Biomedicine and Health, CUHK-GIBH Joint Research Laboratory on Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lingyan Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, China-New Zealand Joint Laboratory on Biomedicine and Health, CUHK-GIBH Joint Research Laboratory on Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiahui Xiao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, China-New Zealand Joint Laboratory on Biomedicine and Health, CUHK-GIBH Joint Research Laboratory on Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xingguo Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Regenerative Biology, Joint School of Life Sciences, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, China-New Zealand Joint Laboratory on Biomedicine and Health, CUHK-GIBH Joint Research Laboratory on Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, Institute for Stem Cell and Regeneration, Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hong Kong SAR, China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ravinther AI, Dewadas HD, Tong SR, Foo CN, Lin YE, Chien CT, Lim YM. Molecular Pathways Involved in LRRK2-Linked Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231911744. [PMID: 36233046 PMCID: PMC9569706 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231911744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases affecting the ageing population, with a prevalence that has doubled over the last 30 years. As the mechanism of the disease is not fully elucidated, the current treatments are unable to effectively prevent neurodegeneration. Studies have found that mutations in Leucine-rich-repeat-kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). Moreover, aberrant (higher) LRRK2 kinase activity has an influence in idiopathic PD as well. Hence, the aim of this review is to categorize and synthesize current information related to LRRK2-linked PD and present the factors associated with LRRK2 that can be targeted therapeutically. A systematic review was conducted using the databases PubMed, Medline, SCOPUS, SAGE, and Cochrane (January 2016 to July 2021). Search terms included “Parkinson’s disease”, “mechanism”, “LRRK2”, and synonyms in various combinations. The search yielded a total of 988 abstracts for initial review, 80 of which met the inclusion criteria. Here, we emphasize molecular mechanisms revealed in recent in vivo and in vitro studies. By consolidating the recent updates in the field of LRRK2-linked PD, researchers can further evaluate targets for therapeutic application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ailyn Irvita Ravinther
- Centre for Cancer Research, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Hemaniswarri Dewi Dewadas
- Centre for Biomedical and Nutrition Research, Faculty of Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar 31900, Perak, Malaysia
| | - Shi Ruo Tong
- Centre for Cancer Research, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chai Nien Foo
- Centre for Cancer Research, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Population Medicine, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Yu-En Lin
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ting Chien
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 115, Taiwan
| | - Yang Mooi Lim
- Centre for Cancer Research, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
- Department of Pre-Clinical Sciences, M. Kandiah Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wang L, Wang H, Yi S, Zhang S, Ho MS. A
LRRK2
/
dLRRK
‐mediated lysosomal pathway that contributes to glial cell death and
DA
neuron survival. Traffic 2022; 23:506-520. [DOI: 10.1111/tra.12866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linfang Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology ShanghaiTech University Shanghai China
| | - Honglei Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology ShanghaiTech University Shanghai China
| | - Shuanglong Yi
- School of Life Science and Technology ShanghaiTech University Shanghai China
| | - Shiping Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology ShanghaiTech University Shanghai China
| | - Margaret S. Ho
- School of Life Science and Technology ShanghaiTech University Shanghai China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Thakur G, Kumar V, Lee KW, Won C. Structural Insights and Development of LRRK2 Inhibitors for Parkinson’s Disease in the Last Decade. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13081426. [PMID: 36011337 PMCID: PMC9408223 DOI: 10.3390/genes13081426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease, characterized by the specific loss of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain. The pathophysiology of PD is likely caused by a variety of environmental and hereditary factors. Many single-gene mutations have been linked to this disease, but a significant number of studies indicate that mutations in the gene encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are a potential therapeutic target for both sporadic and familial forms of PD. Consequently, the identification of potential LRRK2 inhibitors has been the focus of drug discovery. Various investigations have been conducted in academic and industrial organizations to investigate the mechanism of LRRK2 in PD and further develop its inhibitors. This review summarizes the role of LRRK2 in PD and its structural details, especially the kinase domain. Furthermore, we reviewed in vitro and in vivo findings of selected inhibitors reported to date against wild-type and mutant versions of the LRRK2 kinase domain as well as the current trends researchers are employing in the development of LRRK2 inhibitors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gunjan Thakur
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea
| | - Vikas Kumar
- Division of Life Sciences, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK4 Program), Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea
| | - Keun Woo Lee
- Division of Life Sciences, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK4 Program), Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea
| | - Chungkil Won
- Institute of Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 52828, Korea
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Huang G, Bloodgood DW, Kang J, Shahapal A, Chen P, Kaganovsky K, Kim JI, Ding JB, Shen J. Motor Impairments and Dopaminergic Defects Caused by Loss of Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase Function in Mice. J Neurosci 2022; 42:4755-4765. [PMID: 35534227 PMCID: PMC9186805 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0140-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD), but the pathogenic mechanism underlying LRRK2 mutations remains unresolved. In this study, we investigate the consequence of inactivation of LRRK2 and its functional homolog LRRK1 in male and female mice up to 25 months of age using behavioral, neurochemical, neuropathological, and ultrastructural analyses. We report that LRRK1 and LRRK2 double knock-out (LRRK DKO) mice exhibit impaired motor coordination at 12 months of age before the onset of dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra (SNpc). Moreover, LRRK DKO mice develop age-dependent, progressive loss of dopaminergic terminals in the striatum. Evoked dopamine (DA) release measured by fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in the dorsal striatum is also reduced in the absence of LRRK. Furthermore, LRRK DKO mice at 20-25 months of age show substantial loss of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc. The surviving SNpc neurons in LRRK DKO mice at 25 months of age accumulate large numbers of autophagic and autolysosomal vacuoles and are accompanied with microgliosis. Surprisingly, the cerebral cortex is unaffected, as shown by normal cortical volume and neuron number as well as unchanged number of apoptotic cells and microglia in LRRK DKO mice at 25 months. These findings show that loss of LRRK function causes impairments in motor coordination, degeneration of dopaminergic terminals, reduction of evoked DA release, and selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc, indicating that LRRK DKO mice are unique models for better understanding dopaminergic neurodegeneration in PD.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Our current study employs a genetic approach to uncover the normal function of the LRRK family in the brain during mouse life span. Our multidisciplinary analysis demonstrates a critical normal physiological role of LRRK in maintaining the integrity and function of dopaminergic terminals and neurons in the aging brain, and show that LRRK DKO mice recapitulate several key features of PD and provide unique mouse models for elucidating molecular mechanisms underlying dopaminergic neurodegeneration in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guodong Huang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | | | - Jongkyun Kang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Anu Shahapal
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Phoenix Chen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | | | | | - Jun B Ding
- Departments of Neurosurgery and
- Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
- Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Selective motor activation in organelle transport along axons. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2022; 23:699-714. [DOI: 10.1038/s41580-022-00491-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|
14
|
Dopamine Transporter, PhosphoSerine129 α-Synuclein and α-Synuclein Levels in Aged LRRK2 G2019S Knock-In and Knock-Out Mice. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10040881. [PMID: 35453631 PMCID: PMC9027615 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10040881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The G2019S mutation in leucine rich-repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a major cause of familial Parkinson’s disease. We previously reported that G2019S knock-in mice manifest dopamine transporter dysfunction and phosphoSerine129 α-synuclein (pSer129 α-syn) immunoreactivity elevation at 12 months of age, which might represent pathological events leading to neuronal degeneration. Here, the time-dependence of these changes was monitored in the striatum of 6, 9, 12, 18 and 23-month-old G2019S KI mice and wild-type controls using DA uptake assay, Western analysis and immunohistochemistry. Western analysis showed elevation of membrane dopamine transporter (DAT) levels at 9 and 12 months of age, along with a reduction of vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) levels at 12 months. DAT uptake was abnormally elevated from 9 to up to 18 months. DAT and VMAT2 level changes were specific to the G2019S mutation since they were not observed in LRRK2 kinase-dead or knock-out mice. Nonetheless, dysfunctional DAT uptake was not normalized by acute pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 kinase activity with MLi-2. Immunoblot analysis showed elevation of pSer129 α-syn levels in the striatum of 12-month-old G2019S KI mice, which, however, was not confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis. Instead, total α-syn immunoreactivity was found elevated in the striatum of 23-month-old LRRK2 knock-out mice. These data indicate mild changes in DA transporters and α-syn metabolism in the striatum of 12-month-old G2019S KI mice whose pathological relevance remains to be established.
