The rewarding effects of ethanol are modulated by binge eating of a high-fat diet during adolescence

Western diet consumption does not impact the rewarding and aversive effects of morphine in male Sprague-Dawley rats

The impacts of high-fat and/or high-sugar diets on opioid-induced effects are well documented; however, little is known about the effect of such diet on the affective responses to opiates. To address this issue, in the present experiment male Sprague-Dawley rats were given ad libitum access to a western-style diet (high in saturated fat and sugar) or a standard laboratory chow diet beginning in adolescence and continuing into adulthood at which point they were trained in a combined conditioned taste avoidance (CTA)/conditioned place preference (CPP) procedure to assess the aversive and rewarding effects of morphine, respectively. On four conditioning cycles, animals were given access to a novel saccharin solution, injected with morphine (1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg), and then placed on one side of a place preference chamber. Animals were then tested for place preference and saccharin preference. All subjects injected with morphine displayed significant avoidance of the morphine-associated solution (CTA) and preferred the side associated with the drug (CPP). Furthermore, there were no differences between the two diet groups, indicating that chronic exposure to the western diet had no impact on the affective properties of morphine (despite increasing caloric intake, body weight, body fat and lean body mass). Given previously reported increases in drug self-administration in animals with a history of western-diet consumption, this study suggests that western-diet exposure may increase drug intake via mechanisms other than changes in the rewarding or aversive effects of the drug.

(m-CF3-PhSe)2 counteracts metabolic disturbances and hypothalamic inflammation in a lifestyle rodent model

An unhealthy lifestyle is associated with metabolic disorders and neuroinflammation. In this study, the efficacy of m-trifluoromethyl-diphenyl diselenide [(m-CF₃-PhSe)₂] against lifestyle model-related metabolic disturbances and hypothalamic inflammation in young mice was investigated. From postnatal day 25 (PND25) to 66, male Swiss mice were subjected to a lifestyle model, an energy-dense diet (20:20% lard: corn syrup) and sporadic ethanol (3x/week). Ethanol was administrated intragastrically (i.g., 2g/kg) to mice from PND45 to 60. From PND60 to 66, mice received (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ (5mg/kg/day; i.g). (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ reduced relative abdominal adipose tissue weight, hyperglycemia, and dyslipidemia in mice exposed to the lifestyle-induced model. (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ normalized hepatic cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and the activity of G-6-Pase increased in lifestyle-exposed mice. (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ was effective in modulating hepatic glycogen levels, citrate synthase and hexokinase activities, protein levels of GLUT-2, p-IRS/IRS, p-AKT/AKT, redox homeostasis, and inflammatory profile of mice exposed to a lifestyle model. (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ counteracted hypothalamic inflammation and the ghrelin receptor levels in mice exposed to the lifestyle model. (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ reversed the decreased levels of GLUT-3, p-IRS/IRS, and the leptin receptor in the hypothalamus of lifestyle-exposed mice. In conclusion, (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ counteracted metabolic disturbances and hypothalamic inflammation in young mice exposed to a lifestyle model.

The Role of Mu Opioid Receptors in High Fat Diet-Induced Reward and Potentiation of the Rewarding Effect of Oxycodone

