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Kumbhare D, Rajagopal M, Toms J, Freelin A, Weistroffer G, McComb N, Karnam S, Azghadi A, Murnane KS, Baron MS, Holloway KL. Deep Brain Stimulation of Nucleus Basalis of Meynert improves learning in rat model of dementia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.05.588271. [PMID: 38645266 PMCID: PMC11030230 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.05.588271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Background Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM) has been preliminarily investigated as a potential treatment for dementia. The degeneration of NBM cholinergic neurons is a pathological feature of many forms of dementia. Although stimulation of the NBM has been demonstrated to improve learning, the ideal parameters for NBM stimulation have not been elucidated. This study assesses the differential effects of varying stimulation patterns and duration on learning in a dementia rat model. Methods 192-IgG-saporin (or vehicle) was injected into the NBM to produce dementia in rats. Next, all rats underwent unilateral implantation of a DBS electrode in the NBM. The experimental groups consisted of i-normal, ii-untreated demented, and iii-demented rats receiving NBM DBS. The stimulation paradigms included testing different modes (tonic and burst) and durations (1-hr, 5-hrs, and 24-hrs/day) over 10 daily sessions. Memory was assessed pre- and post-stimulation using two established learning paradigms: novel object recognition (NOR) and auditory operant chamber learning. Results Both normal and stimulated rats demonstrated improved performance in NOR and auditory learning as compared to the unstimulated demented group. The burst stimulation groups performed better than the tonic stimulated group. Increasing the daily stimulation duration to 24-hr did not further improve cognitive performance in an auditory recognition task and degraded the results on a NOR task as compared with 5-hr. Conclusion The present findings suggest that naturalistic NBM burst DBS may offer a potential effective therapy for treating dementia and suggests potential strategies for the reevaluation of current human NBM stimulation paradigms.
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Huang L, Zhu W, Li N, Zhang B, Dai W, Li S, Xu H. Functions and mechanisms of adenosine and its receptors in sleep regulation. Sleep Med 2024; 115:210-217. [PMID: 38373361 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2024.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Sleep is a natural and recurring state of life. Long-term insomnia can lead to physical and mental fatigue, inattention, memory loss, anxiety, depression and other symptoms, imposing immense public health and economic burden worldwide. The sleep and awakening regulation system is composed of many nerve nuclei and neurotransmitters in the brain, and it forms a neural network that interacts and restricts each other to regulate the occurrence and maintenance of sleep-wake. Adenosine (AD) is a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and a driver of sleep. Meanwhile, the functions and mechanisms underlying sleep-promoting effects of adenosine and its receptors are still not entirely clear. However, in recent years, the increasing evidence indicated that adenosine can promote sleep through inhibiting arousal system and activating sleep-promoting system. At the same time, astrocyte-derived adenosine in modulating sleep homeostasis and sleep loss-induced related cognitive and memory deficits plays an important role. This review, therefore, summarizes the current research on the functions and possible mechanisms of adenosine and its receptors in the regulation of sleep and homeostatic control of sleep. Understanding these aspects will provide us better ideas on clinical problems such as insomnia, hypersomnia and other sleep disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lishan Huang
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
| | - Wenwen Zhu
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
| | - Nanxi Li
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
| | - Bin Zhang
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
| | - Wenbin Dai
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
| | - Sen Li
- Division of Spine Surgery, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Medical School, Nanjing University, China.
| | - Houping Xu
- Geriatric Department, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, China.
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Ingiosi AM, Hayworth CR, Frank MG. Activation of Basal Forebrain Astrocytes Induces Wakefulness without Compensatory Changes in Sleep Drive. J Neurosci 2023; 43:5792-5809. [PMID: 37487739 PMCID: PMC10423050 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0163-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammalian sleep is regulated by a homeostatic process that increases sleep drive and intensity as a function of prior wake time. Sleep homeostasis has traditionally been thought to be a product of neurons, but recent findings demonstrate that this process is also modulated by glial astrocytes. The precise role of astrocytes in the accumulation and discharge of sleep drive is unknown. We investigated this question by selectively activating basal forebrain (BF) astrocytes using designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs) in male and female mice. DREADD activation of the Gq-protein-coupled pathway in BF astrocytes produced long and continuous periods of wakefulness that paradoxically did not cause the expected homeostatic response to sleep loss (e.g., increases in sleep time or intensity). Further investigations showed that this was not because of indirect effects of the ligand that activated DREADDs. These findings suggest that the need for sleep is not only driven by wakefulness per se, but also by specific neuronal-glial circuits that are differentially activated in wakefulness.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sleep drive is controlled by a homeostatic process that increases sleep duration and intensity based on prior time spent awake. Non-neuronal brain cells (e.g., glial astrocytes) influence this homeostatic process, but their precise role is unclear. We used a genetic technique to activate astrocytes in the basal forebrain (BF) of mice, a brain region important for sleep and wake expression and sleep homeostasis. Astroglial activation induced prolonged wakefulness without the expected homeostatic increase in sleep drive (i.e., sleep duration and intensity). These findings indicate that our need to sleep is also driven by non-neuronal cells, and not only by time spent awake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Ingiosi
- Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington 99202
| | - Christopher R Hayworth
- Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington 99202
| | - Marcos G Frank
- Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington 99202
- Gleason Institute for Neuroscience, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington 99202
- Sleep Performance and Research Center, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington, 99202
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Lopes-Rodrigues V, Boxy P, Sim E, Park DI, Habeck M, Carbonell J, Andersson A, Fernández-Suárez D, Nissen P, Nykjær A, Kisiswa L. AraC interacts with p75 NTR transmembrane domain to induce cell death of mature neurons. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:440. [PMID: 37460457 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-05979-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Cytosine arabinoside (AraC) is one of the main therapeutic treatments for several types of cancer, including acute myeloid leukaemia. However, after a high-dose AraC chemotherapy regime, patients develop severe neurotoxicity and cell death in the central nervous system leading to cerebellar ataxia, dysarthria, nystagmus, somnolence and drowsiness. AraC induces apoptosis in dividing cells. However, the mechanism by which it leads to neurite degeneration and cell death in mature neurons remains unclear. We hypothesise that the upregulation of the death receptor p75NTR is responsible for AraC-mediated neurodegeneration and cell death in leukaemia patients undergoing AraC treatment. To determine the role of AraC-p75NTR signalling in the cell death of mature neurons, we used mature cerebellar granule neurons' primary cultures from p75NTR knockout and p75NTRCys259 mice. Evaluation of neurite degeneration, cell death and p75NTR signalling was done by immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. To assess the interaction between AraC and p75NTR, we performed cellular thermal shift and AraTM assays as well as Homo-FRET anisotropy imaging. We show that AraC induces neurite degeneration and programmed cell death of mature cerebellar granule neurons in a p75NTR-dependent manner. Mechanistically, Proline 252 and Cysteine 256 residues facilitate AraC interaction with the transmembrane domain of p75NTR resulting in uncoupling of p75NTR from the NFκB survival pathway. This, in turn, exacerbates the activation of the cell death/JNK pathway by recruitment of TRAF6 to p75NTR. Our findings identify p75NTR as a novel molecular target to develop treatments for counteract AraC-mediated cell death of mature neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Lopes-Rodrigues
- Department of Physiology and Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Pia Boxy
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Eunice Sim
- Department of Physiology and Life Sciences Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Dong Ik Park
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michael Habeck
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Josep Carbonell
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, S-17177, Sweden
| | - Annika Andersson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, S-17177, Sweden
| | | | - Poul Nissen
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anders Nykjær
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lilian Kisiswa
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
- Danish Research Institute of Translational Neuroscience (DANDRITE)-Nordic EMBL Partnership for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
- The Danish National Research Foundation Center, PROMEMO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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5
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Sharma R, Parikh M, Mishra V, Zuniga A, Sahota P, Thakkar M. Sleep, sleep homeostasis and arousal disturbances in alcoholism. Brain Res Bull 2022; 182:30-43. [PMID: 35122900 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The effects of alcohol on human sleep were first described almost 70 years ago. Since then, accumulating evidences suggest that alcohol intake at bed time immediately induces sleep [reduces the time to fall asleep (sleep onset latency), and consolidates and enhances the quality (delta power) and the quantity of sleep]. Such potent sleep promoting activity makes alcohol as one of the most commonly used "over the counter" sleep aid. However, the somnogenic effects, after alcohol intake, slowly wane off and often followed by sleep disruptions during the rest of the night. Repeated use of alcohol leads to the development of rapid tolerance resulting into an alcohol abuse. Moreover, chronic and excessive alcohol intake leads to the development of alcohol use disorder (AUD). Alcoholics, both during drinking periods and during abstinences, suffer from a multitude of sleep disruptions manifested by profound insomnia, excessive daytime sleepiness, and altered sleep architecture. Furthermore, subjective and objective indicators of sleep disturbances are predictors of relapse. Finally, within the USA, it is estimated that societal costs of alcohol-related sleep disorders exceed $18 billion. Thus, although alcohol associated sleep problems have significant economic and clinical consequences, very little is known about how and where alcohol acts to affect sleep. In this review, a conceptual framework and clinical research focused on understanding the relationship between alcohol and sleep is first described. In the next section, our new and exciting preclinical studies, to understand the cellular and molecular mechanism of how acute and chronic alcohol affects sleep, are described. In the end, based on observations from our recent findings and related literature, opportunities for the development of innovative strategies to prevent and treat AUD are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Sharma
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201
| | - Meet Parikh
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201
| | - Vaibhav Mishra
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201
| | - Abigail Zuniga
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201
| | - Pradeep Sahota
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201
| | - Mahesh Thakkar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri, Columbia MO 65201.