Collapse
|
15
|
Wu X, Ren Y, Wen Y, Lu S, Li H, Yu H, Li W, Zou F. Deacetylation of ZKSCAN3 by SIRT1 induces autophagy and protects SN4741 cells against MPP +-induced oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 181:82-97. [PMID: 35124181 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress and misfolded protein aggregation are related to autophagy-lysosomal dysregulation and contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson' s disease (PD). ZKSCAN3, a transcriptional repressor, plays a crucial role in autophagy and lysosomal biogenesis. However, the role and modification of ZKSCAN3 in the defection of ALP, along with the molecular mechanism involved in pathogenesis of PD, still remain unclear. In this study, we demonstrated that cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by MPP+ exposure and the resulting oxidative damage were counteracted by SIRT1-ZKSCAN3 pathway induction. Here we showed that nuclear ZKSCAN3 significantly increased in ventral midbrain of MPTP-treated mice and MPP+-treated SN4741 cells. Knockdown of ZKSCAN3 alleviated MPP+-induced ALP defect, Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) declination and neuronal death. NAC, a ROS scavenger, reduced the nuclear translocation of ZKSCAN3 and sequentially improved ALP function in MPP+-treated SN4741 cells. SRT2104, a SIRT1 activator, attenuated impairment of ALP in MPP+-treated SN47417 cells through decreasing nuclear accumulation of ZKSCAN3 and protected dopaminergic neurons from MPTP injury. Moreover, SRT2104 relieved impairment in locomotor activities and coordination skills upon treatment of MPTP in C57/BL6J mice through behavior tests including rotarod, pole climbing and grid. Furthermore, ZKSCAN3 was a novel substrate of SIRT1 which was deacetylated at lysine 148 residues by SIRT1. This subsequently facilitated the shuttling of ZKSCAN3 to the cytoplasm. Therefore, our study identifies a novel acetylation-dependent regulatory mechanism of nuclear translocation of ZKSCAN3. It results in autophagy-lysosomal dysfunction and then leads to DA neuronal death in MPTP/MPP+ model of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xian Wu
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Yixian Ren
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China; Evaluation and Monitoring Center of Occupational Health, Guangzhou Twelfth People's Hospital, Guangzhou, PR China.
| | - Yue Wen
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Sixin Lu
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Huihui Li
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Honglin Yu
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Wenjun Li
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| | - Fei Zou
- Department of Occupational Health and Occupational Medicine, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Chang EES, Ho PWL, Liu HF, Pang SYY, Leung CT, Malki Y, Choi ZYK, Ramsden DB, Ho SL. LRRK2 mutant knock-in mouse models: therapeutic relevance in Parkinson's disease. Transl Neurodegener 2022; 11:10. [PMID: 35152914 PMCID: PMC8842874 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-022-00285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 gene (LRRK2) are one of the most frequent genetic causes of both familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD). Mounting evidence has demonstrated pathological similarities between LRRK2-associated PD (LRRK2-PD) and sporadic PD, suggesting that LRRK2 is a potential disease modulator and a therapeutic target in PD. LRRK2 mutant knock-in (KI) mouse models display subtle alterations in pathological aspects that mirror early-stage PD, including increased susceptibility of nigrostriatal neurotransmission, development of motor and non-motor symptoms, mitochondrial and autophagy-lysosomal defects and synucleinopathies. This review provides a rationale for the use of LRRK2 KI mice to investigate the LRRK2-mediated pathogenesis of PD and implications from current findings from different LRRK2 KI mouse models, and ultimately discusses the therapeutic potentials against LRRK2-associated pathologies in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Eun Seo Chang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Philip Wing-Lok Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Hui-Fang Liu
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shirley Yin-Yu Pang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Chi-Ting Leung
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yasine Malki
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zoe Yuen-Kiu Choi
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China
| | - David Boyer Ramsden
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Shu-Leong Ho
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Roney JC, Cheng XT, Sheng ZH. Neuronal endolysosomal transport and lysosomal functionality in maintaining axonostasis. J Cell Biol 2022; 221:213000. [PMID: 35142819 PMCID: PMC8932522 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202111077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysosomes serve as degradation hubs for the turnover of endocytic and autophagic cargos, which is essential for neuron function and survival. Deficits in lysosome function result in progressive neurodegeneration in most lysosomal storage disorders and contribute to the pathogenesis of aging-related neurodegenerative diseases. Given their size and highly polarized morphology, neurons face exceptional challenges in maintaining cellular homeostasis in regions far removed from the cell body where mature lysosomes are enriched. Neurons therefore require coordinated bidirectional intracellular transport to sustain efficient clearance capacity in distal axonal regions. Emerging lines of evidence have started to uncover mechanisms and signaling pathways regulating endolysosome transport and maturation to maintain axonal homeostasis, or “axonostasis,” that is relevant to a range of neurologic disorders. In this review, we discuss recent advances in how axonal endolysosomal trafficking, distribution, and lysosomal functionality support neuronal health and become disrupted in several neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph C Roney
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Xiu-Tang Cheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Zu-Hang Sheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Liu XY, Lu R, Chen J, Wang J, Qian HM, Chen G, Wu RH, Chi ZL. Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling 2 Regulates Retinal Pigment Epithelium Metabolism by Enhancing Autophagy. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:738022. [PMID: 34819832 PMCID: PMC8606588 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.738022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) serves critical functions in maintaining retinal homeostasis. An important function of RPE is to degrade the photoreceptor outer segment fragments daily to maintain photoreceptor function and longevity throughout life. An impairment of RPE functions such as metabolic regulation leads to the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and inherited retinal degenerative diseases. As substrate recognition subunit of a ubiquitin ligase complex, suppressor of cytokine signaling 2 (SOCS2) specifically binds to the substrates for ubiquitination and negatively regulates growth hormone signaling. Herein, we explore the role of SOCS2 in the metabolic regulation of autophagy in the RPE cells. SOCS2 knockout mice exhibited the irregular morphological deposits between the RPE and Bruch’s membrane. Both in vivo and in vitro experiments showed that RPE cells lacking SOCS2 displayed impaired autophagy, which could be recovered by re-expressing SOCS2. SOCS2 recognizes the ubiquitylated proteins and participates in the formation of autolysosome by binding with autophagy receptors and lysosome-associated membrane protein2 (LAMP-2), thereby regulating the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) during the autophagy process. Our results imply that SOCS2 participates in ubiquitin-autophagy-lysosomal pathway and enhances autophagy by regulating GSK3β and mTOR. This study provides a potential therapeutic target for AMD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Yuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Rui Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jing Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Hong-Mei Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Gang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Rong-Han Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zai-Long Chi
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Visual Science, Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
The Emerging Roles of Autophagy in Human Diseases. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111651. [PMID: 34829881 PMCID: PMC8615641 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy, a process of cellular self-digestion, delivers intracellular components including superfluous and dysfunctional proteins and organelles to the lysosome for degradation and recycling and is important to maintain cellular homeostasis. In recent decades, autophagy has been found to help fight against a variety of human diseases, but, at the same time, autophagy can also promote the procession of certain pathologies, which makes the connection between autophagy and diseases complex but interesting. In this review, we summarize the advances in understanding the roles of autophagy in human diseases and the therapeutic methods targeting autophagy and discuss some of the remaining questions in this field, focusing on cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, infectious diseases and metabolic disorders.