Excessive high fat diet (HFD) consumption can induce food addiction, which is believed to involve the communication between the hypothalamus and mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons, originating in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and projecting to the nucleus accumbens (NAc). These brain areas are densely populated with opioid receptors, raising the possibility that these receptors, and particularly mu opioid receptors (MORs), are involved in rewards elicited by palatable food. This study sought to investigate the involvement of MORs in HFD-induced reward and if there is any difference between male and female subjects in this response. We also assessed if exposure to HFD would alter the rewarding action of oxycodone, a relatively selective MOR agonist. The place conditioning paradigm was used as an animal model of reward to determine if short-time (STC, 2 h) or long-time (LTC, 16 h) conditioning with HFD induces reward or alters the rewarding action of oxycodone. Male and female C57BL/6J mice as well as MOR knockout and their wildtype littermates of both sexes were tested for basal place preference on day 1 and then conditioned with an HFD in one chamber and a regular chow diet (RCD) in another chamber for 2 h on alternate days. Three sets of STC were used, followed by a set of LTC. Each set of conditioning consisted of two conditioning with RCD and two conditioning with HFD. Mice were tested for place preference after each set of STC and again after LTC. Controls were conditioned with RCD in both conditioning chambers. Following the last place preference test, mice were treated with oxycodone and conditioned in the HFD-paired chamber and with saline in the RCD-paired chamber for one hour once a day to explore the possibility if the HFD could alter oxycodone reward. The result showed that HFD induced conditioned place preference (CPP) in male but not female subjects. However, oxycodone conditioning elicited reward in both male and female mice of the HFD group but not the control group, showing that prior conditioning with HFD potentiated the rewarding action of oxycodone. The latter response was mediated via MORs, as it was blunted in MOR knockout mice. Similarly, HFD-induced CPP was blunted in male MOR knockout mice, suggesting sexual dimorphism in this response.

Associations of Binge Drinking and Heavy Alcohol Use on Sugar and Fat Intake in a Cohort of Southern People Living with HIV

AIMS

To assess whether binge drinking and heavy alcohol use are associated with increased sugar and fat consumption among a Southern cohort of people living with HIV (PWH).

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis of PWH enrolled in the New Orleans Alcohol use in HIV (NOAH) Study (n = 215). Binge and heavy drinking were identified through a 30-day Alcohol Timeline-Followback and dietary intake was assessed through a 24-hour dietary recall.

RESULTS

Participants were 65.4% male, 83.3% Black, with a mean age of 49.2 ± 9.9. Heavy drinkers consumed more total calories than abstainers (P = 0.035) and low-to-moderate drinkers (P = 0.024), and binge drinkers consumed more calories than non-binge drinkers (P = 0.025). Binge and heavy drinkers had significantly higher intake of total and saturated fat in grams. However, substantially increased caloric intake among these participants led to non-significant associations for alcohol use with high total and saturated fat intake as a percent of total energy intake (%TEI). Binge drinkers had lower odds of consuming high sugar as a %TEI (odds ratio: 0.31 [0.14, 0.68]). Additionally, sugar intake predicted total and saturated fat intake, and this association was slightly higher among binge drinkers (total fat P-value: 0.12).

CONCLUSIONS

In this population of PWH, while binge and heavy drinking predicted higher caloric and fat intake in grams, binge drinkers were less likely to consume a high-sugar diet. This analysis suggests that interventions focused on reduced alcohol use may be especially beneficial in reducing metabolic disease burden in PWH if supplemented with information on incorporating lower energy-dense foods with reduced fat.

Ketogenic Diet Decreases Alcohol Intake in Adult Male Mice

The classic ketogenic diet is a diet high in fat, low in carbohydrates, and well-adjusted proteins. The reduction in glucose levels induces changes in the body’s metabolism, since the main energy source happens to be ketone bodies. Recent studies have suggested that nutritional interventions may modulate drug addiction. The present work aimed to study the potential effects of a classic ketogenic diet in modulating alcohol consumption and its rewarding effects. Two groups of adult male mice were employed in this study, one exposed to a standard diet (SD, n = 15) and the other to a ketogenic diet (KD, n = 16). When a ketotic state was stable for 7 days, animals were exposed to the oral self-administration paradigm to evaluate the reinforcing and motivating effects of ethanol. Rt-PCR analyses were performed evaluating dopamine, adenosine, CB1, and Oprm gene expression. Our results showed that animals in a ketotic state displayed an overall decrease in ethanol consumption without changes in their motivation to drink. Gene expression analyses point to several alterations in the dopamine, adenosine, and cannabinoid systems. Our results suggest that nutritional interventions may be a useful complementary tool in treating alcohol-use disorders.

