Prenatal ethanol exposure stimulates neurogenesis in hypothalamic and limbic peptide systems: possible mechanism for offspring ethanol overconsumption

Exaggerated postnatal surge of orexin neurons and the effects of elimination of excess orexin on blood pressure and exaggerated chemoreflex in spontaneously hypertensive rats

An overactive orexin (OX) system is associated with neurogenic hypertension and an exaggerated chemoreflex in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). However, the chronology and mechanism of this association is unclear. We hypothesized that increased postnatal neurogenesis of OX neurons in SHRs precedes and contributes to the aberrant increase in mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) and the exaggerated response to hypercapnia during postnatal development. Using immunohistochemical methods and bromodeoxyuridine, we mapped the timeline of orexin neuron neurogenesis and maturation during early postnatal development. We then used whole-body plethysmography with EEG and EMG to map the development of mean arterial pressure (MAP) and state regulation. Finally, we used OX-targeted saporin toxin to determine the effects of eliminating excess OX neurons on the elevated MAP and exaggerated chemoreflex in adult SHRs. We found that both SHRs and Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats experienced postnatal increases in OX neurons. However, SHRs experienced a greater increase than WKY rats before P15, which led to significantly more OX neurons in SHRs than age-matched WKY controls by P15-16 (3,720 ± 780 vs. 2,406 ± 363, p = 0.005). We found that neurogenesis, as evidenced by BrdU staining in OX-positive neurons, was the primary contributor to the excess OX neurons in SHRs during early postnatal development. While SHRs develop more OX neurons by P15-16, SHRs and normotensive WKY control rats have similar MAP during postnatal development until P25 in wakefulness (81.6 ± 6.6 vs. 67.5 ± 6.8 mmHg, p = 0.006) and sleep (79.3 ± 6.1 vs. 66.6 ± 6.5, p = 0.009), about 10 days after the surge of OX neurons. By selectively eliminating excess (∼30%) OX neurons in SHRs, we saw a significantly lowered MAP and hypercapnic ventilatory chemoreflex compared to non-lesioned SHRs at P40. Additionally, we found unique signatures in state indicative of the attention defecit phenotype commonly associated with this model. We suggest that the postnatal increase of OX neurons, primarily attributed to exaggerated postnatal OX neurogenesis, may be necessary for the development of higher MAP and exaggerated chemoreflex in SHRs, and modulation of the overactive OX system may have a potential therapeutic effect during the pre-hypertensive period.

Orexin-mediated motivated arousal and reward seeking

The neuromodulator orexin has been identified as a key factor for motivated arousal including recent evidence that sleep deprivation-induced enhancement of reward behavior is modulated by orexin. While orexin is not necessary for either reward or arousal behavior, orexin neurons' broad projections, ability to sense the internal state of the animal, and high plasticity of signaling in response to natural rewards and drugs of abuse may underlie heightened drug seeking, particularly in a subset of highly motivated reward seekers. As such, orexin receptor antagonists have gained deserved attention for putative use in addiction treatments. Ongoing and future clinical trials are expected to identify individuals most likely to benefit from orexin receptor antagonist treatment to promote abstinence, such as those with concurrent sleep disorders or high craving, while attention to methodological considerations will aid interpretation of the numerous preclinical studies investigating disparate aspects of the role of orexin in reward and arousal.

Neurological Disorders Induced by Drug Use: Effects of Adolescent and Embryonic Drug Exposure on Behavioral Neurodevelopment

Clinical studies demonstrate that the risk of developing neurological disorders is increased by overconsumption of the commonly used drugs, alcohol, nicotine and cannabis. These drug-induced neurological disorders, which include substance use disorder (SUD) and its co-occurring emotional conditions such as anxiety and depression, are observed not only in adults but also with drug use during adolescence and after prenatal exposure to these drugs, and they are accompanied by long-lasting disturbances in brain development. This report provides overviews of clinical and preclinical studies, which confirm these adverse effects in adolescents and the offspring prenatally exposed to the drugs and include a more in-depth description of specific neuronal systems, their neurocircuitry and molecular mechanisms, affected by drug exposure and of specific techniques used to determine if these effects in the brain are causally related to the behavioral disturbances. With analysis of further studies, this review then addresses four specific questions that are important for fully understanding the impact that drug use in young individuals can have on future pregnancies and their offspring. Evidence demonstrates that the adverse effects on their brain and behavior can occur: (1) at low doses with short periods of drug exposure during pregnancy; (2) after pre-conception drug use by both females and males; (3) in subsequent generations following the initial drug exposure; and (4) in a sex-dependent manner, with drug use producing a greater risk in females than males of developing SUDs with emotional conditions and female offspring after prenatal drug exposure responding more adversely than male offspring. With the recent rise in drug use by adolescents and pregnant women that has occurred in association with the legalization of cannabis and increased availability of vaping tools, these conclusions from the clinical and preclinical literature are particularly alarming and underscore the urgent need to educate young women and men about the possible harmful effects of early drug use and to seek novel therapeutic strategies that might help to limit drug use in young individuals.

Embryonic ethanol exposure and optogenetic activation of hypocretin neurons stimulate similar behaviors early in life associated with later alcohol consumption

The initiation of alcohol use early in life is one of the strongest predictors of developing a future alcohol use disorder. Clinical studies have identified specific behaviors during early childhood that predict an increased risk for excess alcohol consumption later in life. These behaviors, including increased hyperactivity, anxiety, novelty-seeking, exploratory behavior, impulsivity, and alcohol-seeking, are similarly stimulated in children and adolescent offspring of mothers who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Here we tested larval zebrafish in addition to young pre-weanling rats and found this repertoire of early behaviors along with the overconsumption of alcohol during adolescence to be increased by embryonic ethanol exposure. With hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt) neurons known to be stimulated by ethanol and involved in mediating these alcohol-related behaviors, we tested their function in larval zebrafish and found optogenetic activation of Hcrt neurons to stimulate these same early alcohol-related behaviors and later alcohol intake, suggesting that these neurons have an important role in producing these behaviors. Together, these results show zebrafish to be an especially useful animal model for investigating the diverse neuronal systems mediating behavioral changes at young ages that are produced by embryonic ethanol exposure and predict an increased risk for developing alcohol use disorder.

Utility of the Zebrafish Model for Studying Neuronal and Behavioral Disturbances Induced by Embryonic Exposure to Alcohol, Nicotine, and Cannabis

It is estimated that 5% of pregnant women consume drugs of abuse during pregnancy. Clinical research suggests that intake of drugs during pregnancy, such as alcohol, nicotine and cannabis, disturbs the development of neuronal systems in the offspring, in association with behavioral disturbances early in life and an increased risk of developing drug use disorders. After briefly summarizing evidence in rodents, this review focuses on the zebrafish model and its inherent advantages for studying the effects of embryonic exposure to drugs of abuse on behavioral and neuronal development, with an emphasis on neuropeptides known to promote drug-related behaviors. In addition to stimulating the expression and density of peptide neurons, as in rodents, zebrafish studies demonstrate that embryonic drug exposure has marked effects on the migration, morphology, projections, anatomical location, and peptide co-expression of these neurons. We also describe studies using advanced methodologies that can be applied in vivo in zebrafish: first, to demonstrate a causal relationship between the drug-induced neuronal and behavioral disturbances and second, to discover underlying molecular mechanisms that mediate these effects. The zebrafish model has great potential for providing important information regarding the development of novel and efficacious therapies for ameliorating the effects of early drug exposure.

Subpopulations of hypocretin/orexin neurons differ in measures of their cell proliferation, dynorphin co-expression, projections, and response to embryonic ethanol exposure

Numerous studies in animals demonstrate that embryonic exposure to ethanol (EtOH) at low-moderate doses stimulates neurogenesis and increases the number of hypothalamic neurons expressing the peptide, hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt). A recent study in zebrafish showed that this effect on the Hcrt neurons in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) is area specific, evident in the anterior (aAH) but not posterior (pAH) part of this region. To understand specific factors that may determine the differential sensitivity to EtOH of these Hcrt subpopulations, we performed additional measures in zebrafish of their cell proliferation, co-expression of the opioid dynorphin (Dyn), and neuronal projections. In association with the increase in Hcrt neurons in the aAH but not pAH, EtOH significantly increased only in the aAH the proliferation of Hcrt neurons and their number lacking Dyn co-expression. The projections of these subpopulations differed markedly in their directionality, with those from the pAH primarily descending to the locus coeruleus and those from the aAH ascending to the subpallium, and they were both stimulated by EtOH, which induced specifically the most anterior subpallium-projecting Hcrt neurons to become ectopically expressed beyond the aAH. These differences between the Hcrt subpopulations suggest they are functionally distinct in their regulation of behavior.

