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Ha LJ, Yeo HG, Kim YG, Baek I, Baeg E, Lee YH, Won J, Jung Y, Park J, Jeon CY, Kim K, Min J, Song Y, Park JH, Nam KR, Son S, Yoo SBM, Park SH, Choi WS, Lim KS, Choi JY, Cho JH, Lee Y, Choi HJ. Hypothalamic neuronal activation in non-human primates drives naturalistic goal-directed eating behavior. Neuron 2024; 112:2218-2230.e6. [PMID: 38663401 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Maladaptive feeding behavior is the primary cause of modern obesity. While the causal influence of the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) on eating behavior has been established in rodents, there is currently no primate-based evidence available on naturalistic eating behaviors. We investigated the role of LHA GABAergic (LHAGABA) neurons in eating using chemogenetics in three macaques. LHAGABA neuron activation significantly increased naturalistic goal-directed behaviors and food motivation, predominantly for palatable food. Positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance spectroscopy validated chemogenetic activation. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging revealed that the functional connectivity (FC) between the LHA and frontal areas was increased, while the FC between the frontal cortices was decreased after LHAGABA neuron activation. Thus, our study elucidates the role of LHAGABA neurons in eating and obesity therapeutics for primates and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Jaesun Ha
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon-Gu Yeo
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea; KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea National University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Gyeong Kim
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea; KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea National University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Inhyeok Baek
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Eunha Baeg
- Department of Nano-bioengineering, Incheon National University, Incheon, Republic of Korea; Center for Brain-Machine Interface, Incheon National University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Hee Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinyoung Won
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunkyo Jung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Junghyung Park
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Yeop Jeon
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Keonwoo Kim
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea; School of Life Sciences, BK21 Plus KNU Creative BioResearch Group, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jisun Min
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngkyu Song
- Center for Bio-imaging and Translational Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Heon Park
- Center for Bio-imaging and Translational Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Rok Nam
- Division of Applied RI, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangkyu Son
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seng Bum Michael Yoo
- Center for Neuroscience Imaging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea; Department of Intelligent Precision Healthcare Convergence, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hyun Park
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Seok Choi
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Seob Lim
- Futuristic Animal Resource and Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Yong Choi
- Division of Applied RI, Korea Institute of Radiological and Medical Sciences, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Radiological and Medico-Oncological Sciences, Korea National University of Science and, Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jee-Hyun Cho
- Center for Bio-imaging and Translational Research, Korea Basic Science Institute, Cheongju, Republic of Korea.
| | - Youngjeon Lee
- National Primate Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), Cheongju, Republic of Korea; KRIBB School of Bioscience, Korea National University of Science and Technology, Daejeon, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyung Jin Choi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea.
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2
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Elorette C, Fujimoto A, Stoll FM, Fujimoto SH, Bienkowska N, London L, Fleysher L, Russ BE, Rudebeck PH. The neural basis of resting-state fMRI functional connectivity in fronto-limbic circuits revealed by chemogenetic manipulation. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4669. [PMID: 38821963 PMCID: PMC11143237 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49140-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Measures of fMRI resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) are an essential tool for basic and clinical investigations of fronto-limbic circuits. Understanding the relationship between rs-FC and the underlying patterns of neural activity in these circuits is therefore vital. Here we introduced inhibitory designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) into the amygdala of two male macaques. We evaluated the causal effect of activating the DREADD receptors on rs-FC and neural activity within circuits connecting amygdala and frontal cortex. Activating the inhibitory DREADD increased rs-FC between amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Neurophysiological recordings revealed that the DREADD-induced increase in fMRI rs-FC was associated with increased local field potential coherency in the alpha band (6.5-14.5 Hz) between amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Thus, our multi-modal approach reveals the specific signature of neuronal activity that underlies rs-FC in fronto-limbic circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Elorette
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Atsushi Fujimoto
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Frederic M Stoll
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Satoka H Fujimoto
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Niranjana Bienkowska
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Liza London
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Lazar Fleysher
- BioMedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Brian E Russ
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY, 10962, USA.
