Application of nutrigenomic concepts to Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Rethinking underutilized cereal crops: pan-omics integration and green system biology

MAIN CONCLUSION

Due to harsh lifestyle changes, in the present era, nutritional security is needed along with food security so it is necessary to include underutilized cereal crops (UCCs) in our daily diet to counteract the rising danger of human metabolic illness. We can attain both the goal of zero hunger and nutritional security by developing improved UCCs using advanced pan-omics (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, nutrigenomics, phenomics and ionomics) practices. Plant sciences research progressed profoundly since the last few decades with the introduction of advanced technologies and approaches, addressing issues of food demand of the growing population, nutritional security challenges and climate change. However, throughout the expansion and popularization of commonly consumed major cereal crops such as wheat and rice, other cereal crops such as millet, rye, sorghum, and others were impeded, despite their potential medicinal and nutraceutical qualities. Undoubtedly neglected underutilized cereal crops (UCCs) also have the capability to withstand diverse climate change. To relieve the burden of major crops, it is necessary to introduce the new crops in our diet in the way of UCCs. Introgression of agronomically and nutritionally important traits by pan-omics approaches in UCCs could be a defining moment for the population's well-being on the globe. This review discusses the importance of underutilized cereal crops, as well as the application of contemporary omics techniques and advanced bioinformatics tools that could open up new avenues for future study and be valuable assets in the development and usage of UCCs in the perspective of green system biology. The increased and improved use of UCCs is dependent on number of factors that necessitate a concerted research effort in agricultural sciences. The emergence of functional genomics with molecular genetics might gear toward the reawakening of interest in underutilized cereals crops. The need of this era is to focus on potential UCCs in advanced agriculture and breeding programmes. Hence, targeting the UCCs, might provide a bright future for better health and scientific rationale for its use.

Buckwheat OMICS: present status and future prospects

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp.) is an underutilized resilient crop of North Western Himalayas belonging to the family Polygonaceae and is a source of essential nutrients and therapeutics. Common Buckwheat and Tatary Buckwheat are the two main cultivated species used as food. It is the only grain crop possessing rutin, an important metabolite with high nutraceutical potential. Due to its inherent tolerance to various biotic and abiotic stresses and a short life cycle, Buckwheat has been proposed as a model crop plant. Nutritional security is one of the major concerns, breeding for a nutrient-dense crop such as Buckwheat will provide a sustainable solution. Efforts toward improving Buckwheat for nutrition and yield are limited due to the lack of available: genetic resources, genomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics. In order to harness the agricultural importance of Buckwheat, an integrated breeding and OMICS platforms needs to be established that can pave the way for a better understanding of crop biology and developing commercial varieties. This, coupled with the availability of the genome sequences of both Buckwheat species in the public domain, should facilitate the identification of alleles/QTLs and candidate genes. There is a need to further our understanding of the molecular basis of the genetic regulation that controls various economically important traits. The present review focuses on: the food and nutritional importance of Buckwheat, its various omics resources, utilization of omics approaches in understanding Buckwheat biology and, finally, how an integrated platform of breeding and omics will help in developing commercially high yielding nutrient rich cultivars in Buckwheat.

Nutrigenomics: Perceptions of South African Dietitians and General Practitioners

INTRODUCTION

Although investigations into the emerging field of nutrigenomics are relatively limited and more research in this field is required, experts agree that there is potential for it to be incorporated into health care practice. If health care professionals can promote healthy dietary behavior based on nutrigenomic testing, it can assist in addressing the health consequences of poor diet and lightning the strain on the South African health care system.

METHODS

Registered dietitians (RDs) and general practitioners (GPs) registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) who obtained their qualification in South Africa (SA) were eligible to participate in this cross-sectional study. Participants were identified using convenience and snowball sampling. A self-administered electronic survey using EvaSys Software® was completed by those that agreed to participate.