Role of Chemokine Cxcl12a in Mediating the Stimulatory Effects of Ethanol on Embryonic Development of Subpopulations of Hypocretin/Orexin Neurons and Their Projections

Studies in zebrafish and rats show that embryonic ethanol exposure at low-moderate concentrations stimulates hypothalamic neurons expressing hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt) that promote alcohol consumption, effects possibly involving the chemokine Cxcl12 and its receptor Cxcr4. Our recent studies in zebrafish of Hcrt neurons in the anterior hypothalamus (AH) demonstrate that ethanol exposure has anatomically specific effects on Hcrt subpopulations, increasing their number in the anterior AH (aAH) but not posterior AH (pAH), and causes the most anterior aAH neurons to become ectopically expressed further anterior in the preoptic area (POA). Using tools of genetic overexpression and knockdown, our goal here was to determine whether Cxcl12a has an important function in mediating the specific effects of ethanol on these Hcrt subpopulations and their projections. The results demonstrate that the overexpression of Cxcl12a has stimulatory effects similar to ethanol on the number of aAH and ectopic POA Hcrt neurons and the long anterior projections from ectopic POA neurons and posterior projections from pAH neurons. They also demonstrate that knockdown of Cxcl12a blocks these effects of ethanol on the Hcrt subpopulations and projections, providing evidence supporting a direct role of this specific chemokine in mediating ethanol's stimulatory effects on embryonic development of the Hcrt system.

Embryonic ethanol exposure induces ectopic Hcrt and MCH neurons outside hypothalamus in rats and zebrafish: Role in ethanol-induced behavioural disturbances

Embryonic exposure to ethanol increases the risk for alcohol use disorder in humans and stimulates alcohol-related behaviours in different animal models. Evidence in rats and zebrafish suggests that this phenomenon induced by ethanol at low-moderate concentrations involves a stimulatory effect on neurogenesis and density of hypothalamic neurons expressing the peptides, hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), known to promote alcohol consumption. Building on our report in zebrafish showing that ethanol induces ectopic expression of Hcrt neurons outside the hypothalamus, we investigated here whether embryonic ethanol exposure also induces ectopic peptide neurons in rats similar to zebrafish and affects their morphological characteristics and if these ectopic neurons are functional and have a role in the ethanol-induced disturbances in behaviour. We demonstrate in rats that ethanol at a low-moderate dose, in addition to increasing Hcrt and MCH neurons in the lateral hypothalamus where they are normally concentrated, induces ectopic expression of these peptide neurons further anterior in the nucleus accumbens core and ventromedial caudate putamen where they have not been previously observed and causes morphological changes relative to normally located hypothalamic neurons. Similar to rats, embryonic ethanol exposure at a low-moderate dose in zebrafish induces ectopic Hcrt neurons anterior to the hypothalamus and alters their morphology. Notably, laser ablation of these ectopic Hcrt neurons blocks the behavioural effects induced by ethanol exposure, including increased anxiety and locomotor activity. These findings suggest that the ectopic peptide neurons are functional and contribute to the ethanol-induced behavioural disturbances related to the overconsumption of alcohol.

Fibroblast growth factor 2: Role in prenatal alcohol-induced stimulation of hypothalamic peptide neurons

Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) increases alcohol consumption and risk for alcohol use disorder. This phenomenon in rodents is suggested to involve a stimulatory effect of PAE, in female more than male offspring, on neurogenesis and density of neurons expressing neuropeptides in lateral hypothalamus (LH), including melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), known to promote alcohol intake. With evidence suggesting a role for fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) and its receptor FGFR1 in stimulating neurogenesis and alcohol drinking, we investigated here whether the FGF2-FGFR1 system is involved in the PAE-induced increase in MCH neurons, in postnatal offspring of pregnant rats given ethanol orally (embryonic day 10-15) at a low-moderate (2 g/kg/day) or high (5 g/kg/day) dose. Our results demonstrate that PAE at the low-moderate but not high dose stimulates FGF2 and FGFR1 gene expression and increases the density of MCH neurons co-expressing FGF2, only in females, but FGFR1 in both sexes. PAE induces this effect in the dorsal but not ventral area of the LH. Further analysis of FGF2 and FGFR1 transcripts within individual MCH neurons reveals an intracellular, sex-dependent effect, with PAE increasing FGF2 transcripts positively related to FGFR1 in the nucleus as well as cytoplasm of females but transcripts only in the cytoplasm of males. Peripheral injection of FGF2 itself (80 μg/kg, s.c.) in pregnant rats mimics these effects of PAE. Together, these results support the involvement of the FGF2-FGFR1 system in mediating the PAE-induced, sex dependent increase in density of MCH neurons, possibly contributing to increased alcohol consumption in the offspring.

Sexually dimorphic and asymmetric effects of embryonic ethanol exposure on hypocretin/orexin neurons as related to behavioral changes in zebrafish

Neurons expressing the neuropeptide hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt) in the hypothalamus promote reward-related behaviors including alcohol consumption and are shown in rodents and zebrafish to be stimulated by embryonic exposure to ethanol (EtOH). We used here in zebrafish three-dimensional analyses of the entire population of Hcrt neurons to examine how embryonic EtOH exposure at low-moderate concentrations (0.1% or 0.5% v/v) alters these neurons in relation to behavior. We found that EtOH in the water for 2 h (22-24 h post fertilization) increases the number of Hcrt neurons on the left but not right side of the brain through a stimulation of cell proliferation, this is accompanied by a decrease in locomotor activity under novel conditions but not after habituation, and these effects are evident in both larvae and adults indicating they are long lasting. Our analyses in adults revealed sexually dimorphic effects, with females consuming more EtOH-gelatin and exhibiting more freezing behavior along with an asymmetric increase in Hcrt neurons and males exhibiting increased aggression with no change in Hcrt. These findings suggest that a long lasting, asymmetric increase in Hcrt neurons induced by EtOH results from an asymmetric increase in proliferation specific to Hcrt and contributes to behavioral changes in females.

Involvement of Cxcl12a/Cxcr4b Chemokine System in Mediating the Stimulatory Effect of Embryonic Ethanol Exposure on Neuronal Density in Zebrafish Hypothalamus

BACKGROUND

Embryonic exposure to ethanol (EtOH) produces marked disturbances in neuronal development and alcohol-related behaviors, with low-moderate EtOH doses stimulating neurogenesis without producing apoptosis and high doses having major cytotoxic effects while causing gross morphological abnormalities. With the pro-inflammatory chemokine system, Cxcl12, and its main receptor Cxcr4, known to promote processes of neurogenesis, we examined here this neuroimmune system in the embryonic hypothalamus to test directly if it mediates the stimulatory effects low-moderate EtOH doses have on neuronal development.

METHODS

We used the zebrafish (Danio rerio) model, which develops externally and allows one to investigate the developing brain in vivo with precise control of dose and timing of EtOH delivery in the absence of maternal influence. Zebrafish were exposed to low-moderate EtOH doses (0.1, 0.25, 0.5% v/v), specifically during a period of peak hypothalamic development from 22 to 24 hours postfertilization, and in some tests were pretreated from 2 to 22 hpf with the Cxcr4 receptor antagonist, AMD3100. Measurements in the hypothalamus at 26 hpf were taken of cxcl12a and cxcr4b transcription, signaling, and neuronal density using qRT-PCR, RNAscope, and live imaging of transgenic zebrafish.

RESULTS

Embryonic EtOH exposure, particularly at the 0.5% dose, significantly increased levels of cxcl12a and cxcr4b mRNA in whole embryos, number of cxcl12a and cxcr4b transcripts in developing hypothalamus, and internalization of Cxcr4b receptors in hypothalamic cells. Embryonic EtOH also caused an increase in the number of hypothalamic neurons and coexpression of cxcl12a and cxcr4b transcripts within these neurons. Each of these stimulatory effects of EtOH in the embryo was blocked by pretreatment with the Cxcr4 antagonist AMD3100.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide clear evidence that EtOH's stimulatory effects at low-moderate doses on the number of hypothalamic neurons early in development are mediated, in part, by increased transcription and intracellular activation of this chemokine system, likely due to autocrine signaling of Cxcl12a at its Cxcr4b receptor within the neurons.

Fetal alcohol and maternal stress modify the expression of proteins controlling postnatal development of the male rat hippocampus

Background: Developing brains can partially get over prenatal alcohol exposure-related detrimental conditions by activating some mechanisms involved in survival. Objectives: This study aimed to shed light on the molecular correlates of compensatory mechanisms by examining temporal profiles in the expression of proteins controlling postnatal development in the rat hippocampus prenatally exposed to intubation stress/ethanol. Methods: Male pups were randomly assigned to age subgroups (n = 21/age) which were sacrificed on postnatal day (PD)1, PD10, PD30, and PD60. Ethanol (6 g/kg/day) were intragastrically intubated to the dams throughout 7-21 gestation days. The expression of neurogenesis and angiogenesis markers, extracellular matrix proteins, and growth-promoting ligands were examined by western blot. Results: The most rapid increase in the index of neuronal maturation was noted between PD10-PD30 (p < .05). Prenatal stress caused a decrease of neurogenesis markers at birth and an increase of their expressions at PD10 and PD30 to reach control levels (p < .001). The impact of fetal-alcohol was observed as a decrease in the expression of synaptic plasticity protein versican at birth (p < .001), an increase in the synaptic repulsion protein ephrin-B2 at PD10 (p < .001), and a decrease in the maturation of BDNF at PD30 (p < .001) with a decrease in the mature neuron markers at PD30 (p < .001) and PD60 (p = .005) which were compensated with upregulation of angiogenesis and increasing brevican expression, a neuronal maturation protein (p < .001). Conclusion: These data provide in vivo evidence for the potential therapeutic factors related to neurogenesis, angiogenesis, and neurite remodeling which may tolerate the alcohol/stress dependent teratogenicity in the developing hippocampus.