Collapse
|
20
|
Tietz AK, Angstwurm K, Baumgartner T, Doppler K, Eisenhut K, Elisak M, Franke A, Golombeck KS, Handreka R, Kaufmann M, Kraemer M, Kraft A, Lewerenz J, Lieb W, Madlener M, Melzer N, Mojzisova H, Möller P, Pfefferkorn T, Prüss H, Rostásy K, Schnegelsberg M, Schröder I, Siebenbrodt K, Sühs KW, Wickel J, Wandinger KP, Leypoldt F, Kuhlenbäumer G. Genome-wide Association Study Identifies 2 New Loci Associated With Anti-NMDAR Encephalitis. NEUROLOGY(R) NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2021; 8:e1085. [PMID: 34584012 PMCID: PMC8479862 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000001085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES To investigate the genetic determinants of the most common type of antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitis, anti-NMDA receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis. METHODS We performed a genome-wide association study in 178 patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis and 590 healthy controls, followed by a colocalization analysis to identify putatively causal genes. RESULTS We identified 2 independent risk loci harboring genome-wide significant variants (p < 5 × 10-8, OR ≥ 2.2), 1 on chromosome 15, harboring only the LRRK1 gene, and 1 on chromosome 11 centered on the ACP2 and NR1H3 genes in a larger region of high linkage disequilibrium. Colocalization signals with expression quantitative trait loci for different brain regions and immune cell types suggested ACP2, NR1H3, MADD, DDB2, and C11orf49 as putatively causal genes. The best candidate genes in each region are LRRK1, encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 1, a protein involved in B-cell development, and NR1H3 liver X receptor alpha, a transcription factor whose activation inhibits inflammatory processes. DISCUSSION This study provides evidence for relevant genetic determinants of antibody-mediated autoimmune encephalitides outside the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) region. The results suggest that future studies with larger sample sizes will successfully identify additional genetic determinants and contribute to the elucidation of the pathomechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja K. Tietz
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Klemens Angstwurm
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Tobias Baumgartner
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Doppler
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Katharina Eisenhut
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Martin Elisak
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Andre Franke
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Kristin S. Golombeck
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Robert Handreka
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Max Kaufmann
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Markus Kraemer
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Andrea Kraft
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Jan Lewerenz
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Wolfgang Lieb
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Marie Madlener
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Nico Melzer
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Hana Mojzisova
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Peter Möller
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Thomas Pfefferkorn
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Harald Prüss
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Kevin Rostásy
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Margret Schnegelsberg
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Ina Schröder
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Kai Siebenbrodt
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Kurt-Wolfram Sühs
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Jonathan Wickel
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Klaus-Peter Wandinger
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Frank Leypoldt
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - Gregor Kuhlenbäumer
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| | - on behalf of the German Network for Research on Autoimmune Encephalitis (GENERATE)
- From the Department of Neurology (A.K.T., F.L., G.K.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.A.), University Hospital Regensburg; Department of Epileptiology (T.B.), University Hospital Bonn; Department of Neurology (K.D.), University Hospital Würzburg; Institute of Clinical Neuroimmunology (K.E.), Biomedical Center and University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Department of Neurology (M.E., H.M.), Charles University, Second Faculty of Medicine and Motol University Hospital, Prague, Czech Republic; Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology (A.F.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (K.S.G.), University Hospital Münster; Department of Neurology (R.H.), Carl-Thiem-Klinikum Cottbus; Institute of Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis (INIMS) (Max Kaufmann), University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer), Alfried Krupp Hospital, Essen; Department of Neurology (Markus Kraemer, N.M.), Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf; Department of Neurology (A.K.), Martha-Maria Hospital Halle; Department of Neurology (J.L.), University of Ulm; Institute of Epidemiology (W.L.), Kiel University; Department of Neurology (M.M.), University Hospital Cologne; Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology (P.M.), Klinikum Weimar; Department of Neurology (T.P.), Klinikum Ingolstadt; Department of Neurology and Experimental Neurology (H.P.), Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) Berlin; Department of Pediatric Neurology (K.R.), Children's Hospital Datteln, Witten/Herdecke University; Department of Neurology (M.S.), Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal, Seesen; Neuroimmunology (I.S., K.-P.W., F.L.), Institute of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel/Lübeck; Epilepsy Center Frankfurt Rhine-Main and Department of Neurology (K.S.), Unversity Hospital and Goethe Universiy Frankfurt; Department of Neurology (K.-W.S.), Hannover Medical School; and Section Translational Neuroimmunology (J.W.), Department of Neurology, University Hospital Jena, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Olsen AL, Feany MB. Parkinson's disease risk genes act in glia to control neuronal α-synuclein toxicity. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 159:105482. [PMID: 34390834 PMCID: PMC8502212 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease and is estimated to be approximately 30% heritable. Genome wide association studies have revealed numerous loci associated with risk of development of Parkinson's disease. The majority of genes identified in these studies are expressed in glia at either similar or greater levels than their expression in neurons, suggesting that glia may play a role in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. The role of individual glial risk genes in Parkinson's disease development or progression is unknown, however. We hypothesized that some Parkinson's disease risk genes exert their effects through glia. We developed a Drosophila model of α-synucleinopathy in which we can independently manipulate gene expression in neurons and glia. Human wild type α-synuclein is expressed in all neurons, and these flies develop the hallmarks of Parkinson's disease, including motor impairment, death of dopaminergic and other neurons, and α-synuclein aggregation. In these flies, we performed a candidate genetic screen, using RNAi to knockdown 14 well-validated Parkinson's disease risk genes in glia and measuring the effect on locomotion in order to identify glial modifiers of the α-synuclein phenotype. We identified 4 modifiers: aux, Lrrk, Ric, and Vps13, orthologs of the human genes GAK, LRRK2, RIT2, and VPS13C, respectively. Knockdown of each gene exacerbated neurodegeneration as measured by total and dopaminergic neuron loss. Knockdown of each modifier also increased α-synuclein oligomerization. These results suggest that some Parkinson's disease risk genes exert their effects in glia and that glia can influence neuronal α-synuclein proteostasis in a non-cell-autonomous fashion. Further, this study provides proof of concept that our novel Drosophila α-synucleinopathy model can be used to study glial modifier genes, paving the way for future large unbiased screens to identify novel glial risk factors that contribute to PD risk and progression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abby L Olsen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States of America; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States of America
| | - Mel B Feany
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States of America; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Zhang K, Zhu S, Li J, Jiang T, Feng L, Pei J, Wang G, Ouyang L, Liu B. Targeting autophagy using small-molecule compounds to improve potential therapy of Parkinson's disease. Acta Pharm Sin B 2021; 11:3015-3034. [PMID: 34729301 PMCID: PMC8546670 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD), known as one of the most universal neurodegenerative diseases, is a serious threat to the health of the elderly. The current treatment has been demonstrated to relieve symptoms, and the discovery of new small-molecule compounds has been regarded as a promising strategy. Of note, the homeostasis of the autolysosome pathway (ALP) is closely associated with PD, and impaired autophagy may cause the death of neurons and thereby accelerating the progress of PD. Thus, pharmacological targeting autophagy with small-molecule compounds has been drawn a rising attention so far. In this review, we focus on summarizing several autophagy-associated targets, such as AMPK, mTORC1, ULK1, IMPase, LRRK2, beclin-1, TFEB, GCase, ERRα, C-Abelson, and as well as their relevant small-molecule compounds in PD models, which will shed light on a clue on exploiting more potential targeted small-molecule drugs tracking PD treatment in the near future.
Collapse
Key Words
- 3-MA, 3-methyladenine
- 5-HT2A, Serotonin 2A
- 5-HT2C, serotonin 2C
- A2A, adenosine 2A
- AADC, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase
- ALP, autophagy-lysosomal pathway
- AMPK, 5ʹAMP-activated protein kinase
- ATG, autophagy related protein
- ATP13A2, ATPase cation transporting 13A2
- ATTEC, autophagosome-tethering compound
- AUC, the area under the curve
- AUTAC, autophagy targeting chimera
- Autophagy
- BAF, bafilomycinA1
- BBB, blood−brain barrier
- CL, clearance rate
- CMA, chaperone-mediated autophagy
- CNS, central nervous system
- COMT, catechol-O-methyltransferase
- DA, dopamine
- DAT, dopamine transporter
- DJ-1, Parkinson protein 7
- DR, dopamine receptor
- ER, endoplasmic reticulum
- ERRα, estrogen-related receptor alpha
- F, oral bioavailability
- GAPDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- GBA, glucocerebrosidase β acid
- GWAS, genome-wide association study
- HDAC6, histone deacetylase 6
- HSC70, heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein
- HSPA8, heat shock 70 kDa protein 8
- IMPase, inositol monophosphatase
- IPPase, inositol polyphosphate 1-phosphatase
- KI, knockin
- LAMP2A, lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 A
- LC3, light chain 3
- LIMP-2, lysosomal integrated membrane protein-2
- LRRK2, leucine-rich repeat sequence kinase 2
- LRS, leucyl-tRNA synthetase
- LUHMES, lund human mesencephalic
- Lamp2a, type 2A lysosomal-associated membrane protein
- MAO-B, monoamine oxidase B
- MPP+, 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium
- MPTP, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine
- MYCBP2, MYC-binding protein 2
- NMDA, N-methyl-d-aspartic acid
- ONRs, orphan nuclear receptors
- PD therapy
- PD, Parkinson's disease
- PDE4, phosphodiesterase 4
- PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase
- PI3P, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate
- PINK1, PTEN-induced kinase 1
- PLC, phospholipase C
- PREP, prolyl oligopeptidase
- Parkin, parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin−protein ligase
- Parkinson's disease (PD)
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- SAR, structure–activity relationship
- SAS, solvent accessible surface
- SN, substantia nigra
- SNCA, α-synuclein gene
- SYT11, synaptotagmin 11
- Small-molecule compound
- TFEB, transcription factor EB
- TSC2, tuberous sclerosis complex 2
- Target
- ULK1, UNC-51-like kinase 1
- UPS, ubiquitin−proteasome system
- mAChR, muscarinic acetylcholine receptor
- mTOR, the mammalian target of rapamycin
- α-syn, α-synuclein
Collapse
|
23
|
Abstract