RESULTS

Nearly all RDs (97.3%), but less than a third of GPs (30.4%), had heard of the term nutrigenomics. Approximately three-quarters of RDs (74.7%) and GPs (73.9%) had or would personally consider undergoing genetic testing. More than 40% (43.5%) of RDs ranked direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies as the most equipped, while 31.8% of GPs ranked RDs as the most equipped to provide patients with nutrigenomic services. Both RDs and GPs ranked similar reasons as "strongly agree" for why consumers were motivated to make use of nutrigenomic services, which included "motivated by a desire to prevent or manage disease" (56.7%), "prevent a disease based on family history" (65.9%), "control health outcomes based on family history" (54.9%), and "improve overall health-related quality of life" (48.6%). Cost concerns were reported as the greatest barrier to implementing nutrigenomic services (75.7%). Other barriers included confidentiality issues (47.8%) and moral concerns (37.3%). Greater individualization of diet prescription (66.5%), stronger foundations for nutrition recommendations (62.4%), and dietary prescriptions that would manage or prevent certain diseases more effectively (59.0%) were all perceived as benefits of including nutrigenomics in practice.

CONCLUSION

This study identified perceived consumer motivators and barriers that might affect the willingness to seek nutrigenomic services in SA. In addition, the need for more nutrigenomic training opportunities, including the planning of personalized diets based on genetic testing results and interpretation of results, was confirmed. However, both RDs and GPs felt that the emerging field of nutrigenomics needs further development before it can be applied effectively in routine private and public health care in SA.

Sulforaphane: Its "Coming of Age" as a Clinically Relevant Nutraceutical in the Prevention and Treatment of Chronic Disease

A growing awareness of the mechanisms by which phytochemicals can influence upstream endogenous cellular defence processes has led to intensified research into their potential relevance in the prevention and treatment of disease. Pharmaceutical medicine has historically looked to plants as sources of the starting materials for drug development; however, the focus of nutraceutical medicine is to retain the plant bioactive in as close to its native state as possible. As a consequence, the potency of a nutraceutical concentrate or an extract may be lower than required for significant gene expression. The molecular structure of bioactive phytochemicals to a large extent determines the molecule's bioavailability. Polyphenols are abundant in dietary phytochemicals, and extensive in vitro research has established many of the signalling mechanisms involved in favourably modulating human biochemical pathways. Such pathways are associated with core processes such as redox modulation and immune modulation for infection control and for downregulating the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines. Although the relationship between oxidative stress and chronic disease continues to be affirmed, direct-acting antioxidants such as vitamins A, C, and E, beta-carotene, and others have not yielded the expected preventive or therapeutic responses, even though several large meta-analyses have sought to evaluate the potential benefit of such supplements. Because polyphenols exhibit poor bioavailability, few of their impressive in vitro findings have been replicated in vivo. SFN, an aliphatic isothiocyanate, emerges as a phytochemical with comparatively high bioavailability. A number of clinical trials have demonstrated its ability to produce favourable outcomes in conditions for which there are few satisfactory pharmaceutical solutions, foreshadowing the potential for SFN as a clinically relevant nutraceutical. Although myrosinase-inert broccoli sprout extracts are widely available, there now exist myrosinase-active broccoli sprout supplements that yield sufficient SFN to match the doses used in clinical trials.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism at +276 G>T of the Adiponectin Gene and Plasma Adiponectin Level in Myanmar Type 2 Diabetic Patients

Objective

The aim of the study was to investigate the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) at rs 1501299 (SNP+276 G>T) of the adiponectin gene and plasma adiponectin levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients in Myanmar.

Methodology

One hundred T2DM patients and 104 non-diabetic subjects were included in this cross-sectional analytical study. Genotype frequencies were determined by polymerase chain reaction - restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. Plasma adiponectin level was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Result

Genotype frequencies (GG, GT, TT) of SNP+276 in diabetic patients were 39%, 48% and 13%, respectively. The GT and TT genotypes were more frequent in T2DM patients (OR 1.98, 95% CI, 1.10-3.55; p=0.02 and OR 4.07, 95% CI, 1.34-12.3; p=0.01), respectively. The T allele of SNP+276 was significantly associated with T2DM (OR 1.96, 95% CI, 1.27-3.01; p=0.002). Mean plasma adiponectin level was significantly lower than in T2DM patients (27.41±16.7 μg/mL) compared to non-diabetic subjects (37.19±26.77 μg/mL) (p=0.002).

Conclusion

SNP+276 at rs 1501299 of the adiponectin gene was associated with type 2 diabetes and low plasma adiponectin levels in this Myanmar population.