Pairing Binge Drinking and a High-Fat Diet in Adolescence Modulates the Inflammatory Effects of Subsequent Alcohol Consumption in Mice

Alcohol binge drinking (BD) and poor nutritional habits are two frequent behaviors among many adolescents that alter gut microbiota in a pro-inflammatory direction. Dysbiotic changes in the gut microbiome are observed after alcohol and high-fat diet (HFD) consumption, even before obesity onset. In this study, we investigate the neuroinflammatory response of adolescent BD when combined with a continuous or intermittent HFD and its effects on adult ethanol consumption by using a self-administration (SA) paradigm in mice. The inflammatory biomarkers IL-6 and CX3CL1 were measured in the striatum 24 h after BD, 3 weeks later and after the ethanol (EtOH) SA. Adolescent BD increased alcohol consumption in the oral SA and caused a greater motivation to seek the substance. Likewise, mice with intermittent access to HFD exhibited higher EtOH consumption, while the opposite effect was found in mice with continuous HFD access. Biochemical analyses showed that after BD and three weeks later, striatal levels of IL-6 and CX3CL1 were increased. In addition, in saline-treated mice, CX3CL1 was increased after continuous access to HFD. After oral SA procedure, striatal IL-6 was increased only in animals exposed to BD and HFD. In addition, striatal CX3CL1 levels were increased in all BD- and HFD-exposed groups. Overall, our findings show that adolescent BD and intermittent HFD increase adult alcohol intake and point to neuroinflammation as an important mechanism modulating this interaction.

Opioid System Contributes to the Trifluoromethyl-Substituted Diselenide Effectiveness in a Lifestyle-Induced Depression Mouse Model

Energy-dense foods and ethanol consumption are associated with mood disorders. m-Trifluoromethyl-diphenyl diselenide [(m-CF₃-PhSe)₂] has been a prominent pharmacological target due to its antidepressant-like effects. This study investigated if the modulation of opioid and glucocorticoid receptors and its well-known antioxidant property contribute to the (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ antidepressant-like effect in young mice subjected to an energy-dense diet and ethanol intake. Swiss male mice [postnatal day (PND) 25] were exposed to an energy-dense diet (containing 20% fat and 20% carbohydrate) or standard chow until the PND 67. Mice received ethanol (2 g/kg) or water administration (3 times a week, intragastrically [i.g.]) from PND 45 to PND 60. After that, mice received (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ (5 mg/kg/day; i.g) or vegetal oil administration from PND 60 to 66. Mice performed the behavioral tests to evaluate the depressive-like phenotype. The results showed that individually neither an energy-dense diet nor ethanol group induced a depressive-like phenotype, but the association of both induced this phenotype in young mice. Oxidative stress was characterized by the increase of malondialdehyde, the decrease in the superoxide dismutase activity, and non-protein sulfhydryl levels in the cerebral cortex of depressive-like mice. Depressive-like mice showed an increase in the protein levels of opioid receptors and depletion in those of glucocorticoid. (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ abolished depressive-like phenotype and oxidative stress as well as modulated the levels of glucocorticoid and opioid receptors. In conclusion, the modulation of opioid and glucocorticoid receptors and the antioxidant property contributed to the (m-CF₃-PhSe)₂ antidepressant-like effect in young mice exposed to an energy-dense diet and ethanol intake.

Binge Eating and Binge Drinking: A Two-Way Road? An Integrative Review

Unhealthy diet and alcohol are serious health problems, especially in adolescents and young adults. "Binge" is defined as the excessive and uncontrolled consumption of food (binge eating) and alcohol (binge drinking). Both behaviors are frequent among young people and have a highly negative impact on health and quality of life. Several studies have explored the causes and risk factors of both behaviors, and the evidence concludes that there is a relationship between the two behaviors. In addition, some research postulates that binge eating is a precipitating factor in the onset and escalation of excessive alcohol consumption, while other studies suggest that alcohol consumption leads to excessive and uncontrollable food consumption. Given that no review has yet been published regarding the directionality between the two behaviors, we have set out to provide an upto- date overview of binge eating and binge drinking problems, analyzing their commonalities and differences, and their uni- and bidirectional associations. In addition, we explore the reasons why young people tend to engage in both behaviors and consider directions for future research and clinical implications.