Third Ventricular Injection of CCL2 in Rat Embryo Stimulates CCL2/CCR2 Neuroimmune System in Neuroepithelial Radial Glia Progenitor Cells: Relation to Sexually Dimorphic, Stimulatory Effects on Peptide Neurons in Lateral Hypothalamus

Clinical and animal studies show maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy causes in offspring persistent alterations in neuroimmune and neurochemical systems known to increase alcohol drinking and related behaviors. Studies in lateral hypothalamus (LH) demonstrate in adolescent offspring that maternal oral administration of ethanol stimulates the neuropeptide, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), together with the inflammatory chemokine C-C motif ligand 2 (CCL2) and its receptor CCR2 which are increased in most MCH neurons. These effects, consistently stronger in females than males, are detected in embryos, not only in LH but hypothalamic neuroepithelium (NEP) along the third ventricle where neurons are born and CCL2 is stimulated within radial glia progenitor cells and their laterally projecting processes that facilitate MCH neuronal migration toward LH. With ethanol's effects similarly produced by maternal peripheral CCL2 administration and blocked by CCR2 antagonist, we tested here using in utero intracerebroventricular (ICV) injections whether CCL2 acts locally within the embryonic NEP. After ICV injection of CCL2 (0.1 µg/µl) on embryonic day 14 (E14) when neurogenesis peaks, we observed in embryos just before birth (E19) a significant increase in endogenous CCL2 within radial glia cells and their processes in NEP. These auto-regulatory effects, evident only in female embryos, were accompanied by increased density of CCL2 and MCH neurons in LH, more strongly in females than males. These results support involvement of embryonic CCL2/CCR2 neuroimmune system in radial glia progenitor cells in mediating sexually dimorphic effects of maternal challenges such as ethanol on LH MCH neurons that colocalize CCL2 and CCR2.

CCL2/CCR2 system in neuroepithelial radial glia progenitor cells: involvement in stimulatory, sexually dimorphic effects of maternal ethanol on embryonic development of hypothalamic peptide neurons

BACKGROUND

Clinical and animal studies show that alcohol consumption during pregnancy produces lasting behavioral disturbances in offspring, including increased alcohol drinking, which are linked to inflammation in the brain and disturbances in neurochemical systems that promote these behaviors. These include the neuropeptide, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), which is mostly expressed in the lateral hypothalamus (LH). Maternal ethanol administration at low-to-moderate doses, while stimulating MCH neurons without affecting apoptosis or gliogenesis, increases in LH the density of neurons expressing the inflammatory chemokine C-C motif ligand 2 (CCL2) and its receptor CCR2 and their colocalization with MCH. These neural effects associated with behavioral changes are reproduced by maternal CCL2 administration, reversed by a CCR2 antagonist, and consistently stronger in females than males. The present study investigates in the embryo the developmental origins of this CCL2/CCR2-mediated stimulatory effect of maternal ethanol exposure on MCH neurons.

METHODS

Pregnant rats from embryonic day 10 (E10) to E15 during peak neurogenesis were orally administered ethanol at a moderate dose (2 g/kg/day) or peripherally injected with CCL2 or CCR2 antagonist to test this neuroimmune system's role in ethanol's actions. Using real-time quantitative PCR, immunofluorescence histochemistry, in situ hybridization, and confocal microscopy, we examined in embryos at E19 the CCL2/CCR2 system and MCH neurons in relation to radial glia progenitor cells in the hypothalamic neuroepithelium where neurons are born and radial glia processes projecting laterally through the medial hypothalamus that provide scaffolds for neuronal migration into LH.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that maternal ethanol increases radial glia cell density and their processes while stimulating the CCL2/CCR2 system and these effects are mimicked by maternal administration of CCL2 and blocked by a CCR2 antagonist. While stimulating CCL2 colocalization with radial glia and neurons but not microglia, ethanol increases MCH neuronal number near radial glia cells and making contact along their processes projecting into LH. Further tests identify the CCL2/CCR2 system in NEP as a primary source of ethanol's sexually dimorphic actions.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide new evidence for how an inflammatory chemokine pathway functions within neuroprogenitor cells to mediate ethanol's long-lasting, stimulatory effects on peptide neurons linked to adolescent drinking behavior.

Moderate Prenatal Ethanol Exposure Stimulates CXCL12/CXCR4 Chemokine System in Radial Glia Progenitor Cells in Hypothalamic Neuroepithelium and Peptide Neurons in Lateral Hypothalamus of the Embryo and Postnatal Offspring

BACKGROUND

Prenatal exposure to ethanol (EtOH) has lasting effects on neuropeptide and neuroimmune systems in the brain alongside detrimental alcohol-related behaviors. At low-to-moderate doses, prenatal EtOH stimulates neurogenesis in lateral hypothalamus (LH) and increases neurons that express the orexigenic peptides hypocretin/orexin (Hcrt/OX) and melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), and the proinflammatory chemokine CCL2, which through its receptor CCR2 stimulates cell differentiation and movement. Our recent studies demonstrated that CCL2 and CCR2 colocalize with MCH neurons and are involved in EtOH's stimulatory effect on their development but show no relation to Hcrt/OX. Here, we investigated another chemokine, CXCL12, and its receptor, CXCR4, which promote neurogenesis and neuroprogenitor cell proliferation, to determine if they also exhibit peptide specificity in their response to EtOH exposure.

METHODS

Pregnant rats were intraorally administered a moderate dose of EtOH (2 g/kg/d) from embryonic day 10 (E10) to E15. Their embryos and postnatal offspring were examined using real-time quantitative PCR and immunofluorescence histochemistry, to determine if EtOH affects CXCL12 and CXCR4 and the colocalization of CXCR4 with Hcrt/OX and MCH neurons in the LH and with radial glia neuroprogenitor cells in the hypothalamic neuroepithelium (NEP).

RESULTS

Prenatal EtOH strongly stimulated CXCL12 and CXCR4 in LH neurons of embryos and postnatal offspring. This stimulation was significantly stronger in Hcrt/OX than MCH neurons in LH and also occurred in radial glia neuroprogenitor cells dense in the NEP. These effects were sexually dimorphic, consistently stronger in females than males.

CONCLUSIONS

While showing prenatal EtOH exposure to have a sexually dimorphic, stimulatory effect on CXCL12 and CXCR4 in LH similar to CCL2 and its receptor, these results reveal their distinct relationship to the peptide neurons, with the former closely related to Hcrt/OX and the latter to MCH, and they link EtOH's actions in LH to a stimulatory effect on neuroprogenitor cells in the NEP.

Maternal ethanol consumption before paternal fertilization: Stimulation of hypocretin neurogenesis and ethanol intake in zebrafish offspring

There are numerous clinical and pre-clinical studies showing that exposure of the embryo to ethanol markedly affects neuronal development and stimulates alcohol drinking and related behaviors. In rodents and zebrafish, our studies show that embryonic exposure to low-dose ethanol, in addition to increasing voluntary ethanol intake during adolescence, increases the density of hypothalamic hypocretin (hcrt) neurons, a neuropeptide known to regulate reward-related behaviors. The question addressed here in zebrafish is whether maternal ethanol intake before conception also affects neuronal and behavioral development, phenomena suggested by clinical reports but seldom investigated. To determine if preconception maternal ethanol consumption also affects these hcrt neurons and behavior in the offspring, we first standardized a method of measuring voluntary ethanol consumption in AB strain adult and larval zebrafish given gelatin meals containing 10% or 0.1% ethanol, respectively. We found the number of bites of gelatin to be an accurate measure of intake in adults and a strong predictor of blood ethanol levels, and also to be a reliable indicator of intake in larval zebrafish. We then used this feeding paradigm and live imaging to examine the effects of preconception maternal intake of 10% ethanol-gelatin compared to plain-gelatin for 14 days on neuronal development in the offspring. Whereas ethanol consumption by adult female HuC:GFP transgenic zebrafish had no impact on the number of differentiated HuC⁺ neurons at 28 h post-fertilization (hpf), preconception ethanol consumption by adult female hcrt:EGFP zebrafish significantly increased the number of hcrt neurons in the offspring, an effect observed at 28 hpf and confirmed at 6 and 12 days post-fertilization (dpf). This increase in hcrt neurons was primarily present on the left side of the brain, indicating asymmetry in ethanol's actions, and it was accompanied by behavioral changes in the offspring, including a significant increase in novelty-induced locomotor activity but not thigmotaxis measured at 6 dpf and also in voluntary consumption of 0.1% ethanol-gelatin at 12 dpf. Notably, these measures of ethanol intake and locomotor activity stimulated by preconception ethanol were strongly, positively correlated with the number of hcrt neurons. These findings demonstrate that preconception maternal ethanol consumption affects the brain and behavior of the offspring, producing effects similar to those caused by embryonic ethanol exposure, and they provide further evidence that the ethanol-induced increase in hcrt neurogenesis contributes to the behavioral disturbances caused by ethanol.