Quantitative assessment of neuropathological changes is essential for the characterization of animal models of neurodegenerative disease. Here, we describe a detailed protocol for the detection and quantification of key neuropathological changes in Alzheimer's mouse models. The protocol covers detailed methods including perfusion, dissection, and paraffinization of the brain, preparation of serial brain sections, immunohistochemical analysis, stereological quantification, and sample coding methods for genotype blind analysis. This protocol may be applied to the analysis of neuropathological changes of other neurological disorders. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Lee et al. (2020), Kang and Shen (2020), Giaime et al. (2017), Xia et al. (2015), Watanabe et al. (2012, 2014), Wines-Samuelson et al. (2010), and Saura et al. (2004).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jongkyun Kang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hirotaka Watanabe
- Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Suzzi S, Ahrendt R, Hans S, Semenova SA, Chekuru A, Wirsching P, Kroehne V, Bilican S, Sayed S, Winkler S, Spieß S, Machate A, Kaslin J, Panula P, Brand M. Deletion of lrrk2 causes early developmental abnormalities and age-dependent increase of monoamine catabolism in the zebrafish brain. PLoS Genet 2021; 17:e1009794. [PMID: 34516550 PMCID: PMC8459977 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1009794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 gain-of-function is considered a major cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) in humans. However, pathogenicity of LRRK2 loss-of-function in animal models is controversial. Here we show that deletion of the entire zebrafish lrrk2 locus elicits a pleomorphic transient brain phenotype in maternal-zygotic mutant embryos (mzLrrk2). In contrast to lrrk2, the paralog gene lrrk1 is virtually not expressed in the brain of both wild-type and mzLrrk2 fish at different developmental stages. Notably, we found reduced catecholaminergic neurons, the main target of PD, in specific cell populations in the brains of mzLrrk2 larvae, but not adult fish. Strikingly, age-dependent accumulation of monoamine oxidase (MAO)-dependent catabolic signatures within mzLrrk2 brains revealed a previously undescribed interaction between LRRK2 and MAO biological activities. Our results highlight mzLrrk2 zebrafish as a tractable tool to study LRRK2 loss-of-function in vivo, and suggest a link between LRRK2 and MAO, potentially of relevance in the prodromic stages of PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Suzzi
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Reiner Ahrendt
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Hans
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Svetlana A. Semenova
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Avinash Chekuru
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Paul Wirsching
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Volker Kroehne
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Saygın Bilican
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Shady Sayed
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sylke Winkler
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics (MPI-CBG), Dresden, Germany
| | - Sandra Spieß
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Anja Machate
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Jan Kaslin
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Pertti Panula
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Michael Brand
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technische Universität (TU) Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Gordevicius J, Li P, Marshall LL, Killinger BA, Lang S, Ensink E, Kuhn NC, Cui W, Maroof N, Lauria R, Rueb C, Siebourg-Polster J, Maliver P, Lamp J, Vega I, Manfredsson FP, Britschgi M, Labrie V. Epigenetic inactivation of the autophagy-lysosomal system in appendix in Parkinson's disease. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5134. [PMID: 34446734 PMCID: PMC8390554 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25474-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract may be a site of origin for α-synuclein pathology in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD). Disruption of the autophagy-lysosome pathway (ALP) may contribute to α-synuclein aggregation. Here we examined epigenetic alterations in the ALP in the appendix by deep sequencing DNA methylation at 521 ALP genes. We identified aberrant methylation at 928 cytosines affecting 326 ALP genes in the appendix of individuals with PD and widespread hypermethylation that is also seen in the brain of individuals with PD. In mice, we find that DNA methylation changes at ALP genes induced by chronic gut inflammation are greatly exacerbated by α-synuclein pathology. DNA methylation changes at ALP genes induced by synucleinopathy are associated with the ALP abnormalities observed in the appendix of individuals with PD specifically involving lysosomal genes. Our work identifies epigenetic dysregulation of the ALP which may suggest a potential mechanism for accumulation of α-synuclein pathology in idiopathic PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juozas Gordevicius
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA.
- Institute of Biotechnology, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Peipei Li
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Lee L Marshall
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Bryan A Killinger
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Graduate College, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sean Lang
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Elizabeth Ensink
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Nathan C Kuhn
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Wei Cui
- Center for Epigenetics, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Nazia Maroof
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roberta Lauria
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christina Rueb
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Juliane Siebourg-Polster
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pierre Maliver
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jared Lamp
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Integrated Mass Spectrometry Unit, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Irving Vega
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Integrated Mass Spectrometry Unit, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Fredric P Manfredsson
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Parkinson's Disease Research Unit, Department of Neurobiology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Markus Britschgi
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Neuroscience Discovery, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Viviane Labrie
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
- Division of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, College of Human Medicine, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by degeneration of the substantia nigra pars compacta and by accumulation of α-synuclein in Lewy bodies. PD is caused by a combination of environmental factors and genetic variants. These variants range from highly penetrant Mendelian alleles to alleles that only modestly increase disease risk. Here, we review what is known about the genetics of PD. We also describe how PD genetics have solidified the role of endosomal, lysosomal, and mitochondrial dysfunction in PD pathophysiology. Finally, we highlight how all three pathways are affected by α-synuclein and how this knowledge may be harnessed for the development of disease-modifying therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel E Vázquez-Vélez
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Program in Developmental Biology and Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| | - Huda Y Zoghbi
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Program in Developmental Biology and Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA.,Departments of Molecular and Human Genetics and Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA; .,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Li Z, Cao P, Meng H, Li D, Zhang Y, Li Y, Wang S. Long-term exposure to 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline can trigger a potential risk of Parkinson's disease. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 412:125230. [PMID: 33548786 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to heterocyclic amines (HCAs) from a wide range of sources, such as protein-rich thermally processed foods, cigarette smoke, contaminated river water, the atmosphere, soil, and forest fire ash. Although the carcinogenic and mutagenic hazards of HCAs have been widely studied, the potential neurotoxicity of these compounds still needs to be further elucidated. Here, we studied the neurotoxicity of the HCA 2-amino-3-methylimidazole[4,5-f]quinoline (IQ) in vivo by utilizing a zebrafish model. After 35 days of exposure at 8, 80, and 800 ng/mL, zebrafish exploratory behavior and locomotor activity were significantly inhibited, and light/dark preference behaviors were also disturbed. Moreover, the expression of Parkinson's disease (PD)-related genes and proteins, dopamine-related genes, neuroplasticity-related genes, antioxidant enzyme genes and inflammatory cytokine genes in the zebrafish brain was significantly affected. The numbers of NeuN neurons in the midbrain were decreased in exposed zebrafish, while the numbers of apoptotic cells were increased. In summary, our research suggests that IQ is neurotoxic and significantly associated with PD and that long-term exposure to IQ may contribute to PD risk. This risk may be related to IQ-mediated effects on mitochondrial homeostasis and induction of oxidative stress and inflammation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Peipei Cao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Huiling Meng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Dan Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Yuhao Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
| | - Shuo Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Food Science and Health, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Azeggagh S, Berwick DC. The development of inhibitors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) as a therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease: the current state of play. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 179:1478-1495. [PMID: 34050929 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Current therapeutic approaches for Parkinson's disease (PD) are based around treatments that alleviate symptoms but do not slow or prevent disease progression. As such, alternative strategies are needed. A promising approach is the use of molecules that reduce the function of leucine-rich repeat kinase (LRRK2). Gain-of-function mutations in LRRK2 account for a notable proportion of familial Parkinson's disease cases, and significantly, elevated LRRK2 kinase activity is reported in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Here, we describe progress in finding therapeutically effective LRRK2 inhibitors, summarising studies that range from in vitro experiments to clinical trials. LRRK2 is a complex protein with two enzymatic activities and a myriad of functions. This creates opportunities for a rich variety of strategies and also increases the risk of unintended consequences. We comment on the strength and limitations of the different approaches and conclude that with two molecules under clinical trial and a diversity of alternative options in the pipeline, there is cause for optimism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Azeggagh
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK
| | - Daniel C Berwick
- Institute of Medical and Biomedical Education, St George's, University of London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Sarkar S, Bardai F, Olsen AL, Lohr KM, Zhang YY, Feany MB. Oligomerization of Lrrk controls actin severing and α-synuclein neurotoxicity in vivo. Mol Neurodegener 2021; 16:33. [PMID: 34030727 PMCID: PMC8142648 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-021-00454-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in LRRK2 are the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease and typically cause disease in the context of abnormal aggregation and deposition of α-synuclein within affected brain tissue. METHODS We combine genetic analysis of Lrrk-associated toxicity in a penetrant Drosophila model of wild type human α-synuclein neurotoxicity with biochemical analyses and modeling of LRRK2 toxicity in human neurons and transgenic mouse models. RESULTS We demonstrate that Lrrk and α-synuclein interact to promote neuronal degeneration through convergent effects on the actin cytoskeleton and downstream dysregulation of mitochondrial dynamics and function. We find specifically that monomers and dimers of Lrrk efficiently sever actin and promote normal actin dynamics in vivo. Oligomerization of Lrrk, which is promoted by dominant Parkinson's disease-causing mutations, reduces actin severing activity in vitro and promotes excess stabilization of F-actin in vivo. Importantly, a clinically protective Lrrk mutant reduces oligomerization and α-synuclein neurotoxicity. CONCLUSIONS Our findings provide a specific mechanistic link between two key molecules in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, α-synuclein and LRRK2, and suggest potential new approaches for therapy development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Souvarish Sarkar