Hippocampal-Dependent Inhibitory Learning and Memory Processes in the Control of Eating and Drug Taking

As manifestations of excessive and uncontrolled intake, obesity and drug addiction have generated much research aimed at identifying common neuroadaptations that could underlie both disorders. Much work has focused on changes in brain reward and motivational circuitry that can overexcite eating and drug-taking behaviors. We suggest that the regulation of both behaviors depends on balancing excitation produced by stimuli associated with food and drug rewards with the behavioral inhibition produced by physiological "satiety" and other stimuli that signal when those rewards are unavailable. Our main hypothesis is that dysregulated eating and drug use are consequences of diet- and drug-induced degradations in this inhibitory power. We first outline a learning and memory mechanism that could underlie the inhibition of both food and drug-intake, and we describe data that identifies the hippocampus as a brain substrate for this mechanism. We then present evidence that obesitypromoting western diets (WD) impair the operation of this process and generate pathophysiologies that disrupt hippocampal functioning. Next, we present parallel evidence that drugs of abuse also impair this same learning and memory process and generate similar hippocampal pathophysiologies. We also describe recent findings that prior WD intake elevates drug self-administration, and the implications of using drugs (i.e., glucagon-like peptide- 1 agonists) that enhance hippocampal functioning to treat both obesity and addiction are also considered. We conclude with a description of how both WD and drugs of abuse could initiate a "vicious-cycle" of hippocampal pathophysiology and impaired hippocampal-dependent behavioral inhibition.

Understanding the Influence of Eating Patterns on Binge Drinking: A Mediation Model

BACKGROUND

Binge drinking is an important health problem, and it has been related to binge eating and fat intake in animal models, but this relationship has not been tested in humans. The first objective of this study was to analyze whether binge eating and fat intake are related to binge drinking in a youth sample. The second objective was to analyze whether binge eating and fat intake mediate the relationship between individual factors associated with binge eating and fat intake (sex, body mass index (BMI), drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, eating styles, impulsivity, and food addiction) and binge drinking.

METHODS

A sample of 428 undergraduate students filled out several questionnaires on binge drinking, binge eating, fat intake, drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, eating styles, food addiction, and impulsivity.

RESULTS

Results showed an excellent model fit: χ2(25) = 30.342 (p = 0.212), comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.992, root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.022 [90% CI = 0.000, 0.047]. Binge eating and fat intake were positively related to binge drinking. Furthermore, emotional eating, external eating, and food addiction showed positive and statistically significant indirect relationships with binge drinking, whereas the relationship with restrained eating was negative.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings point to the need to use a broader approach in understanding and preventing binge drinking in the youth population by showing the influence of the eating pattern on this problem. This information could be helpful in preventing future behaviors and improving interventions that address health risk behaviors.

Behavioral and Neurobiological Consequences of Hedonic Feeding on Alcohol Drinking

A complex interplay of peripheral and central signaling mechanisms within the body of an organism maintains energy homeostasis. In addition, energy/food intake is modified by various external factors (e.g., palatability, food availability, social and environmental triggers). Highly palatable foods can provoke maladaptive feeding behavior, which in turn disrupts normal homeostatic regulation resulting in numerous health consequences. Furthermore, neuroendocrine peptides, traditionally considered to regulate appetite and energy homeostasis, also control the intake and reinforcing properties of alcohol and drugs of abuse. Therefore, dysregulated eating as a result of a hedonic/binge-like intake of hyper-palatable food may impact alcohol drinking behavior. Relevant in this case is the fact that eating disorders are highly comorbid with several neuropsychiatric conditions, including alcohol use disorder. The present review is intended to summarize the neurobiological and functional consequences of hedonic feeding on alcohol intake.