Nutrigenomics, the Microbiome, and Gene-Environment Interactions: New Directions in Cardiovascular Disease Research, Prevention, and Treatment: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Cardiometabolic diseases are the leading cause of death worldwide and are strongly linked to both genetic and nutritional factors. The field of nutrigenomics encompasses multiple approaches aimed at understanding the effects of diet on health or disease development, including nutrigenetic studies investigating the relationship between genetic variants and diet in modulating cardiometabolic risk, as well as the effects of dietary components on multiple "omic" measures, including transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, lipidomics, epigenetic modifications, and the microbiome. Here, we describe the current state of the field of nutrigenomics with respect to cardiometabolic disease research and outline a direction for the integration of multiple omics techniques in future nutrigenomic studies aimed at understanding mechanisms and developing new therapeutic options for cardiometabolic disease treatment and prevention.

Enabling nutrient security and sustainability through systems research

Human and companion animal health depends upon nutritional quality of foods. Seed varieties, seasonal and local growing conditions, transportation, food processing, and storage, and local food customs can influence the nutrient content of food. A new and intensive area of investigation is emerging that recognizes many factors in these agri-food systems that influence the maintenance of nutrient quality which is fundamental to ensure nutrient security for world populations. Modeling how these systems function requires data from different sectors including agricultural, environmental, social, and economic, but also must incorporate basic nutrition and other biomedical sciences. Improving the agri-food system through advances in pre- and post-harvest processing methods, biofortification, or fortifying processed foods will aid in targeting nutrition for populations and individuals. The challenge to maintain and improve nutrient quality is magnified by the need to produce food locally and globally in a sustainable and consumer-acceptable manner for current and future populations. An unmet requirement for assessing how to improve nutrient quality, however, is the basic knowledge of how to define health. That is, health cannot be maintained or improved by altering nutrient quality without an adequate definition of what health means for individuals and populations. Defining and measuring health therefore becomes a critical objective for basic nutritional and other biomedical sciences.

Nutrigenetics and nutrigenomics insights into diabetes etiopathogenesis

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is considered a global pandemic, and the incidence of DM continues to grow worldwide. Nutrients and dietary patterns are central issues in the prevention, development and treatment of this disease. The pathogenesis of DM is not completely understood, but nutrient-gene interactions at different levels, genetic predisposition and dietary factors appear to be involved. Nutritional genomics studies generally focus on dietary patterns according to genetic variations, the role of gene-nutrient interactions, gene-diet-phenotype interactions and epigenetic modifications caused by nutrients; these studies will facilitate an understanding of the early molecular events that occur in DM and will contribute to the identification of better biomarkers and diagnostics tools. In particular, this approach will help to develop tailored diets that maximize the use of nutrients and other functional ingredients present in food, which will aid in the prevention and delay of DM and its complications. This review discusses the current state of nutrigenetics, nutrigenomics and epigenomics research on DM. Here, we provide an overview of the role of gene variants and nutrient interactions, the importance of nutrients and dietary patterns on gene expression, how epigenetic changes and micro RNAs (miRNAs) can alter cellular signaling in response to nutrients and the dietary interventions that may help to prevent the onset of DM.

Nutrigenomics research: a review

The excitement about nutrigenomics comes from a growing awareness of the potential for modifications of food or diet to support health and reduce the risk of diet-related diseases. It is an emerging field that tends to unfold the role of nutrition on gene expression which brings together the science of bioinformatics, nutrition, molecular biology, genomics, epidemiology, and molecular medicine. The present review focuses on nutrigenomics research and to find out India's status with respect to other countries. It covers the general overview of nutrigenomics, its associated diseases, and the role of SNP in gene alteration, diet supplementation and public awareness. It is understood that with the increasing changes in the food habits and life styles, people are becoming more prone to diet related disorders. Therefore there is an urgent need to boost more research in this field to help people in understanding the relationship between diet and health, and to ensure that everyone benefits from the genomic revolution.

