Effects of fluoxetine administration on hypothalamic melanocortin system in obese Zucker rats

α-MSH-catabolic enzyme prolylcarboxypeptidase in nucleus accumbens shell ameliorates stress susceptibility in mice through regulating synaptic plasticity

Emerging evidence demonstrates the vital role of synaptic transmission and structural remodeling in major depressive disorder. Activation of melanocortin receptors facilitates stress-induced emotional behavior. Prolylcarboxypeptidase (PRCP) is a serine protease, which splits the C-terminal amino acid of α-MSH and inactivates it. In this study, we asked whether PRCP, the endogenous enzyme of melanocortin system, might play a role in stress susceptibility via regulating synaptic adaptations. Mice were subjected to chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) or subthreshold social defeat stress (SSDS). Depressive-like behavior was assessed in SIT, SPT, TST and FST. Based on to behavioral assessments, mice were divided into the susceptible (SUS) and resilient (RES) groups. After social defeat stress, drug infusion or viral expression and behavioral tests, morphological and electrophysiological analysis were conducted in PFX-fixed and fresh brain slices containing the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcsh). We showed that PRCP was downregulated in NAcsh of susceptible mice. Administration of fluoxetine (20 mg·kg-1·d-1, i.p., for 2 weeks) ameliorated the depressive-like behavior, and restored the expression levels of PRCP in NAcsh of susceptible mice. Pharmacological or genetic inhibition of PRCP in NAcsh by microinjection of N-benzyloxycarbonyl-L-prolyl-L-prolinal (ZPP) or LV-shPRCP enhanced the excitatory synaptic transmission in NAcsh, facilitating stress susceptibility via central melanocortin receptors. On the contrary, overexpression of PRCP in NAcsh by microinjection of AAV-PRCP alleviated the depressive-like behavior and reversed the enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission, abnormal dendritogenesis and spinogenesis in NAcsh induced by chronic stress. Furthermore, chronic stress increased the level of CaMKIIα, a kinase closely related to synaptic plasticity, in NAcsh. The elevated level of CaMKIIα was reversed by overexpression of PRCP in NAcsh. Pharmacological inhibition of CaMKIIα in NAcsh alleviated stress susceptibility induced by PRCP knockdown. This study has revealed the essential role of PRCP in relieving stress susceptibility through melanocortin signaling-mediated synaptic plasticity in NAcsh.

The Melanocortin System: A Promising Target for the Development of New Antidepressant Drugs

Major depression is one of the most prevalent mental disorders, causing significant human suffering and socioeconomic loss. Since conventional antidepressants are not sufficiently effective, there is an urgent need to develop new antidepressant medications. Despite marked advances in the neurobiology of depression, the etiology and pathophysiology of this disease remain poorly understood. Classical and newer hypotheses of depression suggest that an imbalance of brain monoamines, dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA) and immune system, or impaired hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotrophic factors pathways are cause of depression. It is assumed that conventional antidepressants improve these closely related disturbances. The purpose of this review was to discuss the possibility of affecting these disturbances by targeting the melanocortin system, which includes adrenocorticotropic hormone-activated receptors and their peptide ligands (melanocortins). The melanocortin system is involved in the regulation of various processes in the brain and periphery. Melanocortins, including peripherally administered non-corticotropic agonists, regulate HPAA activity, exhibit anti-inflammatory effects, stimulate the levels of neurotrophic factors, and enhance hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotransmission. Therefore, endogenous melanocortins and their analogs are able to complexly affect the functioning of those body’s systems that are closely related to depression and the effects of antidepressants, thereby demonstrating a promising antidepressant potential.