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| | - Farah Bardai
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| | - Abby L. Olsen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| | - Kelly M. Lohr
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| | - Ying-Yi Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| | - Mel B. Feany
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Boston, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Boecker CA, Goldsmith J, Dou D, Cajka GG, Holzbaur ELF. Increased LRRK2 kinase activity alters neuronal autophagy by disrupting the axonal transport of autophagosomes. Curr Biol 2021; 31:2140-2154.e6. [PMID: 33765413 PMCID: PMC8154747 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.02.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease-causing mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene hyperactivate LRRK2 kinase activity and cause increased phosphorylation of Rab GTPases, important regulators of intracellular trafficking. We found that the most common LRRK2 mutation, LRRK2-G2019S, dramatically reduces the processivity of autophagosome transport in neurons in a kinase-dependent manner. This effect was consistent across an overexpression model, neurons from a G2019S knockin mouse, and human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neurons gene edited to express the G2019S mutation, and the effect was reversed by genetic or pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2. Furthermore, LRRK2 hyperactivation induced by overexpression of Rab29, a known activator of LRRK2 kinase, disrupted autophagosome transport to a similar extent. Mechanistically, we found that hyperactive LRRK2 recruits the motor adaptor JNK-interacting protein 4 (JIP4) to the autophagosomal membrane, inducing abnormal activation of kinesin that we propose leads to an unproductive tug of war between anterograde and retrograde motors. Disruption of autophagosome transport correlated with a significant defect in autophagosome acidification, suggesting that the observed transport deficit impairs effective degradation of autophagosomal cargo in neurons. Our results robustly link increased LRRK2 kinase activity to defects in autophagosome transport and maturation, further implicating defective autophagy in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Alexander Boecker
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Juliet Goldsmith
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dan Dou
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Gregory G Cajka
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Erika L F Holzbaur
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Cheng XT, Sheng ZH. Neurobiology: A pathogenic tug of war. Curr Biol 2021; 31:R491-R493. [PMID: 34033775 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic mutations in the kinase LRRK2 have been implicated in Parkinson's disease. A new study shows that hyperactivation of this kinase reduces the processivity of autophagosomal retrograde transport in axons through an unproductive 'tug-of-war' between anterograde and retrograde motors, thus contributing to autophagy dysfunction and axonal degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Tang Cheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health, Room 2B-215, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MA 20892-3706, USA
| | - Zu-Hang Sheng
- Synaptic Function Section, The Porter Neuroscience Research Center, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), National Institutes of Health, Room 2B-215, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MA 20892-3706, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Franco R, Rivas-Santisteban R, Navarro G, Pinna A, Reyes-Resina I. Genes Implicated in Familial Parkinson's Disease Provide a Dual Picture of Nigral Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration with Mitochondria Taking Center Stage. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4643. [PMID: 33924963 PMCID: PMC8124903 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of nigral dopaminergic neuronal degeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) is unknown. One of the pathological characteristics of the disease is the deposition of α-synuclein (α-syn) that occurs in the brain from both familial and sporadic PD patients. This paper constitutes a narrative review that takes advantage of information related to genes (SNCA, LRRK2, GBA, UCHL1, VPS35, PRKN, PINK1, ATP13A2, PLA2G6, DNAJC6, SYNJ1, DJ-1/PARK7 and FBXO7) involved in familial cases of Parkinson's disease (PD) to explore their usefulness in deciphering the origin of dopaminergic denervation in many types of PD. Direct or functional interactions between genes or gene products are evaluated using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) database. The rationale is to propose a map of the interactions between SNCA, the gene encoding for α-syn that aggregates in PD, and other genes, the mutations of which lead to early-onset PD. The map contrasts with the findings obtained using animal models that are the knockout of one of those genes or that express the mutated human gene. From combining in silico data from STRING-based assays with in vitro and in vivo data in transgenic animals, two likely mechanisms appeared: (i) the processing of native α-syn is altered due to the mutation of genes involved in vesicular trafficking and protein processing, or (ii) α-syn mutants alter the mechanisms necessary for the correct vesicular trafficking and protein processing. Mitochondria are a common denominator since both mechanisms require extra energy production, and the energy for the survival of neurons is obtained mainly from the complete oxidation of glucose. Dopamine itself can result in an additional burden to the mitochondria of dopaminergic neurons because its handling produces free radicals. Drugs acting on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) in the mitochondria of neurons may hopefully end up targeting those receptors to reduce oxidative burden and increase mitochondrial performance. In summary, the analysis of the data of genes related to familial PD provides relevant information on the etiology of sporadic cases and might suggest new therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Rafael Rivas-Santisteban
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CiberNed), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28031 Madrid, Spain;
- Department Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Annalisa Pinna
- National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Neuroscience Institute–Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria, Blocco A, SP 8, Km 0.700, 09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy
| | - Irene Reyes-Resina
- Department Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (R.F.); (R.R.-S.); (I.R.-R.)
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Abstract
Point mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most common cause of familial Parkinson's disease (PD) and are implicated in a significant proportion of apparently sporadic PD cases. Clinically, LRRK2-driven PD is indistinguishable from sporadic PD, making it an attractive genetic model for the much more common sporadic PD. In this review, we highlight recent advances in understanding LRRK2's subcellular functions using LRRK2-driven PD models, while also considering some of the limitations of these model systems. Recent developments of particular importance include new evidence of key LRRK2 functions in the endolysosomal system and LRRK2's regulation of and by Rab GTPases. Additionally, LRRK2's interaction with the cytoskeleton allowed elucidation of the LRRK2 structure and appears relevant to LRRK2 protein degradation and LRRK2 inhibitor therapies. We further discuss how LRRK2's interactions with other PD-driving genes, such as the VPS35, GBA1, and SNCA genes, may highlight cellular pathways more broadly disrupted in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahsan Usmani
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Farbod Shavarebi
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Annie Hiniker
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Mazza MC, Nguyen V, Beilina A, Karakoleva E, Coyle M, Ding J, Bishop C, Cookson MR. Combined Knockout of Lrrk2 and Rab29 Does Not Result in Behavioral Abnormalities in vivo. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2021; 11:569-584. [PMID: 33523017 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-202172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coding mutations in the LRRK2 gene, encoding for a large protein kinase, have been shown to cause familial Parkinson's disease (PD). The immediate biological consequence of LRRK2 mutations is to increase kinase activity, suggesting that inhibition of this enzyme might be useful therapeutically to slow disease progression. Genome-wide association studies have identified the chromosomal loci around LRRK2 and one of its proposed substrates, RAB29, as contributors towards the lifetime risk of sporadic PD. OBJECTIVE Considering the evidence for interactions between LRRK2 and RAB29 on the genetic and protein levels, we set out to determine whether there are any consequences on brain function with aging after deletion of both genes. METHODS We generated a double knockout mouse model and performed a battery of motor and non-motor behavioral tests. We then investigated postmortem assays to determine the presence of PD-like pathology, including nigral dopamine cell count, astrogliosis, microgliosis, and striatal monoamine content. RESULTS Behaviorally, we noted only that 18-24-month Rab29-/- and double (Lrrk2-/-/Rab29-/-) knockout mice had diminished locomotor behavior in open field compared to wildtype mice. However, no genotype differences were seen in the outcomes that represented PD-like pathology. CONCLUSION These results suggest that depletion of both LRRK2 and RAB29 is tolerated, at least in mice, and support that this pathway might be able to be safely targeted for therapeutics in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Conti Mazza
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Victoria Nguyen
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.,Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Alexandra Beilina
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ema Karakoleva
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Michael Coyle
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA
| | - Jinhui Ding
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christopher Bishop
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY, USA
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
A Novel LRRK2 Variant p.G2294R in the WD40 Domain Identified in Familial Parkinson's Disease Affects LRRK2 Protein Levels. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22073708. [PMID: 33918221 PMCID: PMC8038167 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a major causative gene of late-onset familial Parkinson’s disease (PD). The suppression of kinase activity is believed to confer neuroprotection, as most pathogenic variants of LRRK2 associated with PD exhibit increased kinase activity. We herein report a novel LRRK2 variant—p.G2294R—located in the WD40 domain, detected through targeted gene-panel screening in a patient with familial PD. The proband showed late-onset Parkinsonism with dysautonomia and a good response to levodopa, without cognitive decline or psychosis. Cultured cell experiments revealed that p.G2294R is highly destabilized at the protein level. The LRRK2 p.G2294R protein expression was upregulated in the patient’s peripheral blood lymphocytes. However, macrophages differentiated from the same peripheral blood showed decreased LRRK2 protein levels. Moreover, our experiment indicated reduced phagocytic activity in the pathogenic yeasts and α-synuclein fibrils. This PD case presents an example wherein the decrease in LRRK2 activity did not act in a neuroprotective manner. Further investigations are needed in order to elucidate the relationship between LRRK2 expression in the central nervous system and the pathogenesis caused by altered LRRK2 activity.