CCL2/CCR2 Chemokine System in Embryonic Hypothalamus: Involvement in Sexually Dimorphic Stimulatory Effects of Prenatal Ethanol Exposure on Peptide-Expressing Neurons

Maternal consumption of ethanol during pregnancy is known to increase the offspring's risk for developing alcohol use disorders and associated behavioral disturbances. Studies in adolescent and adult animals suggest the involvement of neuroimmune and neurochemical systems in the brain that control these behaviors. To understand the origin of these effects during early developmental stages, we examined in the embryo and neonate the effects of maternal intraoral administration of ethanol (2 g/kg/day) from embryonic day 10 (E10) to E15 on the inflammatory chemokine C-C motif ligand 2 (CCL2) and its receptor CCR2 in a specific, dense population of neurons in the lateral hypothalamus (LH), where they are closely related to an orexigenic neuropeptide, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), known to promote ethanol consumption and related behaviors. We found that prenatal ethanol exposure increases the expression and density of CCL2 and CCR2 cells along with MCH neurons in the LH and the colocalization of CCL2 with MCH. We also discovered that these effects are sexually dimorphic, consistently stronger in female embryos, and are blocked by maternal administration of a CCL2 antibody (1 and 5 µg/day, i.p., E10-E15) that neutralizes endogenous CCL2 and of a CCR2 antagonist INCB3344 (1 mg/day, i.p., E10-E15) that blocks CCL2's main receptor. These results, which in the embryo anatomically and functionally link the CCL2/CCR2 system to MCH neurons in the LH, suggest an important role for this neuroimmune system in mediating ethanol's sexually dimorphic, stimulatory effect on MCH neurons that may promote higher level of alcohol consumption described in females.

Embryonic Ethanol Exposure Affects the Early Development, Migration, and Location of Hypocretin/Orexin Neurons in Zebrafish

BACKGROUND

Embryonic ethanol (EtOH) exposure is known to increase alcohol drinking later in life and have long-term effects on neurochemical systems in the brain. With zebrafish having marked advantages for elucidating neural mechanisms underlying brain disorders, we recently tested and showed in these fish, similar to rodents, that low-dose embryonic EtOH stimulates voluntary consumption of EtOH while increasing expression of hypocretin/orexin (hcrt) neurons, a neuropeptide that promotes consummatory and reward-related behaviors. The goal of the present study was to characterize how embryonic EtOH affects early development of the hcrt system and produces persistent changes at older ages that may contribute to this increase in EtOH consumption.

METHODS

We utilized live imaging and Imaris software to investigate how low-dose embryonic EtOH (0.5%), administered from 22 to 24 hours postfertilization, affects specific properties of hcrt neurons in hcrt:EGFP transgenic zebrafish at different ages.

RESULTS

Time-lapse imaging from 24 to 28 hpf showed that embryonic EtOH increased the number of hcrt neurons, reduced the speed, straightness, and displacement of their migratory paths, and altered their direction early in development. At older ages up to 6 dpf, the embryonic EtOH-induced increase in hcrt neurons was persistent, and the neurons became more widely dispersed. These effects of embryonic EtOH were found to be asymmetric, occurring predominantly on the left side of the brain, and at 6 dpf, they resulted in marked changes in the anatomical location of the hcrt neurons, with some detected outside their normal position in the anterior hypothalamus again primarily on the left side.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that low-dose embryonic EtOH has diverse, persistent, and asymmetric effects on the early development of hypothalamic hcrt neurons, which lead to abnormalities in their ultimate location that may contribute to behavioral disturbances, including an increase in EtOH consumption.

Maternal manipulation during late gestation (GDs 17-20) enhances ethanol consumption and promotes changes and opioid mRNA expression in infant rats

Fetal ethanol experience generates learning and memories capable to increase ethanol consummatory behaviors during infancy. Opioid system seems to be involved in mediating those alcohol-related behaviors. In this work, we proposed to study the impact of prenatal exposure to a moderate ethanol dose, upon ingestion of the drug and possible ethanol-induced molecular changes on opioid precursor peptides (POMC, Pro-enk and Pro-DYN) and receptors (MOR, DOR and KOR) mRNA expression, in hypothalamus. Pregnant rats received during gestational days (GDs) 17-20, a daily intragastric (i.g.) administration with 2g/kg ethanol or water. A third group of dams was left undisturbed during pregnancy (Unmanipulated group). Intake test was conducted at postnatal days (PDs) 14-15. Three groups of pups were performed: control (no intake test), water (vehicle) and 5% ethanol. At the end of intake test blood samples were taken to quantify blood ethanol concentrations (BECs) and hypothalamus sections were obtained to perform qRT-PRC assessment of opioid precursor peptides and receptors. The analysis of the consummatory responses (% of consumption) and pharmacokinetic profiles (BECs) suggested that maternal manipulation induced by i.g. intubations, during the last four days of gestation (whenever ethanol or water), are sufficient to induce infantile ethanol intake during infancy. Gene expression from the hypothalamus of unmanipulated group revealed that infantile ingestive experiences with ethanol can down-regulate expression of mRNA Pro-Dyn and up-regulate mRNA expression of MOR and KOR. Finally, MOR mRNA expression was attenuated by prenatal i.g. manipulation in pups exposed to 5% ethanol.

Early gestational ethanol exposure in mice: Effects on brain structure, energy metabolism and adiposity in adult offspring

We examined whether an early-life event - ethanol exposure in the initial stages of pregnancy - affected offspring brain structure, energy metabolism, and body composition in later life. Consumption of 10% (v/v) ethanol by inbred C57BL/6J female mice from 0.5 to 8.5 days post coitum was used to model alcohol exposure during the first 3-4 weeks of gestation in humans, when pregnancy is not typically recognized. At adolescence (postnatal day [P] 28) and adulthood (P64), the brains of male offspring were scanned ex vivo using ultra-high field (16.4 T) magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging. Energy metabolism and body composition were measured in adulthood by indirect calorimetry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), respectively. Ethanol exposure had no substantial impact on white matter organization in the anterior commissure, corpus callosum, hippocampal commissure, internal capsule, optic tract, or thalamus. Whole brain volume and the volumes of the neocortex, cerebellum, and caudate putamen were also unaffected. Subtle, but non-significant, effects were observed on the hippocampus and the hypothalamus in adult ethanol-exposed male offspring. Ethanol exposure was additionally associated with a trend toward decreased oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, and reduced daily energy expenditure, as well as significantly increased adiposity, albeit with normal body weight and food intake, in adult male offspring. In summary, ethanol exposure restricted to early gestation had subtle long-term effects on the structure of specific brain regions in male offspring. The sensitivity of the hippocampus to ethanol-induced damage is reminiscent of that reported by other studies - despite differences in the level, timing, and duration of exposure - and likely contributes to the cognitive impairment that characteristically results from prenatal ethanol exposure. The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating metabolism and energy homeostasis. Our finding of altered daily energy expenditure and adiposity in adult ethanol-exposed males is consistent with the idea that central nervous system abnormalities also underpin some of the metabolic phenotypes associated with ethanol exposure in pregnancy.

Hypothalamic CCL2/CCR2 Chemokine System: Role in Sexually Dimorphic Effects of Maternal Ethanol Exposure on Melanin-Concentrating Hormone and Behavior in Adolescent Offspring

Clinical and animal studies show that ethanol exposure and inflammation during pregnancy cause similar behavioral disturbances in the offspring. While ethanol is shown to stimulate both neuroimmune and neurochemical systems in adults, little is known about their anatomical relationship in response to ethanol in utero and whether neuroimmune factors mediate ethanol's effects on neuronal development and behavior in offspring. Here we examined in female and male adolescent rats a specific population of neurons concentrated in lateral hypothalamus, which coexpress the inflammatory chemokine C-C motif ligand 2 (CCL2) or its receptor CCR2 with the orexigenic neuropeptide, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH), that promotes ethanol drinking behavior. We demonstrate that maternal administration of ethanol (2 g/kg/d) from embryonic day 10 (E10) to E15, while having little impact on glia, stimulates expression of neuronal CCL2 and CCR2, increases density of both large CCL2 neurons colocalizing MCH and small CCL2 neurons surrounding MCH neurons, and stimulates ethanol drinking and anxiety in adolescent offspring. We show that these neuronal and behavioral changes are similarly produced by maternal administration of CCL2 (4 or 8 μg/kg/d, E10-E15) and blocked by maternal administration of a CCR2 antagonist INCB3344 (1 mg/kg/d, E10-E15), and these effects of ethanol and CCL2 are sexually dimorphic, consistently stronger in females. These results suggest that this neuronal CCL2/CCR2 system closely linked to MCH neurons has a role in mediating the effects of maternal ethanol exposure on adolescent offspring and contributes to the higher levels of adolescent risk factors for alcohol use disorders described in women.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Ethanol consumption and inflammatory agents during pregnancy similarly increase alcohol intake and anxiety in adolescent offspring. To investigate how neurochemical and neuroimmune systems interact to mediate these disturbances, we examined a specific population of hypothalamic neurons coexpressing the inflammatory chemokine CCL2 and its receptor CCR2 with the neuropeptide, melanin-concentrating hormone. We demonstrate in adolescent offspring that maternal administration of CCL2, like ethanol, stimulates these neurons and increases ethanol drinking and anxiety, and these effects of ethanol are blocked by maternal CCR2 antagonist and consistently stronger in females. This suggests that neuronal chemokine signaling linked to neuropeptides mediates effects of maternal ethanol exposure on adolescent offspring and contributes to higher levels of adolescent risk factors for alcohol use disorders in women.