Activity of selenium on cell proliferation, cytotoxicity, and apoptosis and on the expression of CASP9, BCL-XL and APC in intestinal adenocarcinoma cells

Intestinal cancers are correlated with diet. Thus, determining and understanding nutrient-genome interactions is important. The present work assessed the action of the oligoelement selenium on cell proliferation, cytotoxicity, and in situ apoptosis induction and on the expression CASP9, BCL-XL and APC genes in intestinal adenocarcinoma cells (HT29). HT29 cells were cultured and treated with selenium at concentrations of 5, 50 and 500ng/mL with or without the damage-inducing agent doxorubicin. These cells were then evaluated for cytotoxicity (MTT), cell proliferation and in situ apoptosis induction. To evaluate gene expression, only the cells treated with 500ng/mL of selenium were used. RNA was extracted from these cells, and the expressions of CASP9, BCL-XL and APC were analyzed by the RT-PCR method. The GAPDH gene was used as a reference gene. The MTT assay showed that selenium was not cytotoxic at any of the concentrations tested. The cell proliferation assay showed that selenium did not interfere with cell proliferation at the three concentrations tested. In contrast, when the three concentrations were combined with doxorubicin, a significant decrease in the proliferation rate was observed. The apoptosis rate was significantly increased in the selenium (500ng/mL) and doxorubicin group. CASP9 expression was increased and BCL-XL expression decreased in the selenium (500ng/mL) and doxorubicin group. APC was significantly increased in the selenium group alone. These results show that selenium increases apoptosis, especially when it is associated with a damage-inducing agent. Also, selenium has an important role in the expression of the APC gene, which is related to cell cycle regulation.

Assessment of research models for testing gene-environment interactions

Throughout the last century, possible effects of exposure to toxicants, nutrients or drugs were examined primarily by studies of groups or populations. Individual variation in responses was acknowledged but could not be analyzed due to lack of information or tools to analyze individual genetic make-ups and lifestyle factors such as diet and activity. The Human Genome, Haplotype Map, 1000Genomes, and Human Variome Projects are identifying and cataloging the variation found within humans. Advances in DNA sequencing technologies will soon permit the characterization of individual genomes in clinical and basic research studies, thus allowing associations to be made between an individual genotype and the response to a particular exposure. Such knowledge and tools have generated a significant challenge for scientists: to design and conduct research studies that account for individual genetic variation. However, before these studies are done in humans, they will be performed in various in vivo and in vitro models. The advantages and disadvantages of some of the model test systems that are being used or developed in relation to individual genetic make-up and responses to xenobiotics are discussed.

A ciência da nutrição em trânsito: da nutrição e dietética à nutrigenômica

No cenário mundial, a emergência do campo da Nutrição foi um fenômeno característico do início do século XX. No Brasil, a emergência da Nutrição localizou-se na área das Ciências da Saúde (ou Ciências da Vida), caracterizando-se, à primeira vista, como uma ciência de natureza biológica. Este artigo tem por objetivo analisar a trajetória do processo de produção do conhecimento científico que garantiu especificidade ao campo da Nutrição no Brasil, da emergência aos dias atuais. Os pressupostos teóricos que norteiam o artigo são: o conceito de campo científico, desenvolvido por Pierre Bourdieu e os conceitos de paradigma e comunidade científica, introduzidos por Thomas Samuel Kuhn. A análise histórica evidencia que desde o seu nascimento, além da natureza biológica, a Nutrição brasileira assumiu dimensões sociais e ambientais, caracterizando-se como um campo de conhecimento multidisciplinar, constituído a partir da integração de Ciências Biológicas, Ciências Sociais e Ciências dos Alimentos e Nutrição. Nas últimas décadas, com o intenso desenvolvimento da comunicação e informática, da genética e das teorias sobre a sustentabilidade ecológica do planeta Terra, importantes mudanças paradigmáticas têm ocorrido no campo da Nutrição. Portanto, pode-se afirmar que a Nutrição estaria vivenciando a era pós-genômica, constituindo-se uma ciência multidisciplinar, caracterizada pela integração das dimensões biológica, social e ambiental.