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University at Langone, 550 1st Avenue, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Peter H Rudebeck
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
- Lipschultz Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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Sasaki R, Ohta Y, Onoe H, Yamaguchi R, Miyamoto T, Tokuda T, Tamaki Y, Isa K, Takahashi J, Kobayashi K, Ohta J, Isa T. Balancing risk-return decisions by manipulating the mesofrontal circuits in primates. Science 2024; 383:55-61. [PMID: 38175903 DOI: 10.1126/science.adj6645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Decision-making is always coupled with some level of risk, with more pathological forms of risk-taking decisions manifesting as gambling disorders. In macaque monkeys trained in a high risk-high return (HH) versus low risk-low return (LL) choice task, we found that the reversible pharmacological inactivation of ventral Brodmann area 6 (area 6V) impaired the risk dependency of decision-making. Selective optogenetic activation of the mesofrontal pathway from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the ventral aspect of 6V resulted in stronger preference for HH, whereas activation of the pathway from the VTA to the dorsal aspect of 6V led to LL preference. Finally, computational decoding captured the modulations of behavioral preference. Our results suggest that VTA inputs to area 6V determine the decision balance between HH and LL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Sasaki
- Division of Physiology and Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yasumi Ohta
- Division of Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma-shi, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Onoe
- Human Brain Research Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Reona Yamaguchi
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBi), Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Takeshi Miyamoto
- Division of Physiology and Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Chiyoda-Ku, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan
| | - Takashi Tokuda
- Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro-Ku, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan
| | - Yuki Tamaki
- Division of Physiology and Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Kaoru Isa
- Division of Physiology and Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Jun Takahashi
- Department of Clinical Application, Center for iPS Cell Research and Application, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Kenta Kobayashi
- Section of Viral Vector Development, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki-shi, Aichi 444-8585, Japan
| | - Jun Ohta
- Division of Materials Science, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma-shi, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Division of Physiology and Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Human Brain Research Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBi), Kyoto University, Kyoto-shi, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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4
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Elorette C, Fujimoto A, Stoll FM, Fujimoto SH, Fleysher L, Bienkowska N, Russ BE, Rudebeck PH. The neural basis of resting-state fMRI functional connectivity in fronto-limbic circuits revealed by chemogenetic manipulation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.21.545778. [PMID: 37745436 PMCID: PMC10515745 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.21.545778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Measures of fMRI resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) are an essential tool for basic and clinical investigations of fronto-limbic circuits. Understanding the relationship between rs-FC and neural activity in these circuits is therefore vital. Here we introduced inhibitory designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) into the macaque amygdala and activated them with a highly selective and potent DREADD agonist, deschloroclozapine. We evaluated the causal effect of activating the DREADD receptors on rs-FC and neural activity within circuits connecting amygdala and frontal cortex. Interestingly, activating the inhibitory DREADD increased rs-FC between amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Neurophysiological recordings revealed that the DREADD-induced increase in fMRI rs-FC was associated with increased local field potential coherency in the alpha band (6.5-14.5Hz) between amygdala and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. Thus, our multi-disciplinary approach reveals the specific signature of neuronal activity that underlies rs-FC in fronto-limbic circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Elorette
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Atsushi Fujimoto
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Frederic M. Stoll
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Satoka H. Fujimoto
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Lazar Fleysher
- BioMedical Engineering and Imaging Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Niranjana Bienkowska
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
| | - Brian E. Russ
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
- Center for Biomedical Imaging and Neuromodulation, Nathan Kline Institute, 140 Old Orangeburg Road, Orangeburg, NY 10962
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University at Langone, One, 8, Park Ave, New York, NY 10016
| | - Peter H. Rudebeck
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029
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Bakhurin KI, Hughes RN, Jiang Q, Hossain M, Gutkin B, Fallon IP, Yin H. Force tuning explains changes in phasic dopamine signaling during stimulus-reward learning. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.23.537994. [PMID: 37162997 PMCID: PMC10168281 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.23.537994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
According to a popular hypothesis, phasic dopamine (DA) activity encodes a reward prediction error (RPE) necessary for reinforcement learning. However, recent work showed that DA neurons are necessary for performance rather than learning. One limitation of previous work on phasic DA signaling and RPE is the limited behavioral measures. Here, we measured subtle force exertion while recording and manipulating DA activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) during stimulus-reward learning. We found two major populations of DA neurons that increased firing before forward and backward force exertion. Force tuning is the same regardless of learning, reward predictability, or outcome valence. Changes in the pattern of force exertion can explain results traditionally used to support the RPE hypothesis, such as modulation by reward magnitude, probability, and unpredicted reward delivery or omission. Thus VTA DA neurons are not used to signal RPE but to regulate force exertion during motivated behavior.