The Role of Orexins/Hypocretins in Alcohol Use and Abuse

Addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive drug seeking and drug taking despite negative consequences. Alcohol abuse and addiction have major social and economic consequences and cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Currently available therapeutics are inadequate, outlining the need for alternative treatments. Detailed knowledge of the neurocircuitry and brain chemistry responsible for aberrant behavior patterns should enable the development of novel pharmacotherapies to treat addiction. Therefore it is important to expand our knowledge and understanding of the neural pathways and mechanisms involved in alcohol seeking and abuse. The orexin (hypocretin) neuropeptide system is an attractive target, given the recent FDA and PMDA approval of suvorexant for the treatment of insomnia. Orexin is synthesized exclusively in neurons located in the lateral (LH), perifornical (PEF), and dorsal medial (DMH) hypothalamus. These neurons project widely throughout the neuraxis with regulatory roles in a wide range of behavioral and physiological responses, including sleep-wake cycle neuroendocrine regulation, anxiety, feeding behavior, and reward seeking. Here we summarize the literature to date, which have evaluated the interplay between alcohol and the orexin system.

Orexin/Hypocretin System: Role in Food and Drug Overconsumption

The neuropeptide orexin/hypocretin (OX), while largely transcribed within the hypothalamus, is released throughout the brain to affect complex behaviors. Primarily through the hypothalamus itself, OX homeostatically regulates adaptive behaviors needed for survival, including food intake, sleep-wake regulation, mating, and maternal behavior. However, through extrahypothalamic limbic brain regions, OX promotes seeking and intake of rewarding substances of abuse, like palatable food, alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine. This neuropeptide, in turn, is stimulated by the intake of or early life exposure to these substances, forming a nonhomeostatic, positive feedback loop. The specific OX receptor involved in these behaviors, whether adaptive behavior or substance seeking and intake, is dependent on the particular brain region that contributes to them. Thus, we propose that, while the primary function of OX is to maintain arousal for the performance of adaptive behaviors, this neuropeptide system is readily co-opted by rewarding substances that involve positive feedback, ultimately promoting their abuse.

Hemispheric Asymmetry of Development Due to Drug Exposure

BACKGROUND

A previous survey of the literature of fMRI brain activation for two risk factors, impulsivity and craving, for addiction were lateralized to the right and left hemispheres respectively. Most articles reported these findings without consideration of how lateral asymmetries might be relevant to understanding the underlying factors leading to addiction.

OBJECTIVE

The current survey is intended to extend these observations by demonstrating hemispheric asymmetry of development due to pre-natal or adolescent/adult exposure to drugs of abuse.

METHOD

Articles that reported either pre-natal or adolescent/adult exposure to drugs of abuse were collected and the hemisphere of the affected structures was tabulated to determine if, and which, drugs affected more structures in one hemisphere or the other or both together.

RESULTS

Some drugs, notably cocaine and alcohol, differentially affected left or right hemisphere structures which significantly differed depending on whether individuals were exposed prenatally or as an adolescent/adult. Cocaine tended to affect more left hemisphere structures when exposed prenatally and significantly affected more in the right when exposed as adults. Alcohol had the reverse pattern. The difference in patterns of effect between pre-natal or adult exposure was significant for both.

CONCLUSION

The results in this survey demonstrate that some drugs of abuse appear to have a right/left differential effect on structures of the brain. Further investigation into the reasons for this asymmetry may provide new insights into underlying factors of drug-seeking and addiction.

Prenatal ethanol exposure modifies locomotor activity and induces selective changes in Met-enk expression in adolescent rats

Several studies suggest that prenatal ethanol exposure (PEE) facilitates ethanol intake. Opioid peptides play a main role in ethanol reinforcement during infancy and adulthood. However, PEE effects upon motor responsiveness elicited by an ethanol challenge and the participation of opioids in these actions remain to be understood. This work assessed the susceptibility of adolescent rats to prenatal and/or postnatal ethanol exposure in terms of behavioral responses, as well as alcohol effects on Met-enk expression in brain areas related to drug reinforcement. Motor parameters (horizontal locomotion, rearings and stereotyped behaviors) in pre- and postnatally ethanol-challenged adolescents were evaluated. Pregnant rats received ethanol (2g/kg) or water during gestational days 17-20. Adolescents at postnatal day 30 (PD30) were tested in a three-trial activity paradigm (habituation, vehicle and drug sessions). Met-enk content was quantitated by radioimmunoassay in several regions: ventral tegmental area [VTA], nucleus accumbens [NAcc], prefrontal cortex [PFC], substantia nigra [SN], caudate-putamen [CP], amygdala, hypothalamus and hippocampus. PEE significantly reduced rearing responses. Ethanol challenge at PD30 decreased horizontal locomotion and showed a tendency to reduce rearings and stereotyped behaviors. PEE increased Met-enk content in the PFC, CP, hypothalamus and hippocampus, but did not alter peptide levels in the amygdala, VTA and NAcc. These findings suggest that PEE selectively modifies behavioral parameters at PD30 and induces specific changes in Met-enk content in regions of the mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways, the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Prenatal and postnatal ethanol actions on motor activity in adolescents could involve activation of specific neural enkephalinergic pathways.

Chronic Gestational Exposure to Ethanol Leads to Enduring Aberrances in Cortical Form and Function in the Medial Prefrontal Cortex

BACKGROUND

Exposure to ethanol (EtOH) in utero alters the disposition of tangentially migrating GABAergic interneurons in the fetal brain. The medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) gives rise to a large portion of cortical GABAergic interneurons, including the parvalbumin-expressing interneurons that shape and contribute to inhibitory/excitatory (I/E) balance of the intracortical circuit. Here, we investigated in the mouse medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) the hypothesis that low levels of maternal EtOH consumption from closure of the neural tube embryonic day (E) 9.5 until birth result in an enduring interneuronopathy.

METHODS

Pregnant mice were subjected to a 2% w/w EtOH consumption regimen starting at neural tube closure and ending at parturition. Neurogenesis in the MGE was assessed by 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) immunofluorescence at E12.5. The count and distribution of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons were determined in adult animals, and patch clamp electrophysiology was performed to determine GABAergic function and I/E balance. Open-field behavior in adult mice was assessed to determine whether the EtOH-exposed cohort displayed a lasting alteration in exploratory behavior.

RESULTS

In embryos exposed to EtOH in utero, we found increased BrdU labeling in the MGE, pointing to increased neurogenesis. Adult mice prenatally exposed to EtOH were hyperactive, and this was associated with an increase in parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic interneurons in the mPFC. In addition, prenatal EtOH exposure altered the balance between spontaneous inhibitory and excitatory synaptic input and attenuated GABAergic tone in layer V mPFC pyramidal neurons in juvenile mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore that altered migration of GABAergic interneurons contributes to the EtOH-induced aberration of cortical development and that these effects persist into adulthood as altered cortical form and function.

Prenatal fat exposure and hypothalamic PPAR β/δ: Possible relationship to increased neurogenesis of orexigenic peptide neurons

Gestational exposure to a fat-rich diet, while elevating maternal circulating fatty acids, increases in the offspring's hypothalamus and amygdala the proliferation and density of neurons that express neuropeptides known to stimulate consummatory behavior. To understand the relationship between these phenomena, this study examined in the brain of postnatal offspring (day 15) the effect of prenatal fat exposure on the transcription factor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) β/δ, which is sensitive to fatty acids, and the relationship of PPAR β/δ to the orexigenic neuropeptides, orexin, melanin-concentrating hormone, and enkephalin. Prenatal exposure to a fat-rich diet compared to low-fat chow increased the density of cells immunoreactive for PPAR β/δ in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), perifornical lateral hypothalamus (PFLH), and central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA), but not the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus or basolateral amygdaloid nucleus. It also increased co-labeling of PPAR β/δ with the cell proliferation marker, BrdU, or neuronal marker, NeuN, and the triple labeling of PPAR β/δ with BrdU plus NeuN, indicating an increase in proliferation and density of new PPAR β/δ neurons. Prenatal fat exposure stimulated the double-labeling of PPAR β/δ with orexin or melanin-concentrating hormone in the PFLH and enkephalin in the PVN and CeA and also triple-labeling of PPAR β/δ with BrdU and these neuropeptides, indicating that dietary fat increases the genesis of PPAR β/δ neurons that produce these peptides. These findings demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between PPAR β/δ and the increased proliferation and density of peptide-expressing neurons in the hypothalamus and amygdala of fat-exposed offspring.