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Mamelak M. Sleep, Narcolepsy, and Sodium Oxybate. Curr Neuropharmacol 2021; 20:272-291. [PMID: 33827411 PMCID: PMC9413790 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210407151227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sodium oxybate (SO) has been in use for many decades to treat narcolepsy with cataplexy. It functions as a weak GABAB agonist but also as an energy source for the brain as a result of its metabolism to succinate and as a powerful antioxidant because of its capacity to induce the formation of NADPH. Its actions at thalamic GABAB receptors can induce slow-wave activity, while its actions at GABAB receptors on monoaminergic neurons can induce or delay REM sleep. By altering the balance between monoaminergic and cholinergic neuronal activity, SO uniquely can induce and prevent cataplexy. The formation of NADPH may enhance sleep’s restorative process by accelerating the removal of the reactive oxygen species (ROS), which accumulate during wakefulness. SO improves alertness in normal subjects and in patients with narcolepsy. SO may allay severe psychological stress - an inflammatory state triggered by increased levels of ROS and characterized by cholinergic supersensitivity and monoaminergic deficiency. SO may be able to eliminate the inflammatory state and correct the cholinergic/ monoaminergic imbalance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mortimer Mamelak
- Department of Psychiatry, Baycrest Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario. Canada
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7
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Frank MG. Challenging sleep homeostasis. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms 2021; 10:100060. [PMID: 33604491 PMCID: PMC7872964 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbscr.2021.100060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this commentary, I play the Devil’s advocate and assume the title of High Contrarian. I intend to be provocative to challenge long-standing ideas about sleep. I blame all on Professor Craig Heller, who taught me to think this way as a graduate student in his laboratory. Scientists should fearlessly jump into the foaming edge of what we know, but also consider how safe are their intellectual harbors. There are many ideas we accept as ‘known’: that sleep is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, that it serves vital functions, that it plays an essential role in brain plasticity. All of this could be wrong. As one example, I reexamine the idea that sleep is regulated by a mysterious ‘homeostat’ that determines sleep need based on prior wake time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos G Frank
- Washington State University Spokane, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 213, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd, Spokane, WA, 99202, USA
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8
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Peng W, Wu Z, Song K, Zhang S, Li Y, Xu M. Regulation of sleep homeostasis mediator adenosine by basal forebrain glutamatergic neurons. Science 2020; 369:369/6508/eabb0556. [DOI: 10.1126/science.abb0556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Sleep and wakefulness are homeostatically regulated by a variety of factors, including adenosine. However, how neural activity underlying the sleep-wake cycle controls adenosine release in the brain remains unclear. Using a newly developed genetically encoded adenosine sensor, we found an activity-dependent rapid increase in the concentration of extracellular adenosine in mouse basal forebrain (BF), a critical region controlling sleep and wakefulness. Although the activity of both BF cholinergic and glutamatergic neurons correlated with changes in the concentration of adenosine, optogenetic activation of these neurons at physiological firing frequencies showed that glutamatergic neurons contributed much more to the adenosine increase. Mice with selective ablation of BF glutamatergic neurons exhibited a reduced adenosine increase and impaired sleep homeostasis regulation. Thus, cell type–specific neural activity in the BF dynamically controls sleep homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanling Peng
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhaofa Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking University School of Life Sciences, Beijing 100871, China
- PKU-IDG–McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Kun Song
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Siyu Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
- Shanghai Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence Technology, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yulong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Peking University School of Life Sciences, Beijing 100871, China
- PKU-IDG–McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing 100871, China
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Min Xu
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- Shanghai Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence Technology, Shanghai 201210, China
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9
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Bolshakov AP, Stepanichev MY, Dobryakova YV, Spivak YS, Markevich VA. Saporin from Saponaria officinalis as a Tool for Experimental Research, Modeling, and Therapy in Neuroscience. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090546. [PMID: 32854372 PMCID: PMC7551693 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Saporin, which is extracted from Saponaria officinalis, is a protein toxin that inactivates ribosomes. Saporin itself is non-selective toxin but acquires high specificity after conjugation with different ligands such as signaling peptides or antibodies to some surface proteins expressed in a chosen cell subpopulation. The saporin-based conjugated toxins were widely adopted in neuroscience as a convenient tool to induce highly selective degeneration of desired cell subpopulation. Induction of selective cell death is one of approaches used to model neurodegenerative diseases, study functions of certain cell subpopulations in the brain, and therapy. Here, we review studies where saporin-based conjugates were used to analyze cell mechanisms of sleep, general anesthesia, epilepsy, pain, and development of Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. Limitations and future perspectives of use of saporin-based toxins in neuroscience are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey P. Bolshakov
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Mikhail Yu. Stepanichev
- Laboratory of Functional Biochemistry of the Nervous System, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Yulia V. Dobryakova
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of Learning, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (Y.V.D.); (V.A.M.)
| | - Yulia S. Spivak
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Vladimir A. Markevich
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of Learning, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (Y.V.D.); (V.A.M.)
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10
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Porkka-Heiskanen T, Wigren HK. Molecular mechanisms of (recovery) sleep: lessons from Drosophila melanogaster. CURRENT OPINION IN PHYSIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cophys.2020.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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11
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Sharma R, Sahota P, Thakkar MM. Sleep Loss Immediately After Fear Memory Reactivation Attenuates Fear Memory Reconsolidation. Neuroscience 2020; 428:70-75. [PMID: 31917354 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Permanently stored memories become labile through a process called reactivation. Once reactivated, these memories need reconsolidation to become permanent. Sleep is critical for memory consolidation. Is sleep necessary for memory reconsolidation? We hypothesized that sleep loss immediately after fear reactivation (FR) will prevent memory reconsolidation. To test our hypothesis, two experiments were performed in adult male C57BL/6J mice exposed to contextual fear conditioning paradigm with inescapable foot shock as unconditional stimulus (US) and contextual cage as conditional stimulus (CS). Sleep loss was achieved either by 5 h of sleep deprivation (SD; Experiment 1) or by systemic infusion of modafinil (200 mg/Kg, ip), an FDA approved wake-promoting agent (Experiment 2). One hour after light-onset, fear memory acquisition (FMA) was performed on Day 1. Mice were allowed to explore CS for 5 min followed by presentation of US (7 foot-shocks; 0.5 mA, 2.0 s duration) at pseudorandom intervals. Controls were exposed to similar CS but no shocks were delivered. On Day 2, mice were exposed to CS for 2 min (without US; for FR) followed by either sleep loss or no sleep loss. On Day 3, fear memory recall (FMR) was performed by exposing mice to CS (without US) for 12 min. Percent time spent in freezing was monitored during FC, FR and FMR. Our results suggested that as compared to sleeping controls, mice with sleep loss immediately after FR displayed a significant reduction in percent time freezing during FMR. These results suggest that sleep loss may prevent memory reconsolidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Sharma
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri-School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65201, United States
| | - Pradeep Sahota
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri-School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65201, United States
| | - Mahesh M Thakkar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology, University of Missouri-School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65201, United States.