Nutritional Contingency Reduces Alcohol Drinking by Altering Central Neurotransmitter Receptor Gene Expression in Rats

We have previously shown that 6 weeks of intermittent high-fat diet (Int-HFD) pre-exposure significantly reduced alcohol drinking in rats, providing preliminary evidence of the effectiveness of a dietary intervention in reducing alcohol intake. However, the functional framework and underlying neurobiological mechanisms of such dietary intervention are unknown. Here, we examined the impact of Int-HFD pre-exposure duration on alcohol drinking, plasma feeding peptides, and central neurotransmitter receptors gene expression. Male Long Evans rats (n = 6-7/group) received no pre-exposure, 1 or 2 weeks pre-exposure to Int-HFD and alcohol drinking (two-bottle choice) was evaluated. We observed HFD pre-exposure-dependent decrease in alcohol drinking, with a significant decrease observed following 2 weeks of Int-HFD pre-exposure. No significant between-group differences in plasma feeding peptides (i.e., ghrelin, leptin, insulin) were detected. A PCR array revealed that the expression of several neurotransmitter receptors was significantly (p < 0.05 and ≥2-fold) altered in the striatum and ventral tegmental area compared to controls. These data suggest that pre-exposure to a palatable diet is critical to reduce alcohol drinking in rats, possibly through genetic alterations in the brain reward circuitry. Importantly, the present study is a step forward in identifying the critical framework needed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of nutritional contingency in the management of alcoholism.

Differential Impact of Ad Libitum or Intermittent High-Fat Diets on Bingeing Ethanol-Mediated Behaviors

Background: Dietary factors have significant effects on the brain, modulating mood, anxiety, motivation and cognition. To date, no attention has been paid to the consequences that the combination of ethanol (EtOH) and a high-fat diet (HFD) have on learning and mood disorders during adolescence. The aim of the present work was to evaluate the biochemical and behavioral consequences of ethanol binge drinking and an HFD consumption in adolescent mice. Methods: Animals received either a standard diet or an HFD (ad libitum vs. binge pattern) in combination with ethanol binge drinking and were evaluated in anxiety and memory. The metabolic profile and gene expression of leptin receptors and clock genes were also evaluated. Results: Excessive white adipose tissue and an increase in plasma insulin and leptin levels were mainly observed in ad libitum HFD + EtOH mice. An upregulation of the Lepr gene expression in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus was also observed in ad libitum HFD groups. EtOH-induced impairment on spatial memory retrieval was absent in mice exposed to an HFD, although the aversive memory deficits persisted. Mice bingeing on an HFD only showed an anxiolytic profile, without other alterations. We also observed a mismatch between Clock and Bmal1 expression in ad libitum HFD animals, which were mostly independent of EtOH bingeing. Conclusions: Our results confirm the bidirectional influence that occurs between the composition and intake pattern of a HFD and ethanol consumption during adolescence, even when the metabolic, behavioral and chronobiological effects of this interaction are dissociated.

Behavioral profile of intermittent vs continuous access to a high fat diet during adolescence

Over the past few years, the effects of a high-fat diet (HFD) on cognitive functions have been broadly studied as a model of obesity, although no studies have evaluated whether these effects are maintained after the cessation of this diet. In addition, the behavioral effects of having a limited access to an HFD (binge-eating pattern) are mostly unknown, although they dramatically increase the vulnerability to drug use in contrast to having continuous access. Thus, the aim of the present study was to compare the effects of an intermittent versus a continuous exposure to an HFD during adolescence on cognition and anxiety-like behaviors, as well as to study the changes observed after the interruption of this diet. Adolescent male mice received for 40 days a standard diet, an HFD with continuous access or an HFD with sporadic limited access (2 h, three days a week). Two additional groups were fed with intermittent or continuous access to the HFD and withdrawn from this diet 15 days before the behavioral tests. Only the animals with a continuous access to the HFD showed higher circulating leptin levels, increased bodyweight, marked memory and spatial learning deficits, symptoms that disappeared after 15 days of HFD abstinence. Mice that binged on fat only showed hyperlocomotion, which normalized after 15 days of HFD cessation. However, discontinuation of fat, either in a binge or a continuous pattern, led to an increase in anxiety-like behavior. These results highlight that exposure to a high-fat diet during adolescence induces alterations in brain functions, although the way in which this diet is ingested determines the extent of these behavioral changes.