Consumption of Substances of Abuse during Pregnancy Increases Consumption in Offspring: Possible Underlying Mechanisms

Correlative human observational studies on substances of abuse have been highly dependent on the use of rodent models to determine the neuronal and molecular mechanisms that control behavioral outcomes. This is particularly true for gestational exposure to non-illicit substances of abuse, such as excessive dietary fat, ethanol, and nicotine, which are commonly consumed in our society. Exposure to these substances during the prenatal period has been shown in offspring to increase their intake of these substances, induce other behavioral changes, and affect neurochemical systems in several brain areas that are known to control behavior. More importantly, emerging studies are linking the function of the immune system to these neurochemicals and ingestion of these abused substances. This review article will summarize the prenatal rodent models used to study developmental changes in offspring caused by prenatal exposure to dietary fat, ethanol, or nicotine. We will discuss the various techniques used for the administration of these substances into rodents and summarize the published outcomes induced by prenatal exposure to these substances. Finally, this review will cover some of the recent evidence for the role of immune factors in causing these behavioral and neuronal changes.

n-3 Fatty Acids Induce Neurogenesis of Predominantly POMC-Expressing Cells in the Hypothalamus

Apoptosis of hypothalamic neurons is believed to play an important role in the development and perpetuation of obesity. Similar to the hippocampus, the hypothalamus presents constitutive and stimulated neurogenesis, suggesting that obesity-associated hypothalamic dysfunction can be repaired. Here, we explored the hypothesis that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) induce hypothalamic neurogenesis. Both in the diet and injected directly into the hypothalamus, PUFAs were capable of increasing hypothalamic neurogenesis to levels similar or superior to the effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Most of the neurogenic activity induced by PUFAs resulted in increased numbers of proopiomelanocortin but not NPY neurons and was accompanied by increased expression of BDNF and G-protein-coupled receptor 40 (GPR40). The inhibition of GPR40 was capable of reducing the neurogenic effect of a PUFA, while the inhibition of BDNF resulted in the reduction of global hypothalamic cell. Thus, PUFAs emerge as a potential dietary approach to correct obesity-associated hypothalamic neuronal loss.

Effects of embryonic ethanol exposure at low doses on neuronal development, voluntary ethanol consumption and related behaviors in larval and adult zebrafish: Role of hypothalamic orexigenic peptides

Embryonic exposure to ethanol is known to affect neurochemical systems in rodents and increase alcohol drinking and related behaviors in humans and rodents. With zebrafish emerging as a powerful tool for uncovering neural mechanisms of numerous diseases and exhibiting similarities to rodents, the present report building on our rat studies examined in zebrafish the effects of embryonic ethanol exposure on hypothalamic neurogenesis, expression of orexigenic neuropeptides, and voluntary ethanol consumption and locomotor behaviors in larval and adult zebrafish, and also effects of central neuropeptide injections on these behaviors affected by ethanol. At 24h post-fertilization, zebrafish embryos were exposed for 2h to ethanol, at low concentrations of 0.25% and 0.5%, in the tank water. Embryonic ethanol compared to control dose-dependently increased hypothalamic neurogenesis and the proliferation and expression of the orexigenic peptides, galanin (GAL) and orexin (OX), in the anterior hypothalamus. These changes in hypothalamic peptide neurons were accompanied by an increase in voluntary consumption of 10% ethanol-gelatin and in novelty-induced locomotor and exploratory behavior in adult zebrafish and locomotor activity in larvae. After intracerebroventricular injection, these peptides compared to vehicle had specific effects on these behaviors altered by ethanol, with GAL stimulating consumption of 10% ethanol-gelatin more than plain gelatin food and OX stimulating novelty-induced locomotor behavior while increasing intake of food and ethanol equally. These results, similar to those obtained in rats, suggest that the ethanol-induced increase in genesis and expression of these hypothalamic peptide neurons contribute to the behavioral changes induced by embryonic exposure to ethanol.

Hypocretins, Neural Systems, Physiology, and Psychiatric Disorders

The hypocretins (Hcrts), also known as orexins, have been among the most intensely studied neuropeptide systems since their discovery about two decades ago. Anatomical evidence shows that the hypothalamic neurons that produce hypocretins/orexins project widely throughout the entire brain, innervating the noradrenergic locus coeruleus, the cholinergic basal forebrain, the dopaminergic ventral tegmental area, the serotonergic raphe nuclei, the histaminergic tuberomammillary nucleus, and many other brain regions. By interacting with other neural systems, the Hcrt system profoundly modulates versatile physiological processes including arousal, food intake, emotion, attention, and reward. Importantly, interruption of the interactions between these systems has the potential to cause neurological and psychiatric diseases. Here, we review the modulation of diverse neural systems by Hcrts and summarize potential therapeutic strategies based on our understanding of the Hcrt system's role in physiology and pathophysiological processes.

Persistent Interneuronopathy in the Prefrontal Cortex of Young Adult Offspring Exposed to Ethanol In Utero

Gestational exposure to ethanol has been reported to alter the disposition of tangentially migrating GABAergic cortical interneurons, but much remains to be elucidated. Here we first established the migration of interneurons as a proximal target of ethanol by limiting ethanol exposure in utero to the gestational window when tangential migration is at its height. We then asked whether the aberrant tangential migration of GABAergic interneurons persisted as an enduring interneuronopathy in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) later in the life of offspring prenatally exposed to ethanol. Time pregnant mice with Nkx2.1Cre/Ai14 embryos harboring tdTomato-fluorescent medial ganglionic eminence (MGE)-derived cortical GABAergic interneurons were subjected to a 3 day binge-type 5% w/w ethanol consumption regimen from embryonic day (E) 13.5-16.5, spanning the peak of corticopetal interneuron migration in the fetal brain. Our binge-type regimen increased the density of MGE-derived interneurons in the E16.5 mPFC. In young adult offspring exposed to ethanol in utero, this effect persisted as an increase in the number of mPFC layer V parvalbumin-immunopositive interneurons. Commensurately, patch-clamp recording in mPFC layer V pyramidal neurons uncovered enhanced GABA-mediated spontaneous and evoked synaptic transmission, shifting the inhibitory/excitatory balance toward favoring inhibition. Furthermore, young adult offspring exposed to the 3 day binge-type ethanol regimen exhibited impaired reversal learning in a modified Barnes maze, indicative of decreased PFC-dependent behavioral flexibility, and heightened locomotor activity in an open field arena. Our findings underscore that aberrant neuronal migration, inhibitory/excitatory imbalance, and thus interneuronopathy contribute to indelible abnormal cortical circuit form and function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

The significance of this study is twofold. First, we demonstrate that a time-delimited binge-type ethanol exposure in utero during early gestation alters corticopetal tangential migration of GABAergic interneurons in the fetal brain. Second, our study is the first to integrate neuroanatomical, electrophysiological, and behavioral evidence that this "interneuronopathy" persists in the young adult offspring and contributes to enduring changes in (1) the distribution of parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic cortical interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex, (2) GABA-mediated synaptic transmission that resulted in an inhibitory/excitatory synaptic imbalance, and (3) behavioral flexibility. These findings alert women of child-bearing age that fetal alcohol spectrum disorders can be rooted very early in fetal brain development, and reinforce evidence-based counseling against binge drinking even at the earliest stages of pregnancy.

Prenatal exposure to ethanol stimulates hypothalamic CCR2 chemokine receptor system: Possible relation to increased density of orexigenic peptide neurons and ethanol drinking in adolescent offspring

Clinical and animal studies indicate that maternal consumption of ethanol during pregnancy increases alcohol drinking in the offspring. Possible underlying mechanisms may involve orexigenic peptides, which are stimulated by prenatal ethanol exposure and themselves promote drinking. Building on evidence that ethanol stimulates neuroimmune factors such as the chemokine CCL2 that in adult rats is shown to colocalize with the orexigenic peptide, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) in the lateral hypothalamus (LH), the present study sought to investigate the possibility that CCL2 or its receptor CCR2 in LH is stimulated by prenatal ethanol exposure, perhaps specifically within MCH neurons. Our paradigm of intraoral administration of ethanol to pregnant rats, at low-to-moderate doses (1 or 3g/kg/day) during peak hypothalamic neurogenesis, caused in adolescent male offspring twofold increase in drinking of and preference for ethanol and reinstatement of ethanol drinking in a two-bottle choice paradigm under an intermittent access schedule. This effect of prenatal ethanol exposure was associated with an increased expression of MCH and density of MCH(+) neurons in LH of preadolescent offspring. Whereas CCL2(+) cells at this age were low in density and unaffected by ethanol, CCR2(+) cells were dense in LH and increased by prenatal ethanol, with a large percentage (83-87%) identified as neurons and found to colocalize MCH. Prenatal ethanol also stimulated the genesis of CCR2(+) and MCH(+) neurons in the embryo, which co-labeled the proliferation marker, BrdU. Ethanol also increased the genesis and density of neurons that co-expressed CCR2 and MCH in LH, with triple-labeled CCR2(+)/MCH(+)/BrdU(+) neurons that were absent in control rats accounting for 35% of newly generated neurons in ethanol-exposed rats. With both the chemokine and MCH systems believed to promote ethanol consumption, this greater density of CCR2(+)/MCH(+) neurons in the LH of preadolescent rats suggests that these systems function together in promoting alcohol drinking during adolescence.