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12
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Abstract
The neural mechanisms of sleep, a fundamental biological behavior from invertebrates to humans, have been a long-standing mystery and present an enormous challenge. Gradually, perspectives on the neurobiology of sleep have been more various with the technical innovations over the recent decades, and studies have now identified many specific neural circuits that selectively regulate the initiation and maintenance of wake, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, and non-REM (NREM) sleep. The cholinergic system in basal forebrain (BF) that fire maximally during waking and REM sleep is one of the key neuromodulation systems related to waking and REM sleep. Here we outline the recent progress of the BF cholinergic system in sleep-wake cycle. The intricate local connectivity and multiple projections to other cortical and subcortical regions of the BF cholinergic system elaborately presented here form a conceptual framework for understanding the coordinating effects with the dissecting regions. This framework also provides evidences regarding the relationships between the general anesthesia and wakefulness/sleep cycle focusing on the neural circuitry of unconsciousness induced by anesthetic drugs.
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13
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Pethő M, Détári L, Keserű D, Hajnik T, Szalontai Ö, Tóth A. Region-specific adenosinergic modulation of the slow-cortical rhythm in urethane-anesthetized rats. Brain Res 2019; 1725:146471. [PMID: 31568768 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Slow cortical rhythm (SCR) is a rhythmic alternation of UP and DOWN states during sleep and anesthesia. SCR-associated slow waves reflect homeostatic sleep functions. Adenosine accumulating during prolonged wakefulness and sleep deprivation (SD) may play a role in the delta power increment during recovery sleep. NREM sleep is a local, use-dependent process of the brain. In the present study, direct effect of adenosine on UP and DOWN states was tested by topical application to frontal, somatosensory and visual cortices, respectively, in urethane-anesthetized rats. Local field potentials (LFPs) were recorded using an electrode array inserted close to the location of adenosine application. Multiple unit activity (MUA) was measured from layer V-VI in close proximity of the recording array. In the frontal and somatosensory cortex, adenosine modulated SCR with slow kinetics on the LFP level while MUA remained mostly unaffected. In the visual cortex, adenosine modulated SCR with fast kinetics. In each region, delta power increment was based on the increased frequency of state transitions as well as increased height of UP-state associated slow waves. These results show that adenosine may directly modulate SCR in a complex and region-specific manner which may be related to the finding that restorative processes may take place with varying duration and intensity during recovery sleep in different cortical regions. Adenosine may play a direct role in the increment of the slow wave power observed during local sleep, furthermore it may shape the region-specific characteristics of the phenomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Máté Pethő
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary.
| | - László Détári
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary.
| | - Dóra Keserű
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary.
| | - Tünde Hajnik
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary.
| | - Örs Szalontai
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary
| | - Attila Tóth
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/C., Budapest 1117, Hungary.
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Chen XT, Wang XG, Xie LY, Huang JW, Zhao W, Wang Q, Yao LM, Li WR. Effects of Xingnaojing Injection on Adenosinergic Transmission and Orexin Signaling in Lateral Hypothalamus of Ethanol-Induced Coma Rats. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:2389485. [PMID: 31346513 PMCID: PMC6620848 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2389485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Acute alcohol exposure induces unconscious condition such as coma whose main physical manifestation is the loss of righting reflex (LORR). Xingnaojing Injection (XNJI), which came from Chinese classic formula An Gong Niu Huang Pill, is widely used for consciousness disorders in China, such as coma. Although XNJI efficiently shortened the duration of LORR induced by acute ethanol, it remains unknown how XNJI acts on ethanol-induced coma (EIC). We performed experiments to examine the effects of XNJI on orexin and adenosine (AD) signaling in the lateral hypothalamic area (LHA) in EIC rats. Results showed that XNJI reduced the duration of LORR, which implied that XNJI promotes recovery form coma. Microdialysis data indicated that acute ethanol significantly increased AD release in the LHA but had no effect on orexin A levels. The qPCR results displayed a significant reduction in the Orexin-1 receptors (OX1R) expression with a concomitant increase in the A1 receptor (A1R) and equilibrative nucleoside transporter type 1 (ENT1) expression in EIC rats. In contrast, XNJI reduced the extracellular AD levels but orexin A levels remained unaffected. XNJI also counteracted the downregulation of the OX1R expression and upregulation of A1R and ENT1 expression caused by EIC. As for ADK expression, XNJI but not ethanol, displayed an upregulation in the LHA in EIC rats. Based on these results, we suggest that XNJI promotes arousal by inhibiting adenosine neurotransmission via reducing AD level and the expression of A1R and ENT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Tong Chen
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Xiao-Ge Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Li-Yuan Xie
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Jia-Wen Huang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Li-Mei Yao
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine Healthcare, Guangdong Food and Drug Vocational College, 321 Longdong North Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510520, China
| | - Wei-Rong Li
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 12 Jichang Road, Baiyun District, Guangzhou 510405, China
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15
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Iovino M, Messana T, De Pergola G, Iovino E, Guastamacchia E, Giagulli VA, Triggiani V. Vigilance States: Central Neural Pathways, Neurotransmitters and Neurohormones. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets 2019; 19:26-37. [PMID: 30113008 DOI: 10.2174/1871530318666180816115720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2017] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE The sleep-wake cycle is characterized by a circadian rhythm involving neurotransmitters and neurohormones that are released from brainstem nuclei and hypothalamus. The aim of this review is to analyze the role played by central neural pathways, neurotransmitters and neurohormones in the regulation of vigilance states. METHOD We analyzed the literature identifying relevant articles dealing with central neural pathways, neurotransmitters and neurohormones involved in the control of wakefulness and sleep. RESULTS The reticular activating system is the key center in the control of the states of wakefulness and sleep via alertness and hypnogenic centers. Neurotransmitters and neurohormones interplay during the dark-light cycle in order to maintain a normal plasmatic concentration of ions, proteins and peripheral hormones, and behavioral state control. CONCLUSION An updated description of pathways, neurotransmitters and neurohormones involved in the regulation of vigilance states has been depicted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Iovino
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine-Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases. University of Bari "Aldo Moro", School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Tullio Messana
- Infantile Neuropsychiatry, IRCCS - Institute of Neurological Sciences, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanni De Pergola
- Clinical Nutrition Unit, Medical Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Oncology, University of Bari, School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Emanuela Iovino
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine-Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases. University of Bari "Aldo Moro", School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Edoardo Guastamacchia
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine-Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases. University of Bari "Aldo Moro", School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Vito Angelo Giagulli
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine-Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases. University of Bari "Aldo Moro", School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Triggiani
- Interdisciplinary Department of Medicine-Section of Internal Medicine, Geriatrics, Endocrinology and Rare Diseases. University of Bari "Aldo Moro", School of Medicine, Policlinico, Piazza Giulio Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
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16
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Sharma R, Sahota P, Thakkar MM. A single episode of binge alcohol drinking causes sleep disturbance, disrupts sleep homeostasis, and down-regulates equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1. J Neurochem 2018; 146:304-321. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Sharma
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; School of Medicine; University of Missouri- Columbia; Columbias Missouri USA
| | - Pradeep Sahota
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; School of Medicine; University of Missouri- Columbia; Columbias Missouri USA
| | - Mahesh M. Thakkar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; School of Medicine; University of Missouri- Columbia; Columbias Missouri USA
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17
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Lelkes Z, Abdurakhmanova S, Porkka-Heiskanen T. Cholinergic basal forebrain structures are not essential for mediation of the arousing action of glutamate. J Sleep Res 2017; 27:e12605. [PMID: 28921744 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.12605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Revised: 07/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The cholinergic basal forebrain contributes to cortical activation and receives rich innervations from the ascending activating system. It is involved in the mediation of the arousing actions of noradrenaline and histamine. Glutamatergic stimulation in the basal forebrain results in cortical acetylcholine release and suppression of sleep. However, it is not known to what extent the cholinergic versus non-cholinergic basal forebrain projection neurones contribute to the arousing action of glutamate. To clarify this question, we administered N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), a glutamate agonist, into the basal forebrain in intact rats and after destruction of the cholinergic cells in the basal forebrain with 192 immunoglobulin (Ig)G-saporin. In eight Han-Wistar rats with implanted electroencephalogram/electromyogram (EEG/EMG) electrodes and guide cannulas for microdialysis probes, 0.23 μg 192 IgG-saporin was administered into the basal forebrain, while the eight control animals received artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Two weeks later, a microdialysis probe targeted into the basal forebrain was perfused with cerebrospinal fluid on the baseline day and for 3 h with 0.3 mmNMDA on the subsequent day. Sleep-wake activity was recorded for 24 h on both days. NMDA exhibited a robust arousing effect in both the intact and the lesioned rats. Wakefulness was increased and both non-REM and REM sleep were decreased significantly during the 3-h NMDA perfusion. Destruction of the basal forebrain cholinergic neurones did not abolish the wake-enhancing action of NMDA. Thus, the cholinergic basal forebrain structures are not essential for the mediation of the arousing action of glutamate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Lelkes
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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18
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Optogenetic Investigation of Arousal Circuits. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18081773. [PMID: 28809797 PMCID: PMC5578162 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Revised: 08/06/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Modulation between sleep and wake states is controlled by a number of heterogeneous neuron populations. Due to the topological proximity and genetic co-localization of the neurons underlying sleep-wake state modulation optogenetic methods offer a significant improvement in the ability to benefit from both the precision of genetic targeting and millisecond temporal control. Beginning with an overview of the neuron populations mediating arousal, this review outlines the progress that has been made in the investigation of arousal circuits since the incorporation of optogenetic techniques and the first in vivo application of optogenetic stimulation in hypocretin neurons in the lateral hypothalamus. This overview is followed by a discussion of the future progress that can be made by incorporating more recent technological developments into the research of neural circuits.