Fluoxetine ameliorates high-fat diet-induced metabolic abnormalities partially via reduced adipose triglyceride lipase-mediated adipocyte lipolysis

Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus have more risk to develop depression. Fluoxetine (FLX), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), is drug for mood and anxiety disorders. Previous studies showed that FLX could induce weight loss in non-depressed clinically overweight individuals. Although the anti-appetite effect of FLX is well-documented, its potential effects on metabolic abnormalities have not been investigated. In this study, we want to investigate whether FLX could be a therapeutic drug against high fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic disorder. We generated metabolic disorders and depressed mouse model by feeding HFD for 12 weeks at the age of 8 weeks. Then, mice were intraperitoneally injected once daily with FLX (10 mg/kg or 20 mg/kg) for four weeks. Our results showed that FLX alleviated the HFD-induced metabolic dysfunctions and depressive phenotypes in mice. FLX improved systemic glucose homeostasis, at least in part, by improving visceral white adipose tissue (vWAT) insulin signaling. Moreover, FLX reduced circulating plasma leptin level, and decreased the expression of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) in vWAT. Our data revealed that FLX also reduced the triglyceride (TG) accumulation in vWAT. Therefore, these findings suggest that FLX exhibits significant potential on comorbidity of metabolic disorder and depression in mice.

Semax, synthetic ACTH(4-10) analogue, attenuates behavioural and neurochemical alterations following early-life fluvoxamine exposure in white rats

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) are commonly used to treat depression during pregnancy. SSRIs cross the placenta and may influence the maturation of the foetal brain. Clinical and preclinical findings suggest long-term consequences of SSRI perinatal exposure for the offspring. The mechanisms of SSRI effects on developing brain remain largely unknown and there are no directional approaches for prevention of the consequences of maternal SSRI treatment during pregnancy. The heptapeptide Semax (MEHFPGP) is a synthetic analogue of ACTH(4-10) which exerts marked nootropic and neuroprotective activities. The aim of the present study was to investigate the long-term effects of neonatal exposure to the SSRI fluvoxamine (FA) in white rats. Additionally, the study examined the potential for Semax to prevent the negative consequences of neonatal FA exposure. Rat pups received FA or vehicle injections on postnatal days 1-14, a time period equivalent to 27-40 weeks of human foetal age. After FA treatment, rats were administered with Semax or vehicle on postnatal days 15-28. During the 2nd month of life, the rats underwent behavioural testing, and monoamine levels in brain structures were measured. It was shown that neonatal FA exposure leads to the impaired emotional response to stress and novelty and delayed acquisition of food-motivated maze task in adolescent and young adult rats. Furthermore, FA exposure induced alterations in the monoamine levels in brains of 1- and 2- month-old rats. Semax administration reduced the anxiety-like behaviour, improved learning abilities and normalized the levels of brain biogenic amines impaired by the FA exposure. The results demonstrate that early-life FA exposure in rat pups produces long-term disturbances in their anxiety-related behaviour, learning abilities, and brain monoamines content. Semax exerts a favourable effect on behaviour and biogenic amine system of rats exposed to the antidepressant. Thus, peptide Semax can prevent behavioural deficits caused by altered 5-HT levels during development.

The melanocortin pathway and control of appetite-progress and therapeutic implications

The initial discovery that ob/ob mice become obese because of a recessive mutation of the leptin gene has been crucial to discover the melanocortin pathway to control appetite. In the melanocortin pathway, the fed state is signaled by abundance of circulating hormones such as leptin and insulin, which bind to receptors expressed at the surface of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons to promote processing of POMC to the mature hormone α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). The α-MSH released by POMC neurons then signals to decrease energy intake by binding to melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) expressed by MC4R neurons to the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). Conversely, in the 'starved state' activity of agouti-related neuropeptide (AgRP) and of neuropeptide Y (NPY)-expressing neurons is increased by decreased levels of circulating leptin and insulin and by the orexigenic hormone ghrelin to promote food intake. This initial understanding of the melanocortin pathway has recently been implemented by the description of the complex neuronal circuit that controls the activity of POMC, AgRP/NPY and MC4R neurons and downstream signaling by these neurons. This review summarizes the progress done on the melanocortin pathway and describes how obesity alters this pathway to disrupt energy homeostasis. We also describe progress on how leptin and insulin receptors signal in POMC neurons, how MC4R signals and how altered expression and traffic of MC4R change the acute signaling and desensitization properties of the receptor. We also describe how the discovery of the melanocortin pathway has led to the use of melanocortin agonists to treat obesity derived from genetic disorders.