Neurotoxicity of prenatal alcohol exposure on medullary pre-Bötzinger complex neurons in neonatal rats

Prenatal alcohol exposure disrupts the development of normal fetal respiratory function, but whether it perturbs respiratory rhythmical discharge activity is unclear. Furthermore, it is unknown whether the 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor (5-HT_2AR) is involved in the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure. In the present study, pregnant female rats received drinking water containing alcohol at concentrations of 0%, 1%, 2%, 4%, 8% or 10% (v/v) throughout the gestation period. Slices of the medulla from 2-day-old neonatal rats were obtained to record respiratory rhythmical discharge activity. 5-HT_2AR protein and mRNA levels in the pre-Bötzinger complex of the respiratory center were measured by western blot analysis and quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. Compared with the 0% alcohol group, respiratory rhythmical discharge activity in medullary slices in the 4%, 8% and 10% alcohol groups was decreased, and the reduction was greatest in the 8% alcohol group. Respiratory rhythmical discharge activity in the 10% alcohol group was irregular. Thus, 8% was the most effective alcohol concentration at attenuating respiratory rhythmical discharge activity. These findings suggest that prenatal alcohol exposure attenuates respiratory rhythmical discharge activity in neonatal rats by downregulating 5-HT_2AR protein and mRNA levels.

Effects of ethanol exposure in utero on Cajal-Retzius cells in the developing cortex

BACKGROUND

Prenatal exposure to ethanol exerts teratogenic effects on the developing brain. Here, we tested the hypothesis that exposure to ethanol in utero alters the disposition of Cajal-Retzius cells that play a key role in orchestrating proliferation, migration, and laminar integration of cortical neurons in the embryonic cortex.

METHODS

Pregnant Ebf2-EGFP mice, harboring EGFP-fluorescent Cajal-Retzius cells, were subjected to a 2% w/w ethanol consumption regimen starting at neural tube closure and lasting throughout gestation. Genesis of Cajal-Retzius cells was assessed by means of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) immunofluorescence at embryonic day 12.5, their counts and distribution were determined between postnatal day (P)0 and P4, patch clamp electrophysiology was performed between P2 and P3 to analyze GABA-mediated synaptic activity, and open-field behavioral testing was conducted in P45-P50 adolescents.

RESULTS

In Ebf2-EGFP embryos exposed to ethanol in utero, we found increased BrdU labeling and expanded distribution of Cajal-Retzius cells in the cortical hem, pointing to increased genesis and proliferation. Postnatally, we found an increase in Cajal-Retzius cell number in cortical layer I. In addition, they displayed altered patterning of spontaneous GABA-mediated synaptic barrages and enhanced GABA-mediated synaptic activity, suggesting enhanced GABAergic tone.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings, together, underscore that Cajal-Retzius cells contribute to the ethanol-induced aberration of cortical development and abnormal GABAergic neurotransmission at the impactful time when intracortical circuits form.

Model of voluntary ethanol intake in zebrafish: effect on behavior and hypothalamic orexigenic peptides

Recent studies in zebrafish have shown that exposure to ethanol in tank water affects various behaviors, including locomotion, anxiety and aggression, and produces changes in brain neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine. Building on these investigations, the present study had two goals: first, to develop a method for inducing voluntary ethanol intake in individual zebrafish, which can be used as a model in future studies to examine how this behavior is affected by various manipulations, and second, to characterize the effects of this ethanol intake on different behaviors and the expression of hypothalamic orexigenic peptides, galanin (GAL) and orexin (OX), which are known in rodents to stimulate consumption of ethanol and alter behaviors associated with alcohol abuse. Thus, we first developed a new model of voluntary intake of ethanol in fish by presenting this ethanol mixed with gelatin, which they readily consume. Using this model, we found that individual zebrafish can be trained in a short period to consume stable levels of 10% or 20% ethanol (v/v) mixed with gelatin and that their intake of this ethanol-gelatin mixture leads to pharmacologically relevant blood ethanol concentrations which are strongly, positively correlated with the amount ingested. Intake of this ethanol-gelatin mixture increased locomotion, reduced anxiety, and stimulated aggressive behavior, while increasing expression of GAL and OX in specific hypothalamic areas. These findings, confirming results in rats, provide a method in zebrafish for investigating with forward genetics and pharmacological techniques the role of different brain mechanisms in controlling ethanol intake.

Prenatal ethanol exposure alters met-enkephalin expression in brain regions related with reinforcement: possible mechanism for ethanol consumption in offspring

The endogenous opioid system is involved in ethanol reinforcement. Ethanol-induced changes in opioidergic transmission have been extensively studied in adult organisms. However, the impact of ethanol exposure at low or moderate doses during early ontogeny has been barely explored. We investigated the effect of prenatal ethanol exposure on alcohol intake and Methionine-enkephalin (Met-enk) content in rat offspring. Met-enk content was assessed in the ventral tegmental area [VTA], nucleus accumbens [NAcc], prefrontal cortex [PFC], substantia nigra [SN], caudate-putamen [CP], amygdala, hypothalamus and hippocampus. Pregnant rats were treated with ethanol (2g/kg) or water during GDs 17-20. At PDs 14 and 15, preweanlings were evaluated in an intake test (5% and 10% ethanol, or water). Met-enk content in brain regions of infants prenatally exposed to ethanol was quantitated by radioimmunoassay. Ethanol consumption was facilitated by prenatal experience with the drug, particularly in females. Met-enk content in mesocorticolimbic regions - PFC and NAcc - was increased as a consequence of prenatal exposure to ethanol. Conversely, Met-enk levels in the VTA were reduced by prenatal ethanol manipulation. Prenatal ethanol also increased peptide levels in the medial-posterior zone of the CP, and strongly augmented Met-enk content in the hippocampus and hypothalamus. These findings show that prenatal ethanol exposure stimulates consumption of the drug in infant rats, and induces selective changes in Met-enk levels in regions of the mesocorticolimbic and nigrostriatal systems, the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Our results support the role of mesocorticolimbic enkephalins in ethanol reinforcement in offspring, as has been reported in adults.

Stimulatory role of the chemokine CCL2 in the migration and peptide expression of embryonic hypothalamic neurons

Neuroinflammation is a feedback mechanism against infection, with recent studies suggesting a neuromodulatory role. The chemokine, (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2), and its receptor, (C-C motif) receptor type 2 (CCR2), affect neuromodulation and migration in response to damage. Although CCL2 co-localizes with neuropeptides in the hypothalamus that control voluntary behavior, the function of CCL2/CCR2 is unknown. This led us to consider the possibility that CCL2 acting through CCR2, under natural conditions, may affect the migration and peptide levels of hypothalamic neurons that control voluntary behavior. This study used primary embryonic hypothalamic neurons to examine the effect of CCL2 on migratory behavior and on levels of the peptides, enkephalin (ENK) and galanin. Treatment with CCL2 led to a significant, dose-dependent increase in the number of migrated neurons and an increase in the velocity and distance traveled. CCL2 also significantly increased the number of ENK-expressing and CCR2/ENK co-expressing neurons and the percentage of neurons that contain higher levels of ENK. Lastly, CCL2 produced a dose-dependent increase in expression of ENK and galanin. These results provide evidence for a stimulatory effect of CCL2 on embryonic hypothalamic neurons involving changes in migratory behavior, expression, and synthesis of neuropeptides that function in controlling behavior. Our results demonstrate that the chemokine, CCL2, functions through its receptor, CCR2, to stimulate the migration and expression of the orexigenic peptides, enkephalin (ENK) and galanin (GAL), in developing embryonic hypothalamic neurons that are important for controlling ingestive behavior. This evidence reveals broad effects of CCL2 in the developing hypothalamus, showing this chemokine system to be tightly linked to the hypothalamic peptide neurons.