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19
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Sharma R, Sahota P, Thakkar MM. Lesion of the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons attenuates sleepiness and adenosine after alcohol consumption. J Neurochem 2017; 142:710-720. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Sharma
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; University of Missouri; Columbia Missouri USA
| | - Pradeep Sahota
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; University of Missouri; Columbia Missouri USA
| | - Mahesh M. Thakkar
- Harry S. Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital and Department of Neurology; University of Missouri; Columbia Missouri USA
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20
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Abstract
Sleep homeostasis is a fundamental property of vigilance state regulation that is highly conserved across species. Neuronal systems and circuits that underlie sleep homeostasis are not well understood. In Drosophila, a neuronal circuit involving neurons in the ellipsoid body and in the dorsal Fan-shaped body is a candidate for both tracing sleep need during waking and translating it to increased sleep drive and expression. Sleep homeostasis in rats and mice involves multiple neuromodulators acting on multiple wake- and sleep-promoting neuronal systems. A functional central homeostat emerges from A1 receptor mediated actions of adenosine on wake-promoting neurons in the basal forebrain and hypothalamus, and A2A adenosine receptor-mediated actions on sleep-promoting neurons in the preoptic hypothalamus and nucleus accumbens.
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21
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Yang C, Thankachan S, McCarley RW, Brown RE. The menagerie of the basal forebrain: how many (neural) species are there, what do they look like, how do they behave and who talks to whom? Curr Opin Neurobiol 2017; 44:159-166. [PMID: 28538168 PMCID: PMC5525536 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The diverse cell-types of the basal forebrain control sleep-wake states, cortical activity and reward processing. Large, slow-firing, cholinergic neurons suppress cortical delta activity and promote cortical plasticity in response to reinforcers. Large, fast-firing, cortically-projecting GABAergic neurons promote wakefulness and fast cortical activity. In particular, parvalbumin/GABAergic neurons promote neocortical gamma band activity. Conversely, excitation of slower-firing somatostatin/GABAergic neurons promotes sleep through inhibition of cortically-projecting neurons. Activation of glutamatergic neurons promotes wakefulness, likely by exciting other cortically-projecting neurons. Similarly, cholinergic neurons indirectly promote wakefulness by excitation of wake-promoting, cortically-projecting GABAergic neurons and/or inhibition of sleep-promoting somatostatin/GABAergic neurons. Both glia and neurons increase the levels of adenosine during prolonged wakefulness. Adenosine presynaptically inhibits glutamatergic inputs to wake-promoting cholinergic and GABAergic/parvalbumin neurons, promoting sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- Psychiatry, VA BHS and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA
| | - Stephen Thankachan
- Psychiatry, VA BHS and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA
| | - Robert W McCarley
- Psychiatry, VA BHS and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA.
| | - Ritchie E Brown
- Psychiatry, VA BHS and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA.
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22
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Lasisi DT, Shittu S, Meludu C, Salami A. Differential effects of total and partial sleep deprivation on salivary factors in Wistar rats. Arch Oral Biol 2017; 73:100-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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23
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Weber F, Dan Y. Circuit-based interrogation of sleep control. Nature 2016; 538:51-59. [PMID: 27708309 DOI: 10.1038/nature19773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Sleep is a fundamental biological process observed widely in the animal kingdom, but the neural circuits generating sleep remain poorly understood. Understanding the brain mechanisms controlling sleep requires the identification of key neurons in the control circuits and mapping of their synaptic connections. Technical innovations over the past decade have greatly facilitated dissection of the sleep circuits. This has set the stage for understanding how a variety of environmental and physiological factors influence sleep. The ability to initiate and terminate sleep on command will also help us to elucidate its functions within and beyond the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Weber
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - Yang Dan
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
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24
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Gvilia I, Suntsova N, Kostin A, Kalinchuk A, McGinty D, Basheer R, Szymusiak R. The role of adenosine in the maturation of sleep homeostasis in rats. J Neurophysiol 2016; 117:327-335. [PMID: 27784808 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00675.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep homeostasis in rats undergoes significant maturational changes during postweaning development, but the underlying mechanisms of this process are unknown. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that the maturation of sleep is related to the functional emergence of adenosine (AD) signaling in the brain. We assessed postweaning changes in 1) wake-related elevation of extracellular AD in the basal forebrain (BF) and adjacent lateral preoptic area (LPO), and 2) the responsiveness of median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) sleep-active cells to increasing homeostatic sleep drive. We tested the ability of exogenous AD to augment homeostatic responses to sleep deprivation (SD) in newly weaned rats. In groups of postnatal day (P)22 and P30 rats, we collected dialysate from the BF/LPO during baseline (BSL) wake-sleep, SD, and recovery sleep (RS). HPLC analysis of microdialysis samples revealed that SD in P30 rats results in significant increases in AD levels compared with BSL. P22 rats do not exhibit changes in AD levels in response to SD. We recorded neuronal activity in the MnPO during BSL, SD, and RS at P22/P30. MnPO neurons exhibited adult-like increases in waking neuronal discharge across SD on both P22 and P30, but discharge rates during enforced wake were higher on P30 vs. P22. Central administration of AD (1 nmol) during SD on P22 resulted in increased sleep time and EEG slow-wave activity during RS compared with saline control. Collectively, these findings support the hypothesis that functional reorganization of an adenosinergic mechanism of sleep regulation contributes to the maturation of sleep homeostasis. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Brain mechanisms that regulate the maturation of sleep are understudied. The present study generated first evidence about a potential mechanistic role for adenosine in the maturation of sleep homeostasis. Specifically, we demonstrate that early postweaning development in rats, when homeostatic response to sleep loss become adult like, is characterized by maturational changes in wake-related production/release of adenosine in the brain. Pharmacologically increased adenosine signaling in developing brain facilitates homeostatic responses to sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma Gvilia
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California; .,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California.,Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia; and
| | - Natalia Suntsova
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Andrey Kostin
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California
| | - Anna Kalinchuk
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Dennis McGinty
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Radhika Basheer
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ronald Szymusiak
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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Abstract
Sleep is a complex physiological process that is regulated globally, regionally, and locally by both cellular and molecular mechanisms. It occurs to some extent in all animals, although sleep expression in lower animals may be co-extensive with rest. Sleep regulation plays an intrinsic part in many behavioral and physiological functions. Currently, all researchers agree there is no single physiological role sleep serves. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that sleep is essential for many vital functions including development, energy conservation, brain waste clearance, modulation of immune responses, cognition, performance, vigilance, disease, and psychological state. This review details the physiological processes involved in sleep regulation and the possible functions that sleep may serve. This description of the brain circuitry, cell types, and molecules involved in sleep regulation is intended to further the reader's understanding of the functions of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R. Zielinski
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
| | - James T. McKenna
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
| | - Robert W. McCarley
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, Brockton, MA 02301, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
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26
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mGlu2 Receptor Agonism, but Not Positive Allosteric Modulation, Elicits Rapid Tolerance towards Their Primary Efficacy on Sleep Measures in Rats. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144017. [PMID: 26658273 PMCID: PMC4684355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists are known to induce both cellular adaptations resulting in tolerance to therapeutic effects and withdrawal symptoms upon treatment discontinuation. Glutamate neurotransmission is an integral part of sleep-wake mechanisms, which processes have translational relevance for central activity and target engagement. Here, we investigated the efficacy and tolerance potential of the metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR2/3) agonist LY354740 versus mGluR2 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) JNJ-42153605 on sleep-wake organisation in rats. In vitro, the selectivity and potency of JNJ-42153605 were characterized. In vivo, effects on sleep measures were investigated in rats after once daily oral repeated treatment for 7 days, withdrawal and consecutive re-administration of LY354740 (1–10 mg/kg) and JNJ-42153605 (3–30 mg/kg). JNJ-42153605 showed high affinity, potency and selectivity at mGluR2. Binding site analyses and knowledge-based docking confirmed the specificity of JNJ-42153605 at the mGluR2 allosteric binding site. Acute LY354740 and JNJ-42153605 dose-dependently decreased rapid eye movement (REM) sleep time and prolonged its onset latency. Sub chronic effects of LY354740 on REM sleep measures disappeared from day 3 onwards, whereas those of JNJ-42153605 were maintained after repeated exposure. LY354740 attenuated REM sleep homeostatic recovery, while this was preserved after JNJ-42153605 administration. JNJ-42153605 enhanced sleep continuity and efficiency, suggesting its potential as an add-on medication for impaired sleep quality during early stages of treatment. Abrupt cessation of JNJ-42153605 did not induce withdrawal phenomena and sleep disturbances, while the initial drug effect was fully reinstated after re-administration. Collectively, long-term treatment with JNJ-42153605 did not induce tolerance phenomena to its primary functional effects on sleep measures, nor adverse effects at withdrawal, while it promoted homeostatic recovery sleep. From the translational perspective, the present rodent findings suggest that mGluR2 positive allosteric modulation has therapeutic potential based on its superior long term efficacy over agonists in psychiatric disorders, particularly of those commonly occurring with REM sleep overdrive.