Social defeat stress: Mechanisms underlying the increase in rewarding effects of drugs of abuse

Social interaction is known to be the main source of stress in human beings, which explains the translational importance of this research in animals. Evidence reported over the last decade has revealed that, when exposed to social defeat experiences (brief episodes of social confrontations during adolescence and adulthood), the rodent brain undergoes remodeling and functional modifications, which in turn lead to an increase in the rewarding and reinstating effects of different drugs of abuse. The mechanisms by which social stress cause changes in the brain and behavior are unknown, and so the objective of this review is to contemplate how social defeat stress induces long-lasting consequences that modify the reward system. First of all, we will describe the most characteristic results of the short- and long-term consequences of social defeat stress on the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse such as psychostimulants and alcohol. Secondly, and throughout the review, we will carefully assess the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these effects, including changes in the dopaminergic system, corticotrophin releasing factor signaling, epigenetic modifications and the neuroinflammatory response. To conclude, we will consider the advantages and disadvantages and the translational value of the social defeat stress model, and will discuss challenges and future directions.

Reinstatement of Drug-seeking in Mice Using the Conditioned Place Preference Paradigm

The present protocol describes the Conditioned Place Preference (CPP) as a model of relapse in drug addiction. In this model, animals are first trained to acquire a conditioned place preference in a drug-paired compartment, and after the post-conditioning test, they perform several sessions to extinguish the established preference. The CPP permits the evaluation of the conditioned rewarding effects of drugs related to environmental cues. Then, the extinguished CPP can be robustly reinstated by the non-contingent administration of a priming dose of the drug, and by exposure to stressful stimuli. Both methods will be explained here. When the animal reinitiates the behavioral response, a reinstatement of the conditioned reward is considered to have taken place. The main advantages of this protocol are that it is non-invasive, inexpensive, and simple with good validity criteria. In addition, it allows the study of different environmental manipulations, such as stress or diet, which can modulate relapse into drug seeking behaviors. However, one limitation is that if the researcher aims to explore the motivation and primary reinforcing effects of the drug, it should be complemented with self-administration procedures, as they involve operant responses of animals.

Increased ethanol consumption after interruption of fat bingeing

There is a marked comorbidity between alcohol abuse and eating disorders, especially in the young population. We have previously reported that bingeing on fat during adolescence increases the rewarding effects of ethanol (EtOH). The aim of the present work was to study if vulnerability to EtOH persists after cessation of binge eating. OF1 mice binged on fat (HFB: high-fat binge) during adolescence (PND 25-43) and were tested for 15 days after the last access to HFB (on PND 59) using the self-administration paradigm, the conditioned place preference (CPP) and locomotor sensitization to ethanol. Our results showed that after 15 days of cessation of fat ingestion, mice increased their consumption of ethanol and showed greater motivation to obtain ethanol. On the other hand, no effects were observed in the CPP, while an increased locomotor response to ethanol was detected. The present results confirm and extend our previous study demonstrating that the compulsive intake of fat induces long-lasting effects on the reward system that lead to an increased consumption of EtOH.