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Yagishita S. Cellular bases for reward-related dopamine actions. Neurosci Res 2023; 188:1-9. [PMID: 36496085 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2022.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine neurons exhibit transient increases and decreases in their firing rate upon reward and punishment for learning. This bidirectional modulation of dopamine dynamics occurs on the order of hundreds of milliseconds, and it is sensitively detected to reinforce the preceding sensorimotor events. These observations indicate that the mechanisms of dopamine detection at the projection sites are of remarkable precision, both in time and concentration. A major target of dopamine projection is the striatum, including the ventral region of the nucleus accumbens, which mainly comprises dopamine D1 and D2 receptor (D1R and D2R)-expressing spiny projection neurons. Although the involvement of D1R and D2R in dopamine-dependent learning has been suggested, the exact cellular bases for detecting transient dopamine signaling remain unclear. This review discusses recent cellular studies on the novel synaptic mechanisms for detecting dopamine transient signals associated with learning. Analyses of behavior based on these mechanisms have further revealed new behavioral aspects that are closely associated with these synaptic mechanisms. Thus, it is gradually possible to mechanistically explain behavioral learning via synaptic and cellular bases in rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sho Yagishita
- Laboratory of Structural Physiology, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan; International Research Center for Neurointelligence (WPI-IRCN), UTIAS, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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7
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Song H, Bharadwaj PK, Raichlen DA, Habeck CG, Huentelman MJ, Hishaw GA, Trouard TP, Alexander GE. Association of homocysteine-related subcortical brain atrophy with white matter lesion volume and cognition in healthy aging. Neurobiol Aging 2023; 121:129-138. [PMID: 36436304 PMCID: PMC10002471 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Homocysteine (Hcy) is a vascular risk factor associated with cognitive impairment and cerebrovascular disease but has also been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Using multivariate Scaled Subprofile Model (SSM) analysis, we sought to identify a network pattern in structural neuroimaging reflecting the regionally distributed association of plasma Hcy with subcortical gray matter (SGM) volumes and its relation to other health risk factors and cognition in 160 healthy older adults, ages 50-89. We identified an SSM Hcy-SGM pattern that was characterized by bilateral hippocampal and nucleus accumbens volume reductions with relative volume increases in bilateral caudate, pallidum, and putamen. Greater Hcy-SGM pattern expression was associated with greater white matter hyperintensity (WMH) volume, older age, and male sex, but not with other vascular and AD-related risk factors. Mediation analyses revealed that age predicted WMH volume, which predicted Hcy-SGM pattern expression, which, in turn, predicted cognitive processing speed performance. These findings suggest that the multivariate SSM Hcy-SGM pattern may be indicative of cognitive aging, reflecting a potential link between vascular health and cognitive dysfunction in healthy older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Song
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Pradyumna K Bharadwaj
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - David A Raichlen
- Human and Evolutionary Biology Section, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Christian G Habeck
- Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Department of Neurology and Taub Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Matthew J Huentelman
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Neurogenomics Division, The Translational Genomics Research Institute (TGen), Phoenix, AZ, USA; Arizona Alzheimer's Consortium, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Georg A Hishaw
- Department of Neurology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Theodore P Trouard
- Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Arizona Alzheimer's Consortium, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Gene E Alexander
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Arizona Alzheimer's Consortium, Phoenix, AZ, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA; Neuroscience and Physiological Sciences Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.
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Cushnie AK, Bullock DN, Manea AM, Tang W, Zimmermann J, Heilbronner SR. The use of chemogenetic actuator ligands in nonhuman primate DREADDs-fMRI. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 4:100072. [PMID: 36691404 PMCID: PMC9860110 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADDs) are engineered receptors that allow for genetically targeted, reversible manipulation of cellular activity via systemic drug administration. DREADD induced manipulations are initiated via the binding of an actuator ligand. Therefore, the use of DREADDs is contingent on the availability of actuator ligands. Actuator ligands low-dose clozapine (CLZ) and deschloroclozapine (DCZ) are highly selective for DREADDs, and, upon binding, induce physiological and behavioral changes in rodents and nonhuman primates (NHPs). Despite this reported specificity, both CLZ and DCZ have partial affinity for a variety of endogenous receptors and can induce dose-specific changes even in naïve animals. As such, this study aimed to examine the effects of CLZ and DCZ on resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) and intrinsic neural timescales (INTs) in naïve NHPs. In doing so, we evaluated whether CLZ and DCZ - in the absence of DREADDs - are inert by examining these ligands' effects on the intrinsic functional properties of the brain. Low-dose DCZ did not induce consistent changes in rs-FC or INTs prior to the expression of DREADDs; however, a high dose resulted in subject-specific changes in rs-FC and INTs. In contrast, CLZ administration induced consistent changes in rs-FC and INTs prior to DREADD expression in our subjects. Our results caution against the use of CLZ by explicitly demonstrating the impact of off-target effects that can confound experimental results. Altogether, these data endorse the use of low dose DCZ for future DREADD-based experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana K. Cushnie
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Daniel N. Bullock
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Ana M.G. Manea
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Wei Tang
- Department of Computer Science, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN, 47408, USA
| | - Jan Zimmermann
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Sarah R. Heilbronner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