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27
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Abstract
Cortical electroencephalographic activity arises from corticothalamocortical interactions, modulated by wake-promoting monoaminergic and cholinergic input. These wake-promoting systems are regulated by hypothalamic hypocretin/orexins, while GABAergic sleep-promoting nuclei are found in the preoptic area, brainstem and lateral hypothalamus. Although pontine acetylcholine is critical for REM sleep, hypothalamic melanin-concentrating hormone/GABAergic cells may "gate" REM sleep. Daily sleep-wake rhythms arise from interactions between a hypothalamic circadian pacemaker and a sleep homeostat whose anatomical locus has yet to be conclusively defined. Control of sleep and wakefulness involves multiple systems, each of which presents vulnerability to sleep/wake dysfunction that may predispose to physical and/or neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Schwartz
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Thomas S Kilduff
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Avenue, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA.
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28
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Disrupted sleep-wake regulation in type 1 equilibrative nucleoside transporter knockout mice. Neuroscience 2015; 303:211-9. [PMID: 26143012 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The type 1 equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT1) is implicated in regulating levels of extracellular adenosine ([AD]ex). In the basal forebrain (BF) levels of [AD]ex increase during wakefulness and closely correspond to the increases in the electroencephalogram (EEG) delta (0.75-4.5Hz) activity (NRδ) during subsequent non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS). Thus in the BF, [AD]ex serves as a biochemical marker of sleep homeostasis. Waking EEG activity in theta range (5-9Hz, Wθ) is also described as a marker of sleep homeostasis. An hour-by-hour temporal relationship between the Wθ and NRδ is unclear. In this study we examined the relationship between these EEG markers of sleep homeostasis during spontaneous sleep-wakefulness and during sleep deprivation (SD) and recovery sleep in the ENT1 gene knockout (ENT1KO) mouse. We observed that baseline NREMS amount was decreased during the light period in ENT1KO mice, accompanied by a weak correlation between Wθ of each hour and NRδ of its subsequent hour when compared to their wild-type (WT) littermates. Perfusion of low dose of adenosine into BF not only strengthened the Wθ-NRδ relationship, but also increased NREMS to match with the WT littermates suggesting decreased [AD]ex in ENT1KO mice. However, the SD-induced [AD]ex increase in the BF and the linear correlation between the EEG markers of sleep homeostasis were unaffected in ENT1KO mice suggesting that during SD, sources other than ENT1 contribute to increase in [AD]ex. Our data provide evidence for a differential regulation of wakefulness-associated [AD]ex during spontaneous vs prolonged waking.
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29
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Huang ZL, Zhang Z, Qu WM. Roles of adenosine and its receptors in sleep-wake regulation. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2015; 119:349-71. [PMID: 25175972 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-801022-8.00014-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This chapter summarizes the current knowledge about the role of adenosine in the sleep-wake regulation with a focus on adenosine in the brain, regulation of adenosine levels, adenosine receptors, and manipulations of the adenosine system by the use of pharmacological and molecular biological tools. Adenosine is neither stored nor released as a classical neurotransmitter and is thought to be formed inside cells or on their surface, mostly by breakdown of adenine nucleotides. The extracellular level of adenosine increases in the cortex and basal forebrain (BF) during prolonged wakefulness and decreases during the sleep-recovery period. Therefore, adenosine is proposed to act as a homeostatic regulator of sleep. The endogenous somnogen prostaglandin (PG) D2 increases the extracellular level of adenosine under the subarachnoid space of the BF and promotes physiological sleep. There are four adenosine receptor subtypes: adenosine A1 receptor (R, A1R), A2AR, A2BR, and A3R. Both the A1R and the A2AR have been reported to be involved in sleep induction. The A2AR plays an important role in the somnogenic effects of PGD2. Activation of A2AR by its agonist infused into the brain potently increases sleep and the arousal effect of caffeine, an A1R and A2AR antagonist, was shown to be dependent on the A2AR. On the other hand, inhibition of wake-promoting neurons via the A1R also mediates the sleep-inducing effects of adenosine, whereas activation of A1R in the lateral preoptic area induces wakefulness. These findings indicate that A2AR plays a predominant role in sleep induction, whereas A1R regulates the sleep-wake cycle in a site-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Li Huang
- Department of Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institute of Brain Science, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Ze Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institute of Brain Science, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei-Min Qu
- Department of Pharmacology, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institute of Brain Science, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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Garrity AG, Botta S, Lazar SB, Swor E, Vanini G, Baghdoyan HA, Lydic R. Dexmedetomidine-induced sedation does not mimic the neurobehavioral phenotypes of sleep in Sprague Dawley rat. Sleep 2015; 38:73-84. [PMID: 25325438 PMCID: PMC4262959 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.4328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES Dexmedetomidine is used clinically to induce states of sedation that have been described as homologous to nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. A better understanding of the similarities and differences between NREM sleep and dexmedetomidine-induced sedation is essential for efforts to clarify the relationship between these two states. This study tested the hypothesis that dexmedetomidine-induced sedation is homologous to sleep. DESIGN This study used between-groups and within-groups designs. SETTING University of Michigan. PARTICIPANTS Adult male Sprague Dawley rats (n = 40). INTERVENTIONS Independent variables were administration of dexmedetomidine and saline or Ringer's solution (control). Dependent variables included time spent in states of wakefulness, sleep, and sedation, electroencephalographic (EEG) power, adenosine levels in the substantia innominata (SI), and activation of pCREB and c-Fos in sleep related forebrain regions. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS Dexmedetomidine significantly decreased time spent in wakefulness (-49%), increased duration of sedation (1995%), increased EEG delta power (546%), and eliminated the rapid eye movement (REM) phase of sleep for 16 h. Sedation was followed by a rebound increase in NREM and REM sleep. Systemically administered dexmedetomidine significantly decreased (-39%) SI adenosine levels. Dialysis delivery of dexmedetomidine into SI did not decrease adenosine level. Systemic delivery of dexmedetomidine did not alter c-Fos or pCREB expression in the horizontal diagonal band, or ventrolateral, median, and medial preoptic areas of the hypothalamus. CONCLUSIONS Dexmedetomidine significantly altered normal sleep phenotypes, and the dexmedetomidine-induced state did not compensate for sleep need. Thus, in the Sprague Dawley rat, dexmedetomidine-induced sedation is characterized by behavioral, electrographic, and immunohistochemical phenotypes that are distinctly different from similar measures obtained during sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Simhadri Botta
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | | | - Erin Swor
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Giancarlo Vanini
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Helen A. Baghdoyan
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
- Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
| | - Ralph Lydic
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
- Neuroscience Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI
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Kalinchuk AV, Porkka-Heiskanen T, McCarley RW, Basheer R. Cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain mediate biochemical and electrophysiological mechanisms underlying sleep homeostasis. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 41:182-95. [PMID: 25369989 PMCID: PMC4460789 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Revised: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The tight coordination of biochemical and electrophysiological mechanisms underlies the homeostatic sleep pressure (HSP) produced by sleep deprivation (SD). We have reported that during SD the levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), extracellular nitric oxide (NO), adenosine [AD]ex , lactate [Lac]ex and pyruvate [Pyr]ex increase in the basal forebrain (BF). However, it is not clear whether all of them contribute to HSP leading to increased electroencephalogram (EEG) delta activity during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) recovery sleep (RS) following SD. Previously, we showed that NREM delta increase evident during RS depends on the presence of BF cholinergic (ChBF) neurons. Here, we investigated the role of ChBF cells in coordination of biochemical and EEG changes seen during SD and RS in the rat. Increases in low-theta power (5-7 Hz), but not high-theta (7-9 Hz), during SD correlated with the increase in NREM delta power during RS, and with the changes in nitrate/nitrite [NOx ]ex and [AD]ex . Lesions of ChBF cells using IgG 192-saporin prevented increases in [NOx ]ex , [AD]ex and low-theta activity, during SD, but did not prevent increases in [Lac]ex and [Pyr]ex . Infusion of NO donor DETA NONOate into the saporin-treated BF failed to increase NREM RS and delta power, suggesting ChBF cells are important for mediating NO homeostatic effects. Finally, SD-induced iNOS was mostly expressed in ChBF cells, and the intensity of iNOS induction correlated with the increase in low-theta activity. Together, our data indicate ChBF cells are important in regulating the biochemical and EEG mechanisms that contribute to HSP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna V. Kalinchuk
- VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, 1400 V.F.W. Parkway, West Roxbury MA 02067
| | | | - Robert W. McCarley
- VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, 1400 V.F.W. Parkway, West Roxbury MA 02067
| | - Radhika Basheer
- VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, 1400 V.F.W. Parkway, West Roxbury MA 02067
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Vazquez-DeRose J, Schwartz MD, Nguyen AT, Warrier DR, Gulati S, Mathew TK, Neylan TC, Kilduff TS. Hypocretin/orexin antagonism enhances sleep-related adenosine and GABA neurotransmission in rat basal forebrain. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 221:923-40. [PMID: 25431268 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0946-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Hypocretin/orexin (HCRT) neurons provide excitatory input to wake-promoting brain regions including the basal forebrain (BF). The dual HCRT receptor antagonist almorexant (ALM) decreases waking and increases sleep. We hypothesized that HCRT antagonists induce sleep, in part, through disfacilitation of BF neurons; consequently, ALM should have reduced efficacy in BF-lesioned (BFx) animals. To test this hypothesis, rats were given bilateral IgG-192-saporin injections, which predominantly targets cholinergic BF neurons. BFx and intact rats were then given oral ALM, the benzodiazepine agonist zolpidem (ZOL) or vehicle (VEH) at lights-out. ALM was less effective than ZOL at inducing sleep in BFx rats compared to controls. BF adenosine (ADO), γ-amino-butyric acid (GABA), and glutamate levels were then determined via microdialysis from intact, freely behaving rats following oral ALM, ZOL or VEH. ALM increased BF ADO and GABA levels during waking and mixed vigilance states, and preserved sleep-associated increases in GABA under low and high sleep pressure conditions. ALM infusion into the BF also enhanced cortical ADO release, demonstrating that HCRT input is critical for ADO signaling in the BF. In contrast, oral ZOL and BF-infused ZOL had no effect on ADO levels in either BF or cortex. ALM increased BF ADO (an endogenous sleep-promoting substance) and GABA (which is increased during normal sleep), and required an intact BF for maximal efficacy, whereas ZOL blocked sleep-associated BF GABA release, and required no functional contribution from the BF to induce sleep. ALM thus induces sleep by facilitating the neural mechanisms underlying the normal transition to sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Vazquez-DeRose
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Michael D Schwartz
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Alexander T Nguyen
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Deepti R Warrier
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Srishti Gulati
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Thomas K Mathew
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA
| | - Thomas C Neylan
- UCSF San Francisco VA Medical Center/NCIRE, San Francisco, CA, 94121, USA
| | - Thomas S Kilduff
- Biosciences Division, Center for Neuroscience, SRI International, 333 Ravenswood Ave., Menlo Park, CA, 94025, USA.
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33
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Physiologically-based modeling of sleep-wake regulatory networks. Math Biosci 2014; 250:54-68. [PMID: 24530893 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2014.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mathematical modeling has played a significant role in building our understanding of sleep-wake and circadian behavior. Over the past 40 years, phenomenological models, including the two-process model and oscillator models, helped frame experimental results and guide progress in understanding the interaction of homeostatic and circadian influences on sleep and understanding the generation of rapid eye movement sleep cycling. Recent advances in the clarification of the neural anatomy and physiology involved in the regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms have motivated the development of more detailed and physiologically-based mathematical models that extend the approach introduced by the classical reciprocal-interaction model. Using mathematical formalisms developed in the field of computational neuroscience to model neuronal population activity, these models investigate the dynamics of proposed conceptual models of sleep-wake regulatory networks with a focus on generating appropriate sleep and wake state transition patterns as well as simulating disease states and experimental protocols. In this review, we discuss several recent physiologically-based mathematical models of sleep-wake regulatory networks. We identify common features among these models in their network structures, model dynamics and approaches for model validation. We describe how the model analysis technique of fast-slow decomposition, which exploits the naturally occurring multiple timescales of sleep-wake behavior, can be applied to understand model dynamics in these networks. Our purpose in identifying commonalities among these models is to propel understanding of both the mathematical models and their underlying conceptual models, and focus directions for future experimental and theoretical work.
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Alam MA, Kumar S, McGinty D, Alam MN, Szymusiak R. Neuronal activity in the preoptic hypothalamus during sleep deprivation and recovery sleep. J Neurophysiol 2014; 111:287-99. [PMID: 24174649 PMCID: PMC3921380 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00504.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The preoptic hypothalamus is implicated in sleep regulation. Neurons in the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) and the ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) have been identified as potential sleep regulatory elements. However, the extent to which MnPO and VLPO neurons are activated in response to changing homeostatic sleep regulatory demands is unresolved. To address this question, we continuously recorded the extracellular activity of neurons in the rat MnPO, VLPO and dorsal lateral preoptic area (LPO) during baseline sleep and waking, during 2 h of sleep deprivation (SD) and during 2 h of recovery sleep (RS). Sleep-active neurons in the MnPO (n = 11) and VLPO (n = 13) were activated in response to SD, such that waking discharge rates increased by 95.8 ± 29.5% and 59.4 ± 17.3%, respectively, above waking baseline values. During RS, non-rapid eye movement (REM) sleep discharge rates of MnPO neurons initially increased to 65.6 ± 15.2% above baseline values, then declined to baseline levels in association with decreases in EEG delta power. Increase in non-REM sleep discharge rates in VLPO neurons during RS averaged 40.5 ± 7.6% above baseline. REM-active neurons (n = 16) in the LPO also exhibited increased waking discharge during SD and an increase in non-REM discharge during RS. Infusion of A2A adenosine receptor antagonist into the VLPO attenuated SD-induced increases in neuronal discharge. Populations of LPO wake/REM-active and state-indifferent neurons and dorsal LPO sleep-active neurons were unresponsive to SD. These findings support the hypothesis that sleep-active neurons in the MnPO and VLPO, and REM-active neurons in the LPO, are components of neuronal circuits that mediate homeostatic responses to sustained wakefulness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Aftab Alam
- Research Service, Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California
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A role for cortical nNOS/NK1 neurons in coupling homeostatic sleep drive to EEG slow wave activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:20272-7. [PMID: 24191004 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1314762110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the neural circuitry underlying homeostatic sleep regulation is little understood, cortical neurons immunoreactive for neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1) have been proposed to be involved in this physiological process. By systematically manipulating the durations of sleep deprivation and subsequent recovery sleep, we show that activation of cortical nNOS/NK1 neurons is directly related to non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep time, NREM bout duration, and EEG δ power during NREM sleep, an index of preexisting homeostatic sleep drive. Conversely, nNOS knockout mice show reduced NREM sleep time, shorter NREM bouts, and decreased power in the low δ range during NREM sleep, despite constitutively elevated sleep drive. Cortical NK1 neurons are still activated in response to sleep deprivation in these mice but, in the absence of nNOS, they are unable to up-regulate NREM δ power appropriately. These findings support the hypothesis that cortical nNOS/NK1 neurons translate homeostatic sleep drive into up-regulation of NREM δ power through an NO-dependent mechanism.