Collapse
|
36
|
Inhibition of LRRK2 restores parkin-mediated mitophagy and attenuates intervertebral disc degeneration. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2021; 29:579-591. [PMID: 33434630 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2021.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To elucidate the role of LRRK2 in intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) as well as its mitophagy regulation mechanism. METHODS The expression of LRRK2 in human degenerative nucleus pulposus tissues as well as in oxidative stress-induced rat nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) was detected by western blot. LRRK2 was knocked down in NPCs by lentivirus (LV)-shLRRK2 transfection; apoptosis and mitophagy were assessed by western blot, TUNEL assay, immunofluorescence staining and mitophagy detection assay in LRRK2-deficient NPCs under oxidative stress. After knockdown of Parkin in NPCs with siRNA transfection, apoptosis and mitophagy were further assessed. In puncture-induced rat IDD model, X-ray, MRI, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Safranin O-Fast green (SO) staining were performed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of LV-shLRRK2 on IDD. RESULTS We found that the expression of LRRK2 was increased in degenerative NPCs both in vivo and in vitro. LRRK2 deficiency significantly suppressed oxidative stress-induced mitochondria-dependent apoptosis in NPCs; meanwhile, mitophagy was promoted. However, these effects were abolished by the mitophagy inhibitor, suggesting the effect of LRRK2 on apoptosis in NPCs is mitophagy-dependent. Furthermore, Parkin knockdown study showed that LRRK2 deficiency activated mitophagy by recruiting Parkin. In vivo study demonstrated that LRRK2 inhibition ameliorated IDD in rats. CONCLUSIONS The results revealed that LRRK2 is involved in the pathogenesis of IDD, while knockdown of LRRK2 inhibits oxidative stress-induced apoptosis through mitophagy. Thus, inhibition of LRRK2 may be a promising therapeutic strategy for IDD.
Collapse
|
37
|
Kim S, Wong YC, Gao F, Krainc D. Dysregulation of mitochondria-lysosome contacts by GBA1 dysfunction in dopaminergic neuronal models of Parkinson's disease. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1807. [PMID: 33753743 PMCID: PMC7985376 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22113-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria-lysosome contacts are recently identified sites for mediating crosstalk between both organelles, but their role in normal and diseased human neurons remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that mitochondria-lysosome contacts can dynamically form in the soma, axons, and dendrites of human neurons, allowing for their bidirectional crosstalk. Parkinson's disease patient derived neurons harboring mutant GBA1 exhibited prolonged mitochondria-lysosome contacts due to defective modulation of the untethering protein TBC1D15, which mediates Rab7 GTP hydrolysis for contact untethering. This dysregulation was due to decreased GBA1 (β-glucocerebrosidase (GCase)) lysosomal enzyme activity in patient derived neurons, and could be rescued by increasing enzyme activity with a GCase modulator. These defects resulted in disrupted mitochondrial distribution and function, and could be further rescued by TBC1D15 in Parkinson's patient derived GBA1-linked neurons. Together, our work demonstrates a potential role of mitochondria-lysosome contacts as an upstream regulator of mitochondrial function and dynamics in midbrain dopaminergic neurons in GBA1-linked Parkinson's disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soojin Kim
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Yvette C Wong
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Fanding Gao
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Dimitri Krainc
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Malik AU, Karapetsas A, Nirujogi RS, Mathea S, Chatterjee D, Pal P, Lis P, Taylor M, Purlyte E, Gourlay R, Dorward M, Weidlich S, Toth R, Polinski NK, Knapp S, Tonelli F, Alessi DR. Deciphering the LRRK code: LRRK1 and LRRK2 phosphorylate distinct Rab proteins and are regulated by diverse mechanisms. Biochem J 2021; 478:553-578. [PMID: 33459343 PMCID: PMC7886321 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Autosomal dominant mutations in LRRK2 that enhance kinase activity cause Parkinson's disease. LRRK2 phosphorylates a subset of Rab GTPases including Rab8A and Rab10 within its effector binding motif. Here, we explore whether LRRK1, a less studied homolog of LRRK2 that regulates growth factor receptor trafficking and osteoclast biology might also phosphorylate Rab proteins. Using mass spectrometry, we found that in LRRK1 knock-out cells, phosphorylation of Rab7A at Ser72 was most impacted. This residue lies at the equivalent site targeted by LRRK2 on Rab8A and Rab10. Accordingly, recombinant LRRK1 efficiently phosphorylated Rab7A at Ser72, but not Rab8A or Rab10. Employing a novel phospho-specific antibody, we found that phorbol ester stimulation of mouse embryonic fibroblasts markedly enhanced phosphorylation of Rab7A at Ser72 via LRRK1. We identify two LRRK1 mutations (K746G and I1412T), equivalent to the LRRK2 R1441G and I2020T Parkinson's mutations, that enhance LRRK1 mediated phosphorylation of Rab7A. We demonstrate that two regulators of LRRK2 namely Rab29 and VPS35[D620N], do not influence LRRK1. Widely used LRRK2 inhibitors do not inhibit LRRK1, but we identify a promiscuous inhibitor termed GZD-824 that inhibits both LRRK1 and LRRK2. The PPM1H Rab phosphatase when overexpressed dephosphorylates Rab7A. Finally, the interaction of Rab7A with its effector RILP is not affected by LRRK1 phosphorylation and we observe that maximal stimulation of the TBK1 or PINK1 pathway does not elevate Rab7A phosphorylation. Altogether, these findings reinforce the idea that the LRRK enzymes have evolved as major regulators of Rab biology with distinct substrate specificity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asad U. Malik
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Athanasios Karapetsas
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Raja S. Nirujogi
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Sebastian Mathea
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Deep Chatterjee
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Prosenjit Pal
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Pawel Lis
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Matthew Taylor
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Elena Purlyte
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Robert Gourlay
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Mark Dorward
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Simone Weidlich
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Rachel Toth
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Nicole K. Polinski
- Michael J Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research, Grand Central Station, PO Box 4777, New York, NY 10163, U.S.A
| | - Stefan Knapp
- Structural Genomics Consortium, Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Francesca Tonelli
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| | - Dario R. Alessi
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, U.K
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Proteomic analysis of subcellular compartments containing disseminated alpha-synuclein seeds. Neurosci Res 2020; 170:341-349. [PMID: 33309865 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2020.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The pathological form of a-synuclein (a-syn) is transmitted through neural circuits in the brains of Parkinson disease (PD) patients and amplifies misfolded a-syn, further forming intracellular deposits. However, the details of a-syn pre-formed fibrils (PFFs) transmission in vivo have not been fully elucidated. By inoculating Quantum dots (QD)-labeled a-syn PFFs (QD-a-syn PFFs) into the unilateral striatum, we detected QD-a-syn PFFs in brain homogenates obtained from the ipsilateral and contralateral sides of the inoculated site and further obtained QD-a-syn PFFs enriched-particles with fluorescence-activated organelle sorting. Proteomic analysis suggested that QD-a-syn PFFs-enriched particles in the contralateral side were associated with component proteins of synapse. In contrast, QD-a-syn PFFs-enriched particles in the ipsilateral side were associated with proteins belonging to ER components. Immunostaining of brain sections confirmed that QD-a-syn PFFs in the contralateral side were co-localized with synaptic vesicle marker proteins in the cortex and striatum. Additionally, QD-a-syn PFFs in the ipsilateral side were more co-localized with ER marker proteins compared to the contralateral side. These results correspond to proteomic analysis. This study provides potential candidates for the subcellular localization of a-syn PFFs in vivo during the dissemination phase of seeds. These subcellular compartments could be involved in the transmission of seeds.