Factors Associated with Binge Eating Behavior among Malaysian Adolescents

Although there are numerous studies on binge eating behavior in the Western countries, studies on this behavior in Malaysia are still limited. Therefore, this cross-sectional study aimed to determine the risk factors associated with binge eating behavior among adolescents in Malaysia. The study included 356 adolescents (42.7% males and 57.3% females), aged 13 to 16 years. They completed a self-administered questionnaire on demographic and socioeconomic backgrounds, frequency of family meals, family meal environments, family cohesion, perception of body size, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, perfectionistic self-presentation, and binge eating behavior. Furthermore, their weight, height, and waist circumference were measured. It was found that 14.0% of the participants engaged in binge eating behavior (15.2% in females and 12.5% in males). Additionally, it was identified that high levels of depressive symptoms, high levels of body dissatisfaction, poor family cohesion, and low self-esteem were significantly contributed to binge eating behavior after controlling for sex (adjusted R² = 0.165, F = 15.056, p < 0.001). The findings may suggest that improving the relationships between family members, along with eliminating adolescents’ negative emotions could help in the prevention of binge eating behavior among adolescents. The identified modifiable risk factors should be incorporated into binge eating preventive programs to increase the effectiveness of the programs.

Synaptic Ultrastructure Might Be Involved in HCN1-Related BDNF mRNA in Withdrawal-Anxiety After Ethanol Dependence

Withdrawal from ethanol dependence has been associated with heightened anxiety and reduced expression of Brain-derived neurotropic factor which promotes the synaptic transmission and plasticity of synapses. Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1 regulates expression; however, whether Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1-related Brain-derived neurotropic factor is involved in the synaptic ultrastructure that generates withdrawal-anxiety has been poorly perceived. Sprague-Dawley rats were treated with ethanol 3-9% (v/v) for a period of 21 days. Conditioned place preference and body weight were investigated during ethanol administration. Rats were subjected to behavioral testing and biochemical assessments after ethanol withdrawal, which was induced by abrupt discontinuation of the treatment. The results showed that the ethanol administration induced severe ethanol dependence behaviors, with higher body weight and more time in the ethanol-paired compartment. After withdrawal, rats had a higher total ethanol withdrawal score and explored less. Additionally, increased Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1 protein and gene expression and decreased Brain-derived neurotropic factor protein and gene expression were detected in the Ethanol group. Eventually, there was a negative correlation between the level of Brain-derived neurotropic factor mRNA and Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1 protein. Importantly, the synaptic ultrastructure changed in the Ethanol group, including increased synaptic cleft width and reduction in postsynaptic density thickness or synaptic curvature. The synthesis of the Brain-derived neurotropic factor mRNA could be down-regulated by higher Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated channel 1 protein expression. Changes in synaptic ultrastructure may be induced by lower Brain-derived neurotropic factor protein, which could be associated with the withdrawal-anxiety that is experiences after ethanol dependence.

The importance of nutrition in aiding recovery from substance use disorders: A review

BACKGROUND

Nutrition is a prerequisite for health; yet, there is no special nutritional assessment or guidance for drug and alcohol dependent individuals, despite the fact that their food consumption is often very limited, risking malnutrition. Further, the premise is examined that malnutrition may promote drug seeking and impede recovery from substance use disorders (SUD).

METHOD

A narrative review addressed the relationship between substance use disorders and nutrition, including evidence for malnutrition, as well as their impact on metabolism and appetite regulation. The implications of the biopsychology of addiction and appetite for understanding the role of nutrition in SUD were also considered.

RESULTS

The literature overwhelmingly finds that subjects with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and drug use disorder (DUD) typically suffer from nutrient deficiencies. These nutrient deficiencies may be complicit in the alcoholic myopathy, osteopenia and osteoporosis, and mood disorders including anxiety and depression, observed in AUD and DUD. These same individuals have also been found to have altered body composition and altered hormonal metabolic regulators. Additionally, brain processes fundamental for survival are stimulated both by food, particularly sweet foods, and by substances of abuse, with evidence supporting confusion (addiction transfer) when recovering from SUD between cravings for a substance and craving for food.

CONCLUSION

Poor nutritional status in AUD and DUD severely impacts their physical and psychological health, which may impede their ability to resist substances of abuse and recover their health. This review contributes to a better understanding of interventions that could best support individuals with substance use disorders.