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36
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McKenna JT, Yang C, Franciosi S, Winston S, Abarr KK, Rigby MS, Yanagawa Y, McCarley RW, Brown RE. Distribution and intrinsic membrane properties of basal forebrain GABAergic and parvalbumin neurons in the mouse. J Comp Neurol 2013; 521:1225-50. [PMID: 23254904 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The basal forebrain (BF) strongly regulates cortical activation, sleep homeostasis, and attention. Many BF neurons involved in these processes are GABAergic, including a subpopulation of projection neurons containing the calcium-binding protein, parvalbumin (PV). However, technical difficulties in identification have prevented a precise mapping of the distribution of GABAergic and GABA/PV+ neurons in the mouse or a determination of their intrinsic membrane properties. Here we used mice expressing fluorescent proteins in GABAergic (GAD67-GFP knock-in mice) or PV+ neurons (PV-Tomato mice) to study these neurons. Immunohistochemical staining for GABA in GAD67-GFP mice confirmed that GFP selectively labeled BF GABAergic neurons. GFP+ neurons and fibers were distributed throughout the BF, with the highest density in the magnocellular preoptic area (MCPO). Immunohistochemistry for PV indicated that the majority of PV+ neurons in the BF were large (>20 μm) or medium-sized (15-20 μm) GFP+ neurons. Most medium and large-sized BF GFP+ neurons, including those retrogradely labeled from the neocortex, were fast-firing and spontaneously active in vitro. They exhibited prominent hyperpolarization-activated inward currents and subthreshold "spikelets," suggestive of electrical coupling. PV+ neurons recorded in PV-Tomato mice had similar properties but had significantly narrower action potentials and a higher maximal firing frequency. Another population of smaller GFP+ neurons had properties similar to striatal projection neurons. The fast firing and electrical coupling of BF GABA/PV+ neurons, together with their projections to cortical interneurons and the thalamic reticular nucleus, suggest a strong and synchronous control of the neocortical fast rhythms typical of wakefulness and REM sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T McKenna
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Brockton, Massachusetts, 02301, USA
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37
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Porkka-Heiskanen T, Zitting KM, Wigren HK. Sleep, its regulation and possible mechanisms of sleep disturbances. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2013; 208:311-28. [PMID: 23746394 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The state of sleep consists of different phases that proceed in successive, tightly regulated order through the night forming a physiological program, which for each individual is different but stabile from one night to another. Failure to accomplish this program results in feeling of unrefreshing sleep and tiredness in the morning. The program core is constructed by genetic factors but regulated by circadian rhythm and duration and intensity of day time brain activity. Many environmental factors modulate sleep, including stress, health status and ingestion of vigilance-affecting nutrients or medicines (e.g. caffeine). Acute sleep loss results in compromised cognitive performance, memory deficits, depressive mood and involuntary sleep episodes during the day. Moreover, prolonged sleep curtailment has many adverse health effects, as evidenced by both epidemiological and experimental studies. These effects include increased risk for depression, type II diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular diseases. In addition to voluntary restriction of sleep, shift work, irregular working hours, jet lag and stress are important factors that induce curtailed or bad quality sleep and/or insomnia. This review covers the current theories on the function of normal sleep and describes current knowledge on the physiologic effects of sleep loss. It provides insights into the basic mechanisms of the regulation of wakefulness and sleep creating a theoretical background for understanding different disturbances of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - K.-M. Zitting
- Institute of Biomedicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
| | - H.-K. Wigren
- Institute of Biomedicine; University of Helsinki; Helsinki; Finland
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38
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Yang C, Franciosi S, Brown RE. Adenosine inhibits the excitatory synaptic inputs to Basal forebrain cholinergic, GABAergic, and parvalbumin neurons in mice. Front Neurol 2013; 4:77. [PMID: 23801984 PMCID: PMC3687201 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2013.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Coffee and tea contain the stimulants caffeine and theophylline. These compounds act as antagonists of adenosine receptors. Adenosine promotes sleep and its extracellular concentration rises in association with prolonged wakefulness, particularly in the basal forebrain (BF) region involved in activating the cerebral cortex. However, the effect of adenosine on identified BF neurons, especially non-cholinergic neurons, is incompletely understood. Here we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in mouse brain slices prepared from two validated transgenic mouse lines with fluorescent proteins expressed in GABAergic or parvalbumin (PV) neurons to determine the effect of adenosine. Whole-cell recordings were made from BF cholinergic neurons and from BF GABAergic and PV neurons with the size (>20 μm) and intrinsic membrane properties (prominent H-currents) corresponding to cortically projecting neurons. A brief (2 min) bath application of adenosine (100 μM) decreased the frequency but not the amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) in all groups of BF cholinergic, GABAergic, and PV neurons we recorded. In addition, adenosine decreased the frequency of miniature EPSCs in BF cholinergic neurons. Adenosine had no effect on the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents in cholinergic neurons or GABAergic neurons with large H-currents but reduced them in a group of GABAergic neurons with smaller H-currents. All effects of adenosine were blocked by a selective, adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, cyclopentyltheophylline (CPT, 1 μM). Adenosine had no postsynaptic effects. Taken together, our work suggests that adenosine promotes sleep by an A1 receptor-mediated inhibition of glutamatergic inputs to cortically projecting cholinergic and GABA/PV neurons. Conversely, caffeine and theophylline promote attentive wakefulness by inhibiting these A1 receptors in BF thereby promoting the high-frequency oscillations in the cortex required for attention and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, VA Boston Healthcare System, Harvard Medical School , Brockton, MA , USA
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Lelkes Z, Porkka-Heiskanen T, Stenberg D. Cholinergic basal forebrain structures are involved in the mediation of the arousal effect of noradrenaline. J Sleep Res 2013; 22:721-6. [DOI: 10.1111/jsr.12061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Lelkes
- Department of Physiology; Faculty of Medicine; University of Szeged; Szeged Hungary
| | - Tarja Porkka-Heiskanen
- Institute of Biomedicine; Department of Physiology; University of Helsinki; Helsinki Finland
| | - Dag Stenberg
- Institute of Biomedicine; Department of Physiology; University of Helsinki; Helsinki Finland
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40
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Porkka-Heiskanen T. Sleep homeostasis. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2013; 23:799-805. [PMID: 23510741 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Research on sleep homeostasis aims to answer the question: how does the brain measure the duration and intensity of previous wakefulness in order to increase the duration and intensity of subsequent sleep? The search of regulatory factors has identified a number of potential molecules that increase their concentration in waking and decrease it during sleep. These factors regulate many physiological functions, including energy metabolism, neural plasticity and immune functions and one molecule may participate in the regulation of all these functions. The method to study regulation of sleep homeostasis is experimental prolongation of waking, which is used also to address the question of physiological purpose of sleep: prolonging wakefulness provokes symptoms that tell us what goes wrong during lack of sleep. The interpretation of the role of each identified factor in the regulation of sleep/sleep homeostasis reflects the theoretical background concept of the research. Presently three main concepts are being actively studied: the energy (depletion) hypothesis, the neural plasticity hypothesis and the (immune) defense hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarja Porkka-Heiskanen
- University of Helsinki, Institute of Biomedicine, Department of Physiology, PO Box 63, 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Abstract
In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus generates a 24 h rhythm of sleep and arousal. While neuronal spiking activity in the SCN provides a functional circadian oscillator that propagates throughout the brain, the ultradian sleep-wake state is regulated by the basal forebrain/preoptic area (BF/POA). How this SCN circadian oscillation is integrated into the shorter sleep-wake cycles remains unclear. We examined the temporal patterns of neuronal activity in these key brain regions in freely behaving rats. Neuronal activity in various brain regions presented diurnal rhythmicity and/or sleep-wake state dependence. We identified a diurnal rhythm in the BF/POA that was selectively degraded when diurnal arousal patterns were disrupted by acute brain serotonin depletion despite robust circadian spiking activity in the SCN. Local blockade of serotonergic transmission in the BF/POA was sufficient to disrupt the diurnal sleep-wake rhythm of mice. These results suggest that the serotonergic system enables the BF/POA to couple the SCN circadian signal to ultradian sleep-wake cycles, thereby providing a potential link between circadian rhythms and psychiatric disorders.