Melanin-concentrating hormone expression in the rat hypothalamus is not affected in an experiment of prenatal alcohol exposure

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can cause a "fetal alcoholic syndrome" (FAS) in the progeny. This syndrome is characterized by important brain defects often associated to a decreased expression of the morphogenic protein sonic hedgehog (Shh). The goal of this study was to verify if a FAS could modify the differentiation of hypothalamic neurons producing MCH. Indeed, the expression of this peptide and neurons producing it are dependent of a Shh controlled genetic cascade in the embryo. To address this question, female rats received a 15% ethanol solution to drink during pregnancy and lactation. Higher abortion rate and smaller pups at birth confirmed that descendants were affected by this experimental condition. MCH expression was analyzed by RT-qPCR and immunohistochemistry in embryos taken at E11 and E13, or in pups and young adults born from control and alcoholic mothers. MCH expression level, number of MCH neurons or ratio of MCH sub-populations were not modified by our experimental conditions. However, Shh expression was significantly lover at E11 and we also observed that hindbrain serotonergic neurons were affected as reported in the literature. These findings as well as other data from the literature suggest that protective mechanisms are involved to maintain peptide expressions and differentiation of some specific neuron populations in the ventral diencephalon in surviving embryos exposed to ethanol during pregnancy.

Long-term genomic and epigenomic dysregulation as a consequence of prenatal alcohol exposure: a model for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

There is abundant evidence that prenatal alcohol exposure leads to a range of behavioral and cognitive impairments, categorized under the term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs). These disorders are pervasive in Western cultures and represent the most common preventable source of neurodevelopmental disabilities. The genetic and epigenetic etiology of these phenotypes, including those factors that may maintain these phenotypes throughout the lifetime of an affected individual, has become a recent topic of investigation. This review integrates recent data that has progressed our understanding FASD as a continuum of molecular events, beginning with cellular stress response and ending with a long-term “footprint” of epigenetic dysregulation across the genome. It reports on data from multiple ethanol-treatment paradigms in mouse models that identify changes in gene expression that occur with respect to neurodevelopmental timing of exposure and ethanol dose. These studies have identified patterns of genomic alteration that are dependent on the biological processes occurring at the time of ethanol exposure. This review also adds to evidence that epigenetic processes such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNA regulation may underlie long-term changes to gene expression patterns. These may be initiated by ethanol-induced alterations to DNA and histone methylation, particularly in imprinted regions of the genome, affecting transcription which is further fine-tuned by altered microRNA expression. These processes are likely complex, genome-wide, and interrelated. The proposed model suggests a potential for intervention, given that epigenetic changes are malleable and may be altered by postnatal environment. This review accentuates the value of mouse models in deciphering the molecular etiology of FASD, including those processes that may provide a target for the ammelioration of this common yet entirely preventable disorder.

Examination of age-dependent effects of fetal ethanol exposure on behavior, hippocampal cell counts, and doublecortin immunoreactivity in rats

Ethanol is known as a potent teratogen having adverse effects on brain and behavior. However, some of the behavioral deficits caused by fetal alcohol exposure and well expressed in juveniles ameliorate with maturation may suggest some kind of functional recovery occurring during postnatal development. The aim of this study was to reexamine age-dependent behavioral impairments in fetal-alcohol rats and to investigate the changes in neurogenesis and gross morphology of the hippocampus during a protracted postnatal period searching for developmental deficits and/or delays that would correlate with behavioral impairments in juveniles and for potential compensatory processes responsible for their amelioration in adults. Ethanol was delivered to the pregnant dams by intragastric intubation throughout 7-21 gestation days at daily dose of 6 g/kg. Isocaloric intubation and intact control groups were included. Locomotor activity, anxiety, and spatial learning tasks were applied to juvenile and young-adult rats from all groups. Unbiased stereological estimates of hippocampal volumes, the total number of pyramidal and granular cells, and double cortin expressing neurons were carried out for postnatal days (PDs) PD1, PD10, PD30, and PD60. Alcohol insult during second trimester equivalent caused significant deficits in the spatial learning in juvenile rats; however, its effect on hippocampal morphology was limited to a marginally lower number of granular cells in dentate gyrus (DG) on PD30. Thus, initial behavioral deficits and the following functional recovery in fetal-alcohol subjects may be due to more subtle plastic changes within the hippocampal formation but also in other structures of the extended hippocampal circuit. Further investigation is required.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2012

This paper is the thirty-fifth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2012 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

Prenatal exposure to nicotine stimulates neurogenesis of orexigenic peptide-expressing neurons in hypothalamus and amygdala

Animal and clinical studies show that gestational exposure to nicotine increases the propensity of offspring to consume nicotine, but the precise mechanism mediating this behavioral phenomenon is unclear. The present study in Sprague Dawley rats examined the possibility that the orexigenic peptide systems, enkephalin (ENK) and orexin (OX), which are stimulated by nicotine in adult animals and promote consummatory behavior, may be similarly responsive to nicotine's stimulatory effect in utero while having long-term behavioral consequences. The results demonstrated that nicotine exposure during gestation at low doses (0.75 or 1.5 mg/kg/d) significantly increased mRNA levels and density of neurons that express ENK in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and central nucleus of the amygdala, OX, and another orexigenic peptide, melanin-concentrating hormone, in the perifornical lateral hypothalamus in preweanling offspring. These effects persisted in the absence of nicotine, at least until puberty. Colabeling of the cell proliferation marker BrdU with the neuronal marker NeuN and peptides revealed a marked stimulatory effect of prenatal nicotine on neurogenesis, but not gliogenesis, and also on the number of newly generated neurons expressing ENK, OX, or melanin-concentrating hormone. During adolescence, offspring also exhibited significant behavioral changes, increased consumption of nicotine and other substances of abuse, ethanol and a fat-rich diet, with no changes in chow and water intake or body weight. These findings reveal a marked sensitivity during gestation of the orexigenic peptide neurons to low nicotine doses that may increase the offspring's propensity to overconsume substances of abuse during adolescence.

Effects of changes in energy homeostasis and exposure of noxious insults on the expression of orexin (hypocretin) and its receptors in the brain

This review summarizes data regarding the brain expression of the orexin (hypocretin) system including: prepro-orexin (PPO), orexin A (OxA), orexin B (OxB) and the two orexin receptors 1 and 2 (OxR1, OxR2). Clinical data is limited to OxA and OxB in cerebral spinal fluid and serum/plasma, thus necessitating the development of animal models to undertake mechanistic studies. We focus on changes in animal models that were either exposed to a regime of altered sleep, metabolic energy homeostasis, exposed to drugs and noxious insults. Many more expressional studies are available for PPO, OxA and OxB levels, compared to studies of the receptors. Interestingly, the direction and pattern of change for PPO, OxA and OxB is inconsistent amongst studies, whereas for the receptors, there tends to be increased expression for both OxR1 and OxR2 after alterations in energy homeostasis, and an increased expression after noxious insults or exposure to some drugs. The clinical implications of these results from animal models are discussed in light of the findings from human studies, and future research directions are suggested to fill knowledge gaps with regard to the orexin system, particularly during early brain development.

Neurodevelopmental alcohol exposure elicits long-term changes to gene expression that alter distinct molecular pathways dependent on timing of exposure

BACKGROUND

Maternal alcohol consumption is known to adversely affect fetal neurodevelopment. While it is known that alcohol dose and timing play a role in the cognitive and behavioral changes associated with prenatal alcohol exposure, it is unclear what developmental processes are disrupted that may lead to these phenotypes.

METHODS

Mice (n=6 per treatment per developmental time) were exposed to two acute doses of alcohol (5 g/kg) at neurodevelopmental times representing the human first, second, or third trimester equivalent. Mice were reared to adulthood and changes to their adult brain transcriptome were assessed using expression arrays. These were then categorized based on Gene Ontology annotations, canonical pathway associations, and relationships to interacting molecules.

RESULTS

The results suggest that ethanol disrupts biological processes that are actively occurring at the time of exposure. These include cell proliferation during trimester one, cell migration and differentiation during trimester two, and cellular communication and neurotransmission during trimester three. Further, although ethanol altered a distinct set of genes depending on developmental timing, many of these show interrelatedness and can be associated with one another via 'hub' molecules and pathways such as those related to huntingtin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

CONCLUSIONS

These changes to brain gene expression represent a 'molecular footprint' of neurodevelopmental alcohol exposure that is long-lasting and correlates with active processes disrupted at the time of exposure. This study provides further support that there is no neurodevelopmental time when alcohol cannot adversely affect the developing brain.

The role of orexins/hypocretins in alcohol use and abuse: an appetitive-reward relationship

Orexins (hypocretins) are neuropeptides synthesized in neurons located in the lateral (LH), perifornical, and dorsomedial (DMH) hypothalamus. These neurons innervate many regions in the brain and modulate multiple other neurotransmitter systems. As a result of these extensive projections and interactions orexins are involved in numerous functions, such as feeding behavior, neuroendocrine regulation, the sleep-wake cycle, and reward-seeking. This review will summarize the literature to date which has evaluated a role of orexins in the behavioral effects of alcohol, with a focus on understanding the importance of this peptide and its potential as a clinical therapeutic target for alcohol use disorders.