Genome-wide analysis of histone modifications in human pancreatic islets

The global diabetes epidemic poses a major challenge. Epigenetic events contribute to the etiology of diabetes; however, the lack of epigenomic analysis has limited the elucidation of the mechanistic basis for this link. To determine the epigenetic architecture of human pancreatic islets we mapped the genome-wide locations of four histone marks: three associated with gene activation-H3K4me1, H3K4me2, and H3K4me3-and one associated with gene repression, H3K27me3. Interestingly, the promoters of the highly transcribed insulin and glucagon genes are occupied only sparsely by H3K4me2 and H3K4me3. Globally, we identified important relationships between promoter structure, histone modification, and gene expression. We demonstrated co-occurrences of histone modifications including bivalent marks in mature islets. Furthermore, we found a set of promoters that is differentially modified between islets and other cell types. We also use our histone marks to determine which of the known diabetes-associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms are likely to be part of regulatory elements. Our global map of histone marks will serve as an important resource for understanding the epigenetic basis of type 2 diabetes.

Diabetes-linked zinc transporter ZnT8 is a homodimeric protein expressed by distinct rodent endocrine cell types in the pancreas and other glands

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Zinc is abundant in pancreas, being required by endocrine islet cells for hormone secretion and by exocrine acinar cells as pancreatic juice component. ZnT8 is a member of the SLC30A family of zinc transporters whose overexpression in cultured pancreatic beta cells leads to increased insulin secretion in response to glucose, suggesting a possible role in regulating glycemia. ZnT8 was therefore proposed as a therapeutic target for diabetes, and recent genome-wide association studies identified polymorphisms in the ZNT8 gene conferring increased type 2 diabetes risk.

METHODS AND RESULTS

As limited information was available on the biochemical properties of ZnT8 and on its endogenous expression, we have raised a specific polyclonal antibody and immunostained protein extracts, cell lines and tissue sections. We show that ZnT8 forms a very stable dimer that requires biological membranes to properly assemble. We demonstrate localization of murine ZnT8 to the secretory granules in pancreatic beta and alpha islet cells. Moreover, we show that ZnT8 is also expressed in other secretory cell types, namely the cubical epithelium that lines thyroid follicles and the cortex of the adrenal gland, suggesting a more widespread role in endocrine secretion.

CONCLUSION

We provide novel insights into the features of the ZnT8 transporter, of special relevance in light of its proposed role as therapeutical target for diabetes treatment.

Personalizing nutrigenomics research through community based participatory research and omics technologies

Personal and public health information are often obtained from studies of large population groups. Risk factors for nutrients, toxins, genetic variation, and more recently, nutrient-gene interactions are statistical estimates of the percentage reduction in disease in the population if the risk were to be avoided or the gene variant were not present. Because individuals differ in genetic makeup, lifestyle, and dietary patterns than those individuals in the study population, these risk factors are valuable guidelines, but may not apply to individuals. Intervention studies are likewise limited by small sample sizes, short time frames to assess physiological changes, and variable experimental designs that often preclude comparative or consensus analyses. A fundamental challenge for nutrigenomics will be to develop a means to sort individuals into metabolic groups, and eventually, develop risk factors for individuals. To reach the goal of personalizing medicine and nutrition, new experimental strategies are needed for human study designs. A promising approach for more complete analyses of the interaction of genetic makeups and environment relies on community-based participatory research (CBPR) methodologies. CBPR's central focus is developing a partnership among researchers and individuals in a community that allows for more in depth lifestyle analyses but also translational research that simultaneously helps improve the health of individuals and communities. The USDA-ARS Delta Nutrition Intervention Research program exemplifies CBPR providing a foundation for expanded personalized nutrition and medicine research for communities and individuals.

Nutrigenomic analysis of diet-gene interactions on functional supplements for weight management

Recent advances in molecular biology combined with the wealth of information generated by the Human Genome Project have fostered the emergence of nutrigenomics, a new discipline in the field of nutritional research. Nutrigenomics may provide the strategies for the development of safe and effective dietary interventions against the obesity epidemic. According to the World Health Organization, more than 60% of the global disease burden will be attributed to chronic disorders associated with obesity by 2020. Meanwhile in the US, the prevalence of obesity has doubled in adults and tripled in children during the past three decades. In this regard, a number of natural dietary supplements and micronutrients have been studied for their potential in weight management. Among these supplements, (-)-hydroxycitric acid (HCA), a natural extract isolated from the dried fruit rind of Garcinia cambogia, and the micronutrient niacin-bound chromium(III) (NBC) have been shown to be safe and efficacious for weight loss. Utilizing cDNA microarrays, we demonstrated for the first time that HCA-supplementation altered the expression of genes involved in lipolytic and adipogenic pathways in adipocytes from obese women and up-regulated the expression of serotonin receptor gene in the abdominal fat of rats. Similarly, we showed that NBC-supplementation up-regulated the expression of myogenic genes while suppressed the expression of genes that are highly expressed in brown adipose tissue in diabetic obese mice. The potential biological mechanisms underlying the observed beneficial effects of these supplements as elucidated by the state-of-the-art nutrigenomic technologies will be systematically discussed in this review.