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Janssen P, Isa T, Lanciego J, Leech K, Logothetis N, Poo MM, Mitchell AS. Visualizing advances in the future of primate neuroscience research. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2022; 4:100064. [PMID: 36582401 PMCID: PMC9792703 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Future neuroscience and biomedical projects involving non-human primates (NHPs) remain essential in our endeavors to understand the complexities and functioning of the mammalian central nervous system. In so doing, the NHP neuroscience researcher must be allowed to incorporate state-of-the-art technologies, including the use of novel viral vectors, gene therapy and transgenic approaches to answer continuing and emerging research questions that can only be addressed in NHP research models. This perspective piece captures these emerging technologies and some specific research questions they can address. At the same time, we highlight some current caveats to global NHP research and collaborations including the lack of common ethical and regulatory frameworks for NHP research, the limitations involving animal transportation and exports, and the ongoing influence of activist groups opposed to NHP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Janssen
- Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, KU Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Japan
| | - Jose Lanciego
- Department Neurosciences, Center for Applied Medical Research (CIMA), University of Navarra, CiberNed., Pamplona, Spain
| | - Kirk Leech
- European Animal Research Association, United Kingdom
| | - Nikos Logothetis
- International Center for Primate Brain Research, Shanghai, China
| | - Mu-Ming Poo
- International Center for Primate Brain Research, Shanghai, China
| | - Anna S. Mitchell
- School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand,Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, United Kingdom,Corresponding author. School of Psychology, Speech and Hearing, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Treadway MT, Salamone JD. Vigor, Effort-Related Aspects of Motivation and Anhedonia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 58:325-353. [PMID: 35505057 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter we provide an overview of the pharmacological and circuit mechanisms that determine the willingness to expend effort in pursuit of rewards. A particular focus will be on the role of the mesolimbic dopamine system, as well the contributing roles of limbic and cortical brains areas involved in the evaluation, selection, and invigoration of goal-directed actions. We begin with a review of preclinical studies, which have provided key insights into the brain systems that are necessary and sufficient for effort-based decision-making and have characterized novel compounds that enhance selection of high-effort activities. Next, we summarize translational studies identifying and expanding this circuitry in humans. Finally, we discuss the relevance of this work for understanding common motivational impairments as part of the broader anhedonia symptom domain associated with mental illness, and the identification of new treatment targets within this circuitry to improve motivation and effort-expenditure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John D Salamone
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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11
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Grima LL, Panayi MC, Härmson O, Syed ECJ, Manohar SG, Husain M, Walton ME. Nucleus accumbens D1-receptors regulate and focus transitions to reward-seeking action. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:1721-1731. [PMID: 35478011 PMCID: PMC9283443 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-022-01312-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
It is well established that dopamine transmission is integral in mediating the influence of reward expectations on reward-seeking actions. However, the precise causal role of dopamine transmission in moment-to-moment reward-motivated behavioral control remains contentious, particularly in contexts where it is necessary to refrain from responding to achieve a beneficial outcome. To examine this, we manipulated dopamine transmission pharmacologically as rats performed a Go/No-Go task that required them to either make or withhold action to gain either a small or large reward. D1R Stimulation potentiated cue-driven action initiation, including fast impulsive actions on No-Go trials. By contrast, D1R blockade primarily disrupted the successful completion of Go trial sequences. Surprisingly, while after global D1R blockade this was characterized by a general retardation of reward-seeking actions, nucleus accumbens core (NAcC) D1R blockade had no effect on the speed of action initiation or impulsive actions. Instead, fine-grained analyses showed that this manipulation decreased the precision of animals' goal-directed actions, even though they usually still followed the appropriate response sequence. Strikingly, such "unfocused" responding could also be observed off-drug, particularly when only a small reward was on offer. These findings suggest that the balance of activity at NAcC D1Rs plays a key role in enabling the rapid activation of a focused, reward-seeking state to enable animals to efficiently and accurately achieve their goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Grima
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA.
| | - Marios C Panayi
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Oliver Härmson
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Emilie C J Syed
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sanjay G Manohar
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Masud Husain
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Mark E Walton
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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12
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de Jong JW, Fraser KM, Lammel S. Mesoaccumbal Dopamine Heterogeneity: What Do Dopamine Firing and Release Have to Do with It? Annu Rev Neurosci 2022; 45:109-129. [PMID: 35226827 PMCID: PMC9271543 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-neuro-110920-011929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine (DA) neurons are often thought to uniformly encode reward prediction errors. Conversely, DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc), the prominent projection target of these neurons, has been implicated in reinforcement learning, motivation, aversion, and incentive salience. This contrast between heterogeneous functions of DA release versus a homogeneous role for DA neuron activity raises numerous questions regarding how VTA DA activity translates into NAc DA release. Further complicating this issue is increasing evidence that distinct VTA DA projections into defined NAc subregions mediate diverse behavioral functions. Here, we evaluate evidence for heterogeneity within the mesoaccumbal DA system and argue that frameworks of DA function must incorporate the precise topographic organization of VTA DA neurons to clarify their contribution to health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes W de Jong
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA;
| | - Kurt M Fraser
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA;
| | - Stephan Lammel
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA;
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13