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42
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Physiologically based quantitative modeling of unihemispheric sleep. J Theor Biol 2012; 314:109-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2012.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2012] [Revised: 07/23/2012] [Accepted: 08/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Zant JC, Rozov S, Wigren HK, Panula P, Porkka-Heiskanen T. Histamine release in the basal forebrain mediates cortical activation through cholinergic neurons. J Neurosci 2012; 32:13244-54. [PMID: 22993440 PMCID: PMC6621481 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5933-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2011] [Revised: 08/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The basal forebrain (BF) is a key structure in regulating both cortical activity and sleep homeostasis. It receives input from all ascending arousal systems and is particularly highly innervated by histaminergic neurons. Previous studies clearly point to a role for histamine as a wake-promoting substance in the BF. We used in vivo microdialysis and pharmacological treatments in rats to study which electroencephalogram (EEG) spectral properties are associated with histamine-induced wakefulness and whether this wakefulness is followed by increased sleep and increased EEG delta power during sleep. We also investigated which BF neurons mediate histamine-induced cortical activation. Extracellular BF histamine levels rose immediately and remained constant throughout a 6 h period of sleep deprivation, returning to baseline levels immediately afterward. During the spontaneous sleep-wake cycle, we observed a strong correlation between wakefulness and extracellular histamine concentrations in the BF, which was unaffected by the time of day. The perfusion of histamine into the BF increased wakefulness and cortical activity without inducing recovery sleep. The perfusion of a histamine receptor 1 antagonist into the BF decreased both wakefulness and cortical activity. Lesioning the BF cholinergic neurons abolished these effects. Together, these results show that activation of the cholinergic BF by histamine is important in sustaining a high level of cortical activation, and that a lack of activation of the cholinergic BF by histamine may be important in initiating and maintaining nonrapid eye movement sleep. The level of histamine release is tightly connected to behavioral state, but conveys no information about sleep pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke C. Zant
- Institute of Biomedicine/Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland and
| | - Stanislav Rozov
- Neuroscience Center and Institute of Biomedicine/Anatomy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland
| | - Henna-Kaisa Wigren
- Institute of Biomedicine/Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland and
| | - Pertti Panula
- Neuroscience Center and Institute of Biomedicine/Anatomy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland
| | - Tarja Porkka-Heiskanen
- Institute of Biomedicine/Physiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, FIN-00014 Finland and
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Abstract
This review summarizes the brain mechanisms controlling sleep and wakefulness. Wakefulness promoting systems cause low-voltage, fast activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG). Multiple interacting neurotransmitter systems in the brain stem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain converge onto common effector systems in the thalamus and cortex. Sleep results from the inhibition of wake-promoting systems by homeostatic sleep factors such as adenosine and nitric oxide and GABAergic neurons in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus, resulting in large-amplitude, slow EEG oscillations. Local, activity-dependent factors modulate the amplitude and frequency of cortical slow oscillations. Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep results in conservation of brain energy and facilitates memory consolidation through the modulation of synaptic weights. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep results from the interaction of brain stem cholinergic, aminergic, and GABAergic neurons which control the activity of glutamatergic reticular formation neurons leading to REM sleep phenomena such as muscle atonia, REMs, dreaming, and cortical activation. Strong activation of limbic regions during REM sleep suggests a role in regulation of emotion. Genetic studies suggest that brain mechanisms controlling waking and NREM sleep are strongly conserved throughout evolution, underscoring their enormous importance for brain function. Sleep disruption interferes with the normal restorative functions of NREM and REM sleep, resulting in disruptions of breathing and cardiovascular function, changes in emotional reactivity, and cognitive impairments in attention, memory, and decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritchie E Brown
- Laboratory of Neuroscience, VA Boston Healthcare System and Harvard Medical School, Brockton, Massachusetts 02301, USA
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Hawryluk JM, Ferrari LL, Keating SA, Arrigoni E. Adenosine inhibits glutamatergic input to basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. J Neurophysiol 2012; 107:2769-81. [PMID: 22357797 PMCID: PMC3362278 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00528.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenosine has been proposed as an endogenous homeostatic sleep factor that accumulates during waking and inhibits wake-active neurons to promote sleep. It has been specifically hypothesized that adenosine decreases wakefulness and promotes sleep recovery by directly inhibiting wake-active neurons of the basal forebrain (BF), particularly BF cholinergic neurons. We previously showed that adenosine directly inhibits BF cholinergic neurons. Here, we investigated 1) how adenosine modulates glutamatergic input to BF cholinergic neurons and 2) how adenosine uptake and adenosine metabolism are involved in regulating extracellular levels of adenosine. Our experiments were conducted using whole cell patch-clamp recordings in mouse brain slices. We found that in BF cholinergic neurons, adenosine reduced the amplitude of AMPA-mediated evoked glutamatergic excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) and decreased the frequency of spontaneous and miniature EPSCs through presynaptic A(1) receptors. Thus we have demonstrated that in addition to directly inhibiting BF cholinergic neurons, adenosine depresses excitatory inputs to these neurons. It is therefore possible that both direct and indirect inhibition may synergistically contribute to the sleep-promoting effects of adenosine in the BF. We also found that blocking the influx of adenosine through the equilibrative nucleoside transporters or inhibiting adenosine kinase and adenosine deaminase increased endogenous adenosine inhibitory tone, suggesting a possible mechanism through which adenosine extracellular levels in the basal forebrain are regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Hawryluk
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Burnstock G, Krügel U, Abbracchio MP, Illes P. Purinergic signalling: from normal behaviour to pathological brain function. Prog Neurobiol 2011; 95:229-74. [PMID: 21907261 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 315] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Purinergic neurotransmission, involving release of ATP as an efferent neurotransmitter was first proposed in 1972. Later, ATP was recognised as a cotransmitter in peripheral nerves and more recently as a cotransmitter with glutamate, noradrenaline, GABA, acetylcholine and dopamine in the CNS. Both ATP, together with some of its enzymatic breakdown products (ADP and adenosine) and uracil nucleotides are now recognised to act via P2X ion channels and P1 and P2Y G protein-coupled receptors, which are widely expressed in the brain. They mediate both fast signalling in neurotransmission and neuromodulation and long-term (trophic) signalling in cell proliferation, differentiation and death. Purinergic signalling is prominent in neurone-glial cell interactions. In this review we discuss first the evidence implicating purinergic signalling in normal behaviour, including learning and memory, sleep and arousal, locomotor activity and exploration, feeding behaviour and mood and motivation. Then we turn to the involvement of P1 and P2 receptors in pathological brain function; firstly in trauma, ischemia and stroke, then in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's, as well as multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Finally, the role of purinergic signalling in neuropsychiatric diseases (including schizophrenia), epilepsy, migraine, cognitive impairment and neuropathic pain will be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Burnstock
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre, University College Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London NW3 2PF, UK.
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DEURVEILHER S, SEMBA K. Basal forebrain regulation of cortical activity and sleep-wake states: Roles of cholinergic and non-cholinergic neurons. Sleep Biol Rhythms 2011. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1479-8425.2010.00465.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Asatryan L, Nam HW, Lee MR, Thakkar MM, Saeed Dar M, Davies DL, Choi DS. Implication of the purinergic system in alcohol use disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011; 35:584-94. [PMID: 21223299 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01379.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
In the central nervous system, adenosine and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) play an important role in regulating neuronal activity as well as controlling other neurotransmitter systems, such as, GABA, glutamate, and dopamine. Ethanol increases extracellular adenosine levels that regulate the ataxic and hypnotic/sedative effects of ethanol. Interestingly, ethanol is known to increase adenosine levels by inhibiting an ethanol-sensitive adenosine transporter, equilibrative nucleoside transporter type 1 (ENT1). Ethanol is also known to inhibit ATP-specific P2X receptors, which might result in such similar effects as those caused by an increase in adenosine. Adenosine and ATP exert their functions through P1 (metabotropic) and P2 (P2X-ionotropic and P2Y-metabotropic) receptors, respectively. Purinergic signaling in cortex-striatum-ventral tegmental area (VTA) has been implicated in regulating cortical glutamate signaling as well as VTA dopaminergic signaling, which regulates the motivational effect of ethanol. Moreover, several nucleoside transporters and receptors have been identified in astrocytes, which regulate not only adenosine-ATP neurotransmission, but also homeostasis of major inhibitory-excitatory neurotransmission (i.e., GABA or glutamate) through neuron-glial interactions. This review will present novel findings on the implications of adenosine and ATP neurotransmission in alcohol use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liana Asatryan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Economics and Policy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Abstract
Caffeine is widely used to promote wakefulness and counteract fatigue induced by restriction of sleep, but also to counteract the effects of caffeine abstinence. Adenosine is a physiological molecule, which in the central nervous system acts predominantly as an inhibitory neuromodulator. Adenosine is also a sleep-promoting molecule. Caffeine binds to adenosine receptors, and the antagonism of the adenosinergic system is believed to be the mechanism through which caffeine counteracts sleep in humans as well as in other species. The sensitivity for caffeine varies markedly among individuals. Recently, genetic variations in genes related to adenosine metabolism have provided at least a partial explanation for this variability. The main effects of caffeine on sleep are decreased sleep latency, shortened total sleep time, decrease in power in the delta range, and sleep fragmentation. Caffeine may also decrease the accumulation of sleep propensity during waking, thus inducing long-term harmful effects on sleep quality.
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