Nutrigenomics: concepts and applications to pharmacogenomics and clinical medicine

The maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases are influenced by naturally occurring chemicals in foods. In addition to supplying the substrates for producing energy, a large number of dietary chemicals are bioactive--that is, they alter the regulation of biological processes and, either directly or indirectly, the expression of genetic information. Nutrients and bioactives may produce different physiological phenotypes among individuals because of genetic variability and not only alter health, but also disease initiation, progression and severity. The study and application of gene-nutrient interactions is called nutritional genomics or nutrigenomics. Nutrigenomic concepts, research strategies and clinical implementation are similar to and overlap those of pharmacogenomics, and both are fundamental to the treatment of disease and maintenance of optimal health.

Oxidative stress-induced risk factors associated with the metabolic syndrome: a unifying hypothesis

Although the biochemical steps linking insulin resistance with the metabolic syndrome have not been completely clarified, mounting experimental and clinical evidence indicate oxidative stress as an attractive candidate for a central pathogenic role since it potentially explains the appearance of all risk factors and supports the clinical manifestations. In fact, metabolic syndrome patients exhibit activation of biochemical pathways leading to increased delivery of reactive oxygen species, decreased antioxidant protection and increased lipid peroxidation. The described associations between increased abdominal fat storage, liver steatosis and systemic oxidative stress, the diminished concentration of nitric oxide derivatives and antioxidant vitamins and the endothelial oxidative damages observed in subjects with the metabolic syndrome definitively support oxidative stress as the common second-level event in a unifying pathogenic view. Moreover, it has been observed that oxidative stress regulates the expression of genes governing lipid and glucose metabolism through activation or inhibition of intracellular sensors. Diet constituents can modulate redox reactions and the oxidative stress extent, thus also acting on nuclear gene expression. As a consequence of the food-gene interaction, metabolic syndrome patients may express different disease features and extents according to the different pathways activated by oxidative stress-modulated effectors. This view could also explain family differences and interethnic variations in determining risk factor appearance. This review mechanistically focused on oxidative stress events leading to individual disease factor appearance in metabolic syndrome patients and their setting for a more helpful clinical approach.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors as molecular targets in relation to obesity and Type 2 diabetes

The three isotypes of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are currently perceived as major regulatory nodes (or hubs) of metabolic pathway networks, linking most prevalent diseases including Type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. The integrative functions of PPARs are also reflected in their ecogenetic profile, when the variants underlying pharmacogenetic interactions were also shown to modulate the effect of lifestyle factors. Despite their extensive clinical use, there are many outstanding issues, especially concerning their safety. Critical pharmacogenomic assessment is warranted for the new potent ligands of multiple PPAR isoforms as many have displayed serious side-effects in a limited number of treated subjects. Nevertheless, the advent of genomic, transcriptomic and system biology-level approaches, integrating knowledge from model systems and human biology, should greatly facilitate the transition to individualized PPAR-based therapies.

Complexity of type 2 diabetes mellitus data sets emerging from nutrigenomic research: a case for dimensionality reduction?

Nutrigenomics promises personalized nutrition and an improvement in preventing, delaying, and reducing the symptoms of chronic diseases such as diabetes. Nutritional genomics is the study of how foods affect the expression of genetic information in an individual and how an individual's genetic makeup affects the metabolism and response to nutrients and other bioactive components in food. The path to those promises has significant challenges, from experimental designs that include analysis of genetic heterogeneity to the complexities of food and environmental factors. One of the more significant complications in developing the knowledge base and potential applications is how to analyze high-dimensional datasets of genetic, nutrient, metabolomic (clinical), and other variables influencing health and disease processes. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is used as an illustration of the challenges in studying complex phenotypes with nutrigenomics concepts and approaches.