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Herpers J, Vanduffel W, Vogels R. Limited Pairings of Electrical Micro-stimulation of the Ventral Tegmental Area and a Visual Stimulus Enhance Visual Cortical Responses. J Cogn Neurosci 2022; 34:1259-1273. [PMID: 35468206 PMCID: PMC7614035 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_01855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies demonstrated that pairing a visual stimulus and electrical micro-stimulation of the ventral tegmental area (VTA-EM) for multiple days is sufficient to induce visual cortical plasticity and changes perception. However, a brief epoch of VTA-EM-stimulus pairing within a single day has been shown to result in a behavioral preference for the paired stimulus. Here, we investigated whether a brief single-day session of VTA-EM-stimulus pairings is sufficient to induce changes in visual cortical responses. We examined macaque posterior inferior temporal (PIT) cortex because previous studies demonstrated response changes after VTA-EM stimulus pairing in that area. Multi-unit recordings in PIT were interleaved with VTA-EM-stimulus pairing epochs. During the short VTA-EM-stimulus pairing epochs (60 pairings), one image (fractal) was paired with VTA-EM (STIM) whereas another, unpaired fractal was presented as control. Two other fractals (dummies) were presented only during the recordings. The difference in response between the STIM and control fractals already increased after the first VTA-EM-stimulus pairing epoch, reflecting a relative increase of the response to the STIM fractal. However, the response to the STIM fractal did not increase further with more VTA-EM-stimulus pairing epochs. The relative increase in firing rate for the paired fractal was present early in the response, in line with a local/ bottom-up origin. These effects were absent when comparing the responses to the dummies pre- and post-VTA-EM. This study shows that pairing a visual image and VTA-EM in a brief single-day session is sufficient to increase the response for the paired image in macaque PIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Herpers
- Laboratory for Neuro-and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, 3000, Belgium,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Laboratory for Neuro-and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, 3000, Belgium,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium,Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02144, USA
| | - Rufin Vogels
- Laboratory for Neuro-and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, 3000, Belgium,Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 3000, Belgium,Corresponding author
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14
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Goda N, Hasegawa T, Koketsu D, Chiken S, Kikuta S, Sano H, Kobayashi K, Nambu A, Sadato N, Fukunaga M. Cerebro-cerebellar interactions in non-human primates examined by optogenetic functional magnetic resonance imaging. Cereb Cortex Commun 2022; 3:tgac022. [PMID: 35769971 PMCID: PMC9233902 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgac022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a promising approach for the simultaneous and extensive scanning of whole-brain activities. Optogenetics is free from electrical and magnetic artifacts and is an ideal stimulation method for combined use with fMRI. However, the application of optogenetics in nonhuman primates (NHPs) remains limited. Recently, we developed an efficient optogenetic intracortical microstimulation method of the primary motor cortex (M1), which successfully induced forelimb movements in macaque monkeys. Here, we aimed to investigate how optogenetic M1 stimulation causes neural modulation in the local and remote brain regions in anesthetized monkeys using 7-tesla fMRI. We demonstrated that optogenetic stimulation of the M1 forelimb and hindlimb regions successfully evoked robust direct and remote fMRI activities. Prominent remote activities were detected in the anterior and posterior lobes in the contralateral cerebellum, which receive projections polysynaptically from the M1. We further demonstrated that the cerebro-cerebellar projections from these M1 regions were topographically organized, which is concordant with the somatotopic map in the cerebellar cortex previously reported in macaques and humans. The present study significantly enhances optogenetic fMRI in NHPs, resulting in profound understanding of the brain network, thereby accelerating the translation of findings from animal models to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naokazu Goda
- Division of Cerebral Integration , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Taku Hasegawa
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Laboratory for Imagination and Executive functions , RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wako, 351-0198, Japan
| | - Daisuke Koketsu
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Satomi Chiken
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Satomi Kikuta
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Neurophysiology , National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Hiromi Sano
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- International Center for Brain Science , Fujita Health University, Toyoake, 470-1192, Japan
| | - Kenta Kobayashi
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Section of Viral Vector Development , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Atsushi Nambu
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Division of System Neurophysiology , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Section of Viral Vector Development , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Norihiro Sadato
- Division of Cerebral Integration , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Masaki Fukunaga
- Division of Cerebral Integration , National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
- Department of Physiological Sciences , SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
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15
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Oguchi M, Sakagami M. Dissecting the Prefrontal Network With Pathway-Selective Manipulation in the Macaque Brain—A Review. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:917407. [PMID: 35677354 PMCID: PMC9168219 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.917407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Macaque monkeys are prime animal models for studying the neural mechanisms of decision-making because of their close kinship with humans. Manipulation of neural activity during decision-making tasks is essential for approaching the causal relationship between the brain and its functions. Conventional manipulation methods used in macaque studies are coarse-grained, and have worked indiscriminately on mutually intertwined neural pathways. To systematically dissect neural circuits responsible for a variety of functions, it is essential to analyze changes in behavior and neural activity through interventions in specific neural pathways. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have applied optogenetics and chemogenetics to achieve fine-grained pathway-selective manipulation in the macaque brain. Here, we review the developments in macaque studies involving pathway-selective operations, with a particular focus on applications to the prefrontal network. Pathway selectivity can be achieved using single viral vector transduction combined with local light stimulation or ligand administration directly into the brain or double-viral vector transduction combined with systemic drug administration. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these methods. We also highlight recent technological developments in viral vectors that can effectively infect the macaque brain, as well as the development of methods to deliver photostimulation or ligand drugs to a wide area to effectively manipulate behavior. The development and dissemination of such pathway-selective manipulations of macaque prefrontal networks will enable us to efficiently dissect the neural mechanisms of decision-making and innovate novel treatments for decision-related psychiatric disorders.