Collapse
|
40
|
Kang J, Shen J. Cell-autonomous role of Presenilin in age-dependent survival of cortical interneurons. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:72. [PMID: 33302995 PMCID: PMC7731773 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00419-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in the PSEN1 and PSEN2 genes are the major cause of familial Alzheimer's disease. Previous studies demonstrated that Presenilin (PS), the catalytic subunit of γ-secretase, is required for survival of excitatory neurons in the cerebral cortex during aging. However, the role of PS in inhibitory interneurons had not been explored. METHODS To determine PS function in GABAergic neurons, we generated inhibitory neuron-specific PS conditional double knockout (IN-PS cDKO) mice, in which PS is selectively inactivated by Cre recombinase expressed under the control of the endogenous GAD2 promoter. We then performed behavioral, biochemical, and histological analyses to evaluate the consequences of selective PS inactivation in inhibitory neurons. RESULTS IN-PS cDKO mice exhibit earlier mortality and lower body weight despite normal food intake and basal activity. Western analysis of protein lysates from various brain sub-regions of IN-PS cDKO mice showed significant reduction of PS1 levels and dramatic accumulation of γ-secretase substrates. Interestingly, IN-PS cDKO mice develop age-dependent loss of GABAergic neurons, as shown by normal number of GAD67-immunoreactive interneurons in the cerebral cortex at 2-3 months of age but reduced number of cortical interneurons at 9 months. Moreover, age-dependent reduction of Parvalbumin- and Somatostatin-immunoreactive interneurons is more pronounced in the neocortex and hippocampus of IN-PS cDKO mice. Consistent with these findings, the number of apoptotic cells is elevated in the cerebral cortex of IN-PS cDKO mice, and the enhanced apoptosis is due to dramatic increases of apoptotic interneurons, whereas the number of apoptotic excitatory neurons is unaffected. Furthermore, progressive loss of interneurons in the cerebral cortex of IN-PS cDKO mice is accompanied with astrogliosis and microgliosis. CONCLUSION Our results together support a cell-autonomous role of PS in the survival of cortical interneurons during aging. Together with earlier studies, these findings demonstrate a universal, essential requirement of PS in the survival of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons during aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jongkyun Kang
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Jie Shen
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA 02115 USA
- Program in Neuroscience, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Xu C, Bai Q, Wang C, Meng Q, Gu Y, Wang Q, Xu W, Han Y, Qin Y, Jia S, Zhang J, Xu J, Li J, Chen M, Wang F. miR-433 Inhibits Neuronal Growth and Promotes Autophagy in Mouse Hippocampal HT-22 Cell Line. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:536913. [PMID: 33381022 PMCID: PMC7768889 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.536913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have an increasing functional role in some neurodegenerative diseases. Autophagy, the degradation of bulk protein in the cytoplasm, is the quality control function of protein and has a protective role in the survival of neural cells. miR-433 may play a regulatory role in neurodegenerative diseases. Many aspects underlying the mechanism of miR-433 in neural development and neurodegeneration are not clear. Methods: In this study, we established stable cell lines expressing miR-433 by infecting mouse hippocampal neural cell line (HT-22) cells with rLV-miR-433 and the control rLV-miR. Pre-miR-433 expression was analyzed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Mature miR-433 expression was measured using quantitative PCR (qPCR). The effect of miR-433 overexpression on cell proliferation was determined using a CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. RNA interference was used to analyze the function of Cdk12 in mediating the effect of miR-433 on cell proliferation. The effect of miR-433 overexpression on cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry. Autophagy-related genes Atg4a, LC3B, and Beclin-1 were determined using qPCR, Western blot, or immunofluorescence. In addition, RNA interference was used to analyze the effect of Atg4a on the induction of autophagy. TargetScan 7.2 was used to predict the target genes of miR-433, and Smad9 was determined using qPCR. Results: Our results indicated that miR-433 increased the expression of Atg4a and induced autophagy by increasing the expression of LC3B-Ⅱ and Beclin-1 in an Atg4a-dependent manner. In addition, miR-433 upregulated the expression of Cdk12 and inhibited cell proliferation in a Cdk12-dependent manner and promoted apoptosis in HT-22 cells under the treatment of 10-hydroxycamptothecin. Conclusion: The results of our study suggest that miR-433 may regulate neuronal growth by promoting autophagy and attenuating cell proliferation. This might be a potential therapeutic intervention in neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chunli Xu
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingke Bai
- Department of Neurology, Pudong People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiuyu Meng
- School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuming Gu
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiwei Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjie Xu
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Han
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong Qin
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Song Jia
- Teaching Laboratory Center of Medicine and Life Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Junfang Zhang
- Teaching Laboratory Center of Medicine and Life Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Teaching Laboratory Center of Medicine and Life Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiao Li
- Teaching Laboratory Center of Medicine and Life Science, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Chen
- Department of Neurology, Shidong hospital, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Feng Wang
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh People's Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Liu X, Liu H, Jia X, He R, Zhang X, Zhang W. Changing Expression Profiles of Messenger RNA, MicroRNA, Long Non-coding RNA, and Circular RNA Reveal the Key Regulators and Interaction Networks of Competing Endogenous RNA in Pulmonary Fibrosis. Front Genet 2020; 11:558095. [PMID: 33193637 PMCID: PMC7541945 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2020.558095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary fibrosis is a kind of interstitial lung disease with architectural remodeling of tissues and excessive matrix deposition. Apart from messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA (miRNA), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and circular RNA (circRNA) could also play important roles in the regulatory processes of occurrence and progression of pulmonary fibrosis. In the present study, the pulmonary fibrosis model was administered with bleomycin. Whole transcriptome sequencing analysis was applied to investigate the expression profiles of mRNAs, lncRNAs, circRNAs, and miRNAs. After comparing bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis model lung samples and controls, 286 lncRNAs, 192 mRNAs, 605 circRNAs, and 32 miRNAs were found to be differentially expressed. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were performed to investigate the potential functions of these differentially expressed (DE) mRNAs and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). The terms related to inflammatory response and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway were enriched, implying potential roles in regulatory process. In addition, two co-expression networks were also constructed to understand the internal regulating relationships of these mRNAs and ncRNAs. Our study provides a systematic perspective on the potential functions of these DE mRNAs and ncRNAs during PF process and could help pave the way for effective therapeutics for this devastating and complex disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xue Liu
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Huaman Liu
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Xinhua Jia
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Rong He
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Xinyue Zhang
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Respiration, Affiliated Hospital of Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan, China
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Korolenko TA, Johnston TP, Vetvicka V. Lysosomotropic Features and Autophagy Modulators among Medical Drugs: Evaluation of Their Role in Pathologies. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25215052. [PMID: 33143272 PMCID: PMC7662698 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of lysosomotropic agents significantly changed numerous aspects of cellular biochemistry, biochemical pharmacology, and clinical medicine. In the present review, we focused on numerous low-molecular and high-molecular lipophilic basic compounds and on the role of lipophagy and autophagy in experimental and clinical medicine. Attention was primarily focused on the most promising agents acting as autophagy inducers, which offer a new window for treatment and/or prophylaxis of various diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, Parkinson's disease, and atherosclerosis. The present review summarizes current knowledge on the lysosomotropic features of medical drugs, as well as autophagy inducers, and their role in pathological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana A. Korolenko
- Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution Scientific Research Institute of Physiology and Basic Medicine, Timakova Str. 4, 630117 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Thomas P. Johnston
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA;
| | - Vaclav Vetvicka
- Department of Pathology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Erb ML, Moore DJ. LRRK2 and the Endolysosomal System in Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2020; 10:1271-1291. [PMID: 33044192 PMCID: PMC7677880 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-202138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause autosomal dominant familial Parkinson’s disease (PD), with pathogenic mutations enhancing LRRK2 kinase activity. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that LRRK2 contributes to neuronal damage and pathology both in familial and sporadic PD, making it of particular interest for understanding the molecular pathways that underlie PD. Although LRRK2 has been extensively studied to date, our understanding of the seemingly diverse functions of LRRK2 throughout the cell remains incomplete. In this review, we discuss the functions of LRRK2 within the endolysosomal pathway. Endocytosis, vesicle trafficking pathways, and lysosomal degradation are commonly disrupted in many neurodegenerative diseases, including PD. Additionally, many PD-linked gene products function in these intersecting pathways, suggesting an important role for the endolysosomal system in maintaining protein homeostasis and neuronal health in PD. LRRK2 activity can regulate synaptic vesicle endocytosis, lysosomal function, Golgi network maintenance and sorting, vesicular trafficking and autophagy, with alterations in LRRK2 kinase activity serving to disrupt or regulate these pathways depending on the distinct cell type or model system. LRRK2 is critically regulated by at least two proteins in the endolysosomal pathway, Rab29 and VPS35, which may serve as master regulators of LRRK2 kinase activity. Investigating the function and regulation of LRRK2 in the endolysosomal pathway in diverse PD models, especially in vivo models, will provide critical insight into the cellular and molecular pathophysiological mechanisms driving PD and whether LRRK2 represents a viable drug target for disease-modification in familial and sporadic PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Madalynn L Erb
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| | - Darren J Moore
- Center for Neurodegenerative Science, Van Andel Institute, Grand Rapids, MI, USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Palese F, Pontis S, Realini N, Piomelli D. NAPE-specific phospholipase D regulates LRRK2 association with neuronal membranes. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2020; 90:217-238. [PMID: 33706934 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) are glycerophospholipid precursors for bioactive lipid amides and potential regulators of membrane function. They are hydrolyzed by NAPE-specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) and have been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Here, we used siRNA-mediated silencing of NAPE-PLD in human SH-SY5Y cells and NAPE-PLD-/- mice to determine whether NAPEs influence the membrane association of LRRK2, a multifunctional protein kinase that is frequently mutated in persons with sporadic Parkinson's disease. NAPE-PLD deletion caused a significant accumulation of non-metabolized NAPEs, which was accompanied by a shift of LRRK2 from membrane to cytosol and a reduction in total LRRK2 content. Conversely, exposure of intact SH-SY5Y cells to bacterial PLD lowered NAPE levels and enhanced LRRK2 association with membranes. The results suggest that NAPE-PLD activity may contribute to the control of LRRK2 localization by regulating membrane NAPE levels.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Palese
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy; Departments of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Silvia Pontis
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Natalia Realini
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Departments of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Usnich T, Westenberger A.