Prelimbic cortex 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors are involved in the hypophagic effects caused by fluoxetine in fasted rats

The regulation of food intake involves a complex interplay between the central nervous system and the activity of organs involved in energy homeostasis. Besides the hypothalamus, recognized as the center of this regulation, other structures are involved, especially limbic regions such as the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (vMPFC). Monoamines, such as serotonin (5-HT), play an important role in appetite regulation. However, the effect in the vMPFC of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), fluoxetine, on food intake has not been studied. The aim of the present study was to study the effects on food intake of fed and fasted rats evoked by fluoxetine injection into the prelimbic cortex (PL), a sub-region of the vMPFC, or given systemically, and which 5-HT receptors in the PL are involved in fluoxetine responses. Fluoxetine was injected into the PL or given systemically in male Wistar rats. Independent groups of rats were pretreated with intra-PL antagonists of 5-HT receptors: 5-HT1A (WAY100635), 5-HT2C (SB242084) or 5-HT1B (SB216641). Fluoxetine (0.1; 1; 3; 10nmol/200nL) injected into the PL induced a dose-dependent hypophagic effect in fasted rats. This effect was reversed by prior local treatment with WAY100635 (1; 10nmol) or SB242084 (1; 10nmol), but not with SB216641 (0.2; 2.5; 10nmol). Systemic fluoxetine induced a hypophagic effect, which was blocked by intra-PL 5-HT2C antagonist (10nmol) administration. Our findings suggest that PL 5-HT neurotransmission modulates the central control of food intake and 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors in the PL could be potential targets for the action of fluoxetine.

Effect of short and long-term treatment with antipsychotics on orexigenic/anorexigenic neuropeptides expression in the rat hypothalamus

Among numerous side effects of antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics), one of the leading problems is a significant weight gain caused by disturbances in energy homeostasis. The hypothalamus is considered an important target for neuroleptics and contains some neuronal circuits responsible for food intake regulation, so we decided to study which hypothalamic signaling pathways connected with energy balance control are modified by antipsychotic drugs of different generations. We created an expression profile of different neuropeptides after single-dose and chronic neuroleptic administration. Experiments were carried out on adult male Sprague-Dawley rats injected intraperitoneally for 1 day or for 28 days by three neuroleptics: olanzapine, chlorpromazine and haloperidol. Hypothalami were isolated in order to perform PCR reactions and also whole brains were sliced for immunohistochemical analysis. We assessed the expression of orexigenic/anorexigenic neuropeptides and their receptors--neuropeptide Y (NPY), NPY receptor type 1 (Y1R), preproorexin (PPOX), orexin A, orexin receptor type 1 (OX1R) and 2 (OX2R), nucleobindin 2 (NUCB2), nesfatin-1, proopiomelanocortin (POMC), alpha-melanotropin (α-MSH) and melanocortin receptor type 4 (MC4R)--both on the mRNA and protein levels. We have shown that antipsychotics of different generations administered chronically have the ability to upregulate PPOX, orexin A and Y1R expression with little or no effect on orexigenic receptors (OX1R, OX2R) and NPY. Interestingly, antipsychotics also increased the level of some anorexigenic factors (POMC, α-MSH and MC4R), but at the same time strongly downregulated NUCB2 and nesfatin-1 signaling--a newly discovered neuropeptide known as a food-intake inhibiting factor. Our results may contribute to a better understanding of mechanisms responsible for antipsychotics' side effects. They also underline the complex nature of interactions between classical monoamine receptors and hypothalamic peptidergic pathways, which has potential clinical applications.

The genetics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are among the most widely prescribed drugs in psychiatry. Based on the fact that SSRIs increase extracellular monoamine levels in the brain, the monoamine hypothesis of depression was introduced, postulating that depression is associated with too low serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline levels. However, several lines of evidence indicate that this hypothesis is too simplistic and that depression and the efficacy of SSRIs are dependent on neuroplastic changes mediated by changes in gene expression. Because a coherent view on global gene expression is lacking, we aim to provide an overview of the effects of SSRI treatment on the final targets of 5-HT receptor signal transduction pathways, namely the transcriptional regulation of genes. We address gene polymorphisms in humans that affect SSRI efficacy, as well as in vitro studies employing human-derived cells. We also discuss the molecular targets affected by SSRIs in animal models, both in vivo and in vitro. We conclude that serotonin transporter gene variation in humans affects the efficacy and side-effects of SSRIs, whereas SSRIs generally do not affect serotonin transporter gene expression in animals. Instead, SSRIs alter mRNA levels of genes encoding serotonin receptors, components of non-serotonergic neurotransmitter systems, neurotrophic factors, hypothalamic hormones and inflammatory factors. So far little is known about the epigenetic and age-dependent molecular effects of SSRIs, which might give more insights in the working mechanism(s) of SSRIs.