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16
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Applications of chemogenetics in non-human primates. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2022; 64:102204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2022.102204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Using Inhibitory DREADDs to Silence LC Neurons in Monkeys. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12020206. [PMID: 35203969 PMCID: PMC8869890 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12020206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the role of the noradrenergic nucleus locus coeruleus (LC) in cognition and behavior is critical: It is involved in several key behavioral functions such as stress and vigilance, as well as in cognitive processes such as attention and decision making. In recent years, the development of viral tools has provided a clear insight into numerous aspects of brain functions in rodents. However, given the specificity of primate brains and the key benefit of monkey research for translational applications, developing viral tools to study the LC in monkeys is essential for understanding its function and exploring potential clinical strategies. Here, we describe a pharmacogenetics approach that allows to selectively and reversibly inactivate LC neurons using Designer Receptors Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADD). We show that the expression of the hM4Di DREADD can be restricted to noradrenergic LC neurons and that the amount of LC inhibition can be adjusted by adapting the dose of the specific DREADD activator deschloroclozapine (DCZ). Indeed, even if high doses (>0.3 mg/kg) induce a massive inhibition of LC neurons and a clear decrease in vigilance, smaller doses (<0.3 mg/kg) induce a more moderate decrease in LC activity, but it does not affect vigilance, which is more compatible with an assessment of subtle cognitive functions such as decision making and attention.
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18
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Hirabayashi T, Nagai Y, Hori Y, Inoue KI, Aoki I, Takada M, Suhara T, Higuchi M, Minamimoto T. Chemogenetic sensory fMRI reveals behaviorally relevant bidirectional changes in primate somatosensory network. Neuron 2021; 109:3312-3322.e5. [PMID: 34672984 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Concurrent genetic neuromodulation and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in primates has provided a valuable opportunity to assess the modified brain-wide operation in the resting state. However, its application to link the network operation with behavior still remains challenging. Here, we combined chemogenetic silencing of the primary somatosensory cortex (SI) with tactile fMRI and related behaviors in macaques. Focal chemogenetic silencing of functionally identified SI hand region impaired grasping behavior. The same silencing also attenuated hand stimulation-evoked fMRI signal at both the local silencing site and the anatomically and/or functionally connected downstream grasping network, suggesting altered network operation underlying the induced behavioral impairment. Furthermore, the hand region silencing unexpectedly disinhibited foot representation with accompanying behavioral hypersensitization. These results demonstrate that focal chemogenetic silencing with sensory fMRI in macaques unveils bidirectional network changes to generate multifaceted behavioral impairments, thereby opening a pivotal window toward elucidating the causal network operation underpinning higher brain functions in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiyuki Hirabayashi
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan.
| | - Yuji Nagai
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yukiko Hori
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Inoue
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan; PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Ichio Aoki
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Theranostics, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Masahiko Takada
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Suhara
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Makoto Higuchi
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
| | - Takafumi Minamimoto
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Anagawa 4-9-1, Inage-ku, Chiba, Japan
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19
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Oguchi M, Tanaka S, Pan X, Kikusui T, Moriya-Ito K, Kato S, Kobayashi K, Sakagami M. Chemogenetic inactivation reveals the inhibitory control function of the prefronto-striatal pathway in the macaque brain. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1088. [PMID: 34531520 PMCID: PMC8446038 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02623-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC) has a strong monosynaptic connection with the caudate nucleus (CdN) of the striatum. Previous human MRI studies have suggested that this LPFC-CdN pathway plays an important role in inhibitory control and working memory. We aimed to validate the function of this pathway at a causal level by pathway-selective manipulation of neural activity in non-human primates. To this end, we trained macaque monkeys on a delayed oculomotor response task with reward asymmetry and expressed an inhibitory type of chemogenetic receptors selectively to LPFC neurons that project to the CdN. Ligand administration reduced the inhibitory control of impulsive behavior, as well as the task-related neuronal responses observed in the local field potentials from the LPFC and CdN. These results show that we successfully suppressed pathway-selective neural activity in the macaque brain, and the resulting behavioral changes suggest that the LPFC-CdN pathway is involved in inhibitory control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineki Oguchi
- grid.412905.b0000 0000 9745 9416Brain Science Institute, Tamagawa University, Tokyo, Japan ,grid.252643.40000 0001 0029 6233School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Shingo Tanaka
- grid.412905.b0000 0000 9745 9416Brain Science Institute, Tamagawa University, Tokyo, Japan ,grid.260975.f0000 0001 0671 5144Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Xiaochuan Pan
- grid.28056.390000 0001 2163 4895Institute for Cognitive Neurodynamics, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Takefumi Kikusui
- grid.252643.40000 0001 0029 6233School of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Keiko Moriya-Ito
- grid.272456.0Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeki Kato
- grid.411582.b0000 0001 1017 9540Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Kazuto Kobayashi
- grid.411582.b0000 0001 1017 9540Department of Molecular Genetics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Masamichi Sakagami
- grid.412905.b0000 0000 9745 9416Brain Science Institute, Tamagawa University, Tokyo, Japan
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20