LRRK2
Loss‐of‐Function Variants: When Less Is More. Mov Disord 2020; 35:1754. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.28291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Usnich
- Institute of Neurogenetics University of Lübeck Lübeck Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Chen Y, Zhang P, Lin X, Zhang H, Miao J, Zhou Y, Chen G. Mitophagy impairment is involved in sevoflurane-induced cognitive dysfunction in aged rats. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:17235-17256. [PMID: 32903215 PMCID: PMC7521530 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is frequently observed in elderly patients following anesthesia, but its pathophysiological mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Sevoflurane was reported to repress autophagy in aged rat neurons; however, the role of mitophagy, which is crucial for the control of mitochondrial quality and neuronal health, in sevoflurane-induced POCD in aged rats remains undetermined. Therefore, this study investigated whether mitophagy impairment is involved in sevoflurane-induced cognitive dysfunction. We found sevoflurane treatment inhibited mitochondrial respiration and mitophagic flux, changes in mitochondria morphology, impaired lysosomal acidification, and increased Tomm20 and deceased LAMP1 accumulation were observed in H4 cell and aged rat models. Rapamycin counteracted ROS induced by sevoflurane, restored mitophagy and improved mitochondrial function. Furthermore, rapamycin ameliorated the cognitive deficits observed in aged rats given sevoflurane anesthesia as determined by the Morris water maze test; this improvement was associated with an increased number of dendritic spines and pyramidal neurons. Overexpression of PARK2, but not mutant PARK2 lacking enzyme activity, in H4 cells decreased ROS and Tomm20 accumulation and reversed mitophagy dysfunction after sevoflurane treatment. These findings suggest that mitophagy dysfunction could be a mechanism underlying sevoflurane-induced POCD and that activating mitophagy may provide a new strategy to rescue cognitive deficits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yeru Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Piao Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xianyi Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Huan Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiamin Miao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Youfa Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Yang W, Li X, Li X, Yu S. Hemoglobin-α-synuclein complex exhibited age-dependent alterations in the human striatum and peripheral RBCs. Neurosci Lett 2020; 736:135274. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
49
|
Shutinoski B, Hakimi M, Harmsen IE, Lunn M, Rocha J, Lengacher N, Zhou YY, Khan J, Nguyen A, Hake-Volling Q, El-Kodsi D, Li J, Alikashani A, Beauchamp C, Majithia J, Coombs K, Shimshek D, Marcogliese PC, Park DS, Rioux JD, Philpott DJ, Woulfe JM, Hayley S, Sad S, Tomlinson JJ, Brown EG, Schlossmacher MG. Lrrk2 alleles modulate inflammation during microbial infection of mice in a sex-dependent manner. Sci Transl Med 2020; 11:11/511/eaas9292. [PMID: 31554740 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aas9292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Variants in the leucine-rich repeat kinase-2 (LRRK2) gene are associated with Parkinson's disease, leprosy, and Crohn's disease, three disorders with inflammation as an important component. Because of its high expression in granulocytes and CD68-positive cells, LRRK2 may have a function in innate immunity. We tested this hypothesis in two ways. First, adult mice were intravenously inoculated with Salmonella typhimurium, resulting in sepsis. Second, newborn mouse pups were intranasally infected with reovirus (serotype 3 Dearing), which induced encephalitis. In both mouse models, wild-type Lrrk2 expression was protective and showed a sex effect, with female Lrrk2-deficient animals not controlling infection as well as males. Mice expressing Lrrk2 carrying the Parkinson's disease-linked p.G2019S mutation controlled infection better, with reduced bacterial growth and longer animal survival during sepsis. This gain-of-function effect conferred by the p.G2019S mutation was mediated by myeloid cells and was abolished in animals expressing a kinase-dead Lrrk2 variant, p.D1994S. Mouse pups with reovirus-induced encephalitis that expressed the p.G2019S Lrrk2 mutation showed increased mortality despite lower viral titers. The p.G2019S mutant Lrrk2 augmented immune cell chemotaxis and generated more reactive oxygen species during virulent infection. Reovirus-infected brains from mice expressing the p.G2019S mutant Lrrk2 contained higher concentrations of α-synuclein. Animals expressing one or two p.D1994S Lrrk2 alleles showed lower mortality from reovirus-induced encephalitis. Thus, Lrrk2 alleles may alter the course of microbial infections by modulating inflammation, and this may be dependent on the sex and genotype of the host as well as the type of pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bojan Shutinoski
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Mansoureh Hakimi
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Irene E Harmsen
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michaela Lunn
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Juliana Rocha
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nathalie Lengacher
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Yi Yuan Zhou
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Jasmine Khan
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Angela Nguyen
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Quinton Hake-Volling
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Daniel El-Kodsi
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Juan Li
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Azadeh Alikashani
- Research Centre, Montreal Heart Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Claudine Beauchamp
- Research Centre, Montreal Heart Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Jay Majithia
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Kevin Coombs
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Derya Shimshek
- Novartis Institutes of BioMedical Research, Novartis Campus, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Paul C Marcogliese
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - David S Park
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - John D Rioux
- Research Centre, Montreal Heart Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Dana J Philpott
- Department of Immunology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - John M Woulfe
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Shawn Hayley
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Subash Sad
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Julianna J Tomlinson
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Earl G Brown
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michael G Schlossmacher
- Program in Neuroscience, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada. .,Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,University of Ottawa Brain and Mind Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada.,Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a leading cause of neurodegeneration that is defined by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons and the accumulation of protein aggregates called Lewy bodies (LBs). The unequivocal identification of Mendelian inherited mutations in 13 genes in PD has provided transforming insights into the pathogenesis of this disease. The mechanistic analysis of several PD genes, including α-synuclein (α-syn), leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), and Parkin, has revealed central roles for protein aggregation, mitochondrial damage, and defects in endolysosomal trafficking in PD neurodegeneration. In this review, we outline recent advances in our understanding of these gene pathways with a focus on the emergent role of Rab (Ras analog in brain) GTPases and vesicular trafficking as a common mechanism that underpins how mutations in PD genes lead to neuronal loss. These advances have led to previously distinct genes such as vacuolar protein-sorting-associated protein 35 (VPS35) and LRRK2 being implicated in a common signaling pathway. A greater understanding of these common nodes of vesicular trafficking will be crucial for linking other PD genes and improving patient stratification in clinical trials underway against α-syn and LRRK2 targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kishor Singh
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom;
| | - Miratul M K Muqit
- MRC Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, Sir James Black Centre, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, United Kingdom;
| |
Collapse
|