Hypophagia and induction of serotonin transporter gene expression in raphe nuclei of male and female rats after short-term fluoxetine treatment

Serotonin (5-HT) is one of the regulators of feeding in humans. Drugs acting on the serotoninergic system are used to treat bulimia nervosa and to enhance the effect of hypocaloric diets in overweight subjects. They act rapidly to normalise feeding when used to treat eating-related problems. To explore the role of the 5-HT transporter (serotonin transporter (SERT)) in the short-term action of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitor fluoxetine, rats were i.p. given the drug for five consecutive days. Acute administration of fluoxetine in male and female rats produced a strong reduction in food intake, an effect that held up when daily treatment was maintained for five consecutive days. This reduction translated into a diminution of body weight that was statistically significant in the case of the males. As a reflection of the body weight change in rats killed after the fifth daily drug injection, retroperitoneal fat pad also decreased; a diminution that was statistically significant in the case of male rats. In these conditions, plasma leptin levels of both male and female rats were lower than in untreated animals. While acute fluoxetine administration did not modify SERT gene expression, subchronic drug treatment increased the content of SERT mRNA in the midbrain raphe complex of both rat genders. These findings may contribute to explain the role of SERT in fluoxetine action on binging and as an adjunct to hypocaloric diets.

REM Sleep Rebound as an Adaptive Response to Stressful Situations

Stress and sleep are related to each other in a bidirectional way. If on one hand poor or inadequate sleep exacerbates emotional, behavioral, and stress-related responses, on the other hand acute stress induces sleep rebound, most likely as a way to cope with the adverse stimuli. Chronic, as opposed to acute, stress impairs sleep and has been claimed to be one of the triggering factors of emotional-related sleep disorders, such as insomnia, depressive- and anxiety-disorders. These outcomes are dependent on individual psychobiological characteristics, conferring even more complexity to the stress-sleep relationship. Its neurobiology has only recently begun to be explored, through animal models, which are also valuable for the development of potential therapeutic agents and preventive actions. This review seeks to present data on the effects of stress on sleep and the different approaches used to study this relationship as well as possible neurobiological underpinnings and mechanisms involved. The results of numerous studies in humans and animals indicate that increased sleep, especially the rapid eye movement phase, following a stressful situation is an important adaptive behavior for recovery. However, this endogenous advantage appears to be impaired in human beings and rodent strains that exhibit high levels of anxiety and anxiety-like behavior.

The effect of protein kinase C-delta knockdown on anti-free radical enzyme and neuropeptide Y gene expression in phenylpropanolamine-treated rats

Hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) has been reported to involve in regulating behavioral response of phenylpropanolamine (PPA), a sympathomimetic agent. This study explored if protein kinase C (PKC)-delta signaling participated in this regulation. Moreover, possible roles of anti-free radical enzyme catalase (CAT) and nitrogen oxide synthase (NOS) were also examined. Rats were treated daily with PPA for 4 days. Changes in food intake and hypothalamic NPY, PKCdelta, CAT, and NOS contents were assessed and compared. Results showed that PKCdelta and CAT increased during PPA treatment, which were concomitant with decreases in NPY content and food intake, while the change of NOS was expressed differently. Moreover, PKCdelta knockdown could modify PPA anorexia as well as NPY and CAT expression, while NOS expression remained unchanged. Furthermore, pre-treatment with NOS inhibitor could modify both PPA anorexia and NPY content. It is suggested that PKCdelta participates in the anorectic response of PPA via the modulation of NPY and CAT, while NOS contribute to this modulation via a different mechanism during PPA treatment. Results provide molecular mechanism of NPY-mediated PPA anorexia and may aid the therapeutic research of PPA and other anti-obesity drugs.