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Klink PC, Aubry JF, Ferrera VP, Fox AS, Froudist-Walsh S, Jarraya B, Konofagou EE, Krauzlis RJ, Messinger A, Mitchell AS, Ortiz-Rios M, Oya H, Roberts AC, Roe AW, Rushworth MFS, Sallet J, Schmid MC, Schroeder CE, Tasserie J, Tsao DY, Uhrig L, Vanduffel W, Wilke M, Kagan I, Petkov CI. Combining brain perturbation and neuroimaging in non-human primates. Neuroimage 2021; 235:118017. [PMID: 33794355 PMCID: PMC11178240 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 03/07/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain perturbation studies allow detailed causal inferences of behavioral and neural processes. Because the combination of brain perturbation methods and neural measurement techniques is inherently challenging, research in humans has predominantly focused on non-invasive, indirect brain perturbations, or neurological lesion studies. Non-human primates have been indispensable as a neurobiological system that is highly similar to humans while simultaneously being more experimentally tractable, allowing visualization of the functional and structural impact of systematic brain perturbation. This review considers the state of the art in non-human primate brain perturbation with a focus on approaches that can be combined with neuroimaging. We consider both non-reversible (lesions) and reversible or temporary perturbations such as electrical, pharmacological, optical, optogenetic, chemogenetic, pathway-selective, and ultrasound based interference methods. Method-specific considerations from the research and development community are offered to facilitate research in this field and support further innovations. We conclude by identifying novel avenues for further research and innovation and by highlighting the clinical translational potential of the methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Christiaan Klink
- Department of Vision & Cognition, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Meibergdreef 47, 1105 BA Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Jean-François Aubry
- Physics for Medicine Paris, Inserm U1273, CNRS UMR 8063, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Vincent P Ferrera
- Department of Neuroscience & Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA; Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew S Fox
- Department of Psychology & California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Béchir Jarraya
- NeuroSpin, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Université Paris-Saclay, France; Foch Hospital, UVSQ, Suresnes, France
| | - Elisa E Konofagou
- Ultrasound and Elasticity Imaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Radiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard J Krauzlis
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Adam Messinger
- Laboratory of Brain and Cognition, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Anna S Mitchell
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Ortiz-Rios
- Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom; German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hiroyuki Oya
- Iowa Neuroscience Institute, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, University of Iowa, Iowa city, IA, USA
| | - Angela C Roberts
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Wang Roe
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and Technology, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | | | - Jérôme Sallet
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom; Univ Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Inserm, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute, U1208 Bron, France; Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Christoph Schmid
- Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom; Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 5, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Charles E Schroeder
- Nathan Kline Institute, Orangeburg, NY, USA; Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jordy Tasserie
- NeuroSpin, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Université Paris-Saclay, France
| | - Doris Y Tsao
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, Tianqiao and Chrissy Chen Institute for Neuroscience; Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Computation and Neural Systems, Caltech, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Lynn Uhrig
- NeuroSpin, Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA), Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Cognitive Neuroimaging Unit, Université Paris-Saclay, France
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Laboratory for Neuro- and Psychophysiology, Neurosciences Department, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven, Belgium; Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven Belgium; Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Massachusetts General Hospital, Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Charlestown, MA, USA
| | - Melanie Wilke
- German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Cognitive Neurology, University Medicine Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Igor Kagan
- German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
| | - Christopher I Petkov
- Newcastle University Medical School, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.
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21
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Oyama K, Hori Y, Nagai Y, Miyakawa N, Mimura K, Hirabayashi T, Inoue KI, Suhara T, Takada M, Higuchi M, Minamimoto T. Chemogenetic dissection of the primate prefronto-subcortical pathways for working memory and decision-making. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/26/eabg4246. [PMID: 34162548 PMCID: PMC8221616 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg4246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The primate prefrontal cortex (PFC) is situated at the core of higher brain functions via neural circuits such as those linking the caudate nucleus and mediodorsal thalamus. However, the distinctive roles of these prefronto-subcortical pathways remain elusive. Combining in vivo neuronal projection mapping with chemogenetic synaptic silencing, we reversibly dissected key pathways from dorsolateral part of the PFC (dlPFC) to the dorsal caudate (dCD) and lateral mediodorsal thalamus (MDl) individually in single monkeys. We found that silencing the bilateral dlPFC-MDl projections, but not the dlPFC-dCD projections, impaired performance in a spatial working memory task. Conversely, silencing the unilateral dlPFC-dCD projection, but not the unilateral dlPFC-MDl projection, altered preference in a decision-making task. These results revealed dissociable roles of the prefronto-subcortical pathways in working memory and decision-making, representing the technical advantage of imaging-guided pathway-selective chemogenetic manipulation for dissecting neural circuits underlying cognitive functions in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Oyama
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Yukiko Hori
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Yuji Nagai
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Naohisa Miyakawa
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Koki Mimura
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Hirabayashi
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Inoue
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Suhara
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Masahiko Takada
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi 484-8506, Japan
| | - Makoto Higuchi
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan
| | - Takafumi Minamimoto
- Department of Functional Brain Imaging, National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555 Japan.
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22
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Gilbertson T, Steele D. Tonic dopamine, uncertainty and basal ganglia action selection. Neuroscience 2021; 466:109-124. [PMID: 34015370 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To make optimal decisions in uncertain circumstances flexible adaption of behaviour is required; exploring alternatives when the best choice is unknown, exploiting what is known when that is best. Using a computational model of the basal ganglia, we propose that switches between exploratory and exploitative decisions are mediated by the interaction between tonic dopamine and cortical input to the basal ganglia. We show that a biologically detailed action selection circuit model, endowed with dopamine dependant striatal plasticity, can optimally solve the explore-exploit problem, estimating the true underlying state of a noisy Gaussian diffusion process. Critical to the model's performance was a fluctuating level of tonic dopamine which increased under conditions of uncertainty. With an optimal range of tonic dopamine, explore-exploit decisions were mediated by the effects of tonic dopamine on the precision of the model action selection mechanism. Under conditions of uncertain reward pay-out, the model's reduced selectivity allowed disinhibition of multiple alternative actions to be explored at random. Conversely, when uncertainly about reward pay-out was low, enhanced selectivity of the action selection circuit facilitated exploitation of the high value choice. Model performance was at the level of a Kalman filter which provides an optimal solution for the task. These simulations support the idea that this subcortical neural circuit may have evolved to facilitate decision making in non-stationary reward environments. The model generates several experimental predictions with relevance to abnormal decision making in neuropsychiatric and neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Gilbertson
- Department of Neurology, Level 6, South Block, Ninewells Hospital & Medical School, Dundee DD2 4BF, UK; Division of Imaging Science and Technology, Medical School, University of Dundee, DD2 4BF, UK.
| | - Douglas Steele
- Division of Imaging Science and Technology, Medical School, University of Dundee, DD2 4BF, UK
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Zubair M, Murris SR, Isa K, Onoe H, Koshimizu Y, Kobayashi K, Vanduffel W, Isa T. Divergent Whole Brain Projections from the Ventral Midbrain in Macaques. Cereb Cortex 2021; 31:2913-2931. [PMID: 33558867 PMCID: PMC8107798 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the connectome of the axonal arborizations of dopaminergic midbrain neurons, we investigated the anterograde spread of highly sensitive viral tracers injected into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and adjacent areas in 3 macaques. In 2 monkeys, injections were centered on the lateral VTA with some spread into the substantia nigra, while in one animal the injection targeted the medial VTA with partial spread into the ventro-medial thalamus. Double-labeling with antibodies against transduced fluorescent proteins (FPs) and tyrosine hydroxylase indicated that substantial portions of transduced midbrain neurons were dopaminergic. Interestingly, cortical terminals were found either homogeneously in molecular layer I, or more heterogeneously, sometimes forming patches, in the deeper laminae II-VI. In the animals with injections in lateral VTA, terminals were most dense in somatomotor cortex and the striatum. In contrast, when the medial VTA was transduced, dense terminals were found in dorsal prefrontal and temporal cortices, while projections to striatum were sparse. In all monkeys, orbitofrontal and occipito-parietal cortex received strong and weak innervation, respectively. Thus, the dopaminergic ventral midbrain sends heterogeneous projections throughout the brain. Furthermore, our results suggest the existence of subgroups in meso-dopaminergic neurons depending on their location in the primate ventral midbrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Zubair
- Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Sjoerd R Murris
- Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven 3000, Belgium
| | - Kaoru Isa
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Onoe
- Human Brain Research Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Koshimizu
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Kenta Kobayashi
- Section of Viral Vector Development, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Wim Vanduffel
- Laboratory of Neuro- and Psychophysiology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven Medical School, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Leuven Brain Institute, Leuven 3000, Belgium
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
- Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02144, USA
| | - Tadashi Isa
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Human Brain Research Center, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBi), Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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24
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Differential effects of d- and l-enantiomers of govadine on distinct forms of cognitive flexibility and a comparison with dopaminergic drugs. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1069-1085. [PMID: 33432392 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05754-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE There is an urgent need for novel drugs for treating cognitive deficits that are defining features of schizophrenia. The individual d- and l-enantiomers of the tetrahydroprotoberberine (THPB) d,l-govadine have been proposed for the treatment of cognitive deficiencies and positive symptoms of schizophrenia, respectively. OBJECTIVES We examined the effects of d-, l-, or d,l-govadine on two distinct forms of cognitive flexibility perturbed in schizophrenia and compared them to those induced by a selective D1 receptor agonist and D2 receptor antagonist. METHODS Male rats received d-, l-, or d,l-govadine (0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg), D1 agonist SKF81297(0.1, 0.3, and 1.0 mg/kg), or D2 antagonist haloperidol (0.1-0.2 mg/kg). Experiment 1 used a strategy set-shifting task (between-subjects). In experiment 2, well-trained rats were tested on a probabilistic reversal task (within-subjects). RESULTS d-Govadine improved set-shifting across all doses, whereas higher doses of l-govadine impaired set-shifting. SKF81297 reduced perseverative errors at the lowest dose. Low/high doses of haloperidol increased/decreased set-shifting errors, the latter "improvement" attributable to impaired retrieval of a previous acquired rule. Probabilistic reversal performance was less affected by these drugs, but d-govadine reduced errors during the first reversal, whereas l-govadine impaired initial discrimination learning. d,l-Govadine had no reliable cognitive effects but caused psychomotor slowing like l-govadine and haloperidol. CONCLUSIONS These findings further highlight differences between two enantiomers of d,l-govadine that may reflect differential modulation of D1 and D2 receptors. These preclinical findings give further impetus to formal clinical evaluation of d-govadine as a treatment for cognitive deficiencies related to schizophrenia.
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