Homeostasis of the structurally important micronutrients, B and Si

Silicon Differently Affects Apoplastic Binding of Excess Boron in Wheat and Sunflower Leaves

Monocots and dicots differ in their boron (B) requirement, but also in their capacity to accumulate silicon (Si). Although an ameliorative effect of Si on B toxicity has been reported in various crops, differences among monocots and dicots are not clear, in particular in light of their ability to retain B in the leaf apoplast. In hydroponic experiments under controlled conditions, we studied the role of Si in the compartmentation of B within the leaves of wheat (Triticum vulgare L.) as a model of a high-Si monocot and sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) as a model of a low-Si dicot, with the focus on the leaf apoplast. The stable isotopes ¹⁰B and ¹¹B were used to investigate the dynamics of cell wall B binding capacity. In both crops, the application of Si did not affect B concentration in the root, but significantly decreased the B concentration in the leaves. However, the application of Si differently influenced the binding capacity of the leaf apoplast for excess B in wheat and sunflower. In wheat, whose capacity to retain B in the leaf cell walls is lower than in sunflower, the continuous supply of Si is crucial for an enhancement of high B tolerance in the shoot. On the other hand, the supply of Si did not contribute significantly in the extension of the B binding sites in sunflower leaves.

Microbial enhancement of plant nutrient acquisition

Nutrient availability is a determining factor for crop yield and quality. While fertilization is a major approach for improving plant nutrition, its efficacy can be limited and the production and application of fertilizers frequently bring problems to the environment. A large number of soil microbes are capable of enhancing plant nutrient acquisition and thereby offer environmentally benign solutions to meet the requirements of plant nutrition. Herein we provide summations of how beneficial microbes enhance plant acquisition of macronutrients and micronutrients. We also review recent studies on nutrition-dependent plant-microbe interactions, which highlight the plant's initiative in establishing or deterring the plant-microbe association. By dissecting complex signaling interactions between microbes within the root microbiome, a greater understanding of microbe-enhanced plant nutrition under specific biotic and abiotic stresses will be possible.

Organically-bound silicon enhances resistance to enzymatic degradation and nanomechanical properties of rice plant cell walls

Plant cell walls exhibit excellent mechanical properties, which form the structural basis for sustainable bioresources and multifunctional nanocelluloses. The wall nanomechanical properties of living cells through covalent modifications of hybrid inorganic elements, such as silicon, may confer significant influence on local mechano-response and enzymatic degradation. Here, we present a combination of ex situ measurements of enzyme-released oligosaccharide fragments using MALDI-TOF MS and in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging through PeakForce quantitative nanomechanical mapping of tip-functionalized single-molecule enzyme-polysaccharide substrate recognition and the nanoscale dissolution kinetics of individual cellulose microfibrils of living rice (Oryza sativa) cells following silicate cross-linking of cell wall xyloglucan. We find that xyloglucan-bound silicon enhances the resistance to degradation by cellulase and improves the wall nanomechanical properties in the elastic modulus at the single-cell level. The findings establish a direct link between an inorganic element of silicon and the nanoscale architecture of plant cell wall materials for sustainable utilization.

Elucidating the Possible Involvement of Maize Aquaporins in the Plant Boron Transport and Homeostasis Mediated by Rhizophagus irregularis under Drought Stress Conditions

Boron (B) is an essential micronutrient for higher plants, having structural roles in primary cell walls, but also other functions in cell division, membrane integrity, pollen germination or metabolism. Both high and low B levels negatively impact crop performance. Thus, plants need to maintain B concentration in their tissues within a narrow range by regulating transport processes. Both active transport and protein-facilitated diffusion through aquaporins have been demonstrated. This study aimed at elucidating the possible involvement of some plant aquaporins, which can potentially transport B and are regulated by the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis in the plant B homeostasis. Thus, AM and non-AM plants were cultivated under 0, 25 or 100 μM B in the growing medium and subjected or not subjected to drought stress. The accumulation of B in plant tissues and the regulation of plant aquaporins and other B transporters were analyzed. The benefits of AM inoculation on plant growth (especially under drought stress) were similar under the three B concentrations assayed. The tissue B accumulation increased with B availability in the growing medium, especially under drought stress conditions. Several maize aquaporins were regulated under low or high B concentrations, mainly in non-AM plants. However, the general down-regulation of aquaporins and B transporters in AM plants suggests that, when the mycorrhizal fungus is present, other mechanisms contribute to B homeostasis, probably related to the enhancement of water transport, which would concomitantly increase the passive transport of this micronutrient.

Identification and characterization of silicon efflux transporters in horsetail (Equisetum arvense)

Silicon (Si) is a beneficial element to plants, and its absorption via transporters leads to protective effects against biotic and abiotic stresses. In higher plants, two groups of root transporters for Si have been identified: influx transporters (Lsi1) and efflux transporters (Lsi2). Lsi1 transporters belong to the NIPIII aquaporins, and functional Lsi1s have been found in many plants species. Much less is known about Lsi2s that have been characterized in only a few species. Horsetail (Equisetum arvense), known among the highest Si accumulators in the plant kingdom, is a valuable model to study Si absorption and deposition. In this study, we first analyzed discrete Si deposition patterns in horsetail shoots, where ubiquitous silicification differs markedly from that of higher plants. Then, using the sequenced horsetail root transcriptome, two putative Si efflux transporter genes, EaLsi2-1 and EaLsi2-2, were identified. These genes share low sequence similarity with their homologues in higher plants. Further characterisation of EaLsi2-1 in transient expression assay using Nicotiana benthamiana epidermal cells confirmed transmembrane localization. In order to determine their functionality, the EaLsi2-1 was expressed in Xenopus oocytes, confirming that the translated protein was efficient for Si efflux. Both genes were equally expressed in roots and shoots, but interestingly, showed a much higher expression in the shoots than in the roots in contrast to Lsi2s found in other plants, a result consistent with the specific anatomy of horsetail and its rank as one of the highest Si accumulators among plant species.

Autochthonous arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Bacillus thuringiensis from a degraded Mediterranean area can be used to improve physiological traits and performance of a plant of agronomic interest under drought conditions

Studies have shown that some microorganisms autochthonous from stressful environments are beneficial when used with autochthonous plants, but these microorganisms rarely have been tested with allochthonous plants of agronomic interest. This study investigates the effectiveness of drought-adapted autochthonous microorganisms [Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and a consortium of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi] from a degraded Mediterranean area to improve plant growth and physiology in Zea mays under drought stress. Maize plants were inoculated or not with B. thuringiensis, a consortium of AM fungi or a combination of both microorganisms. Plants were cultivated under well-watered conditions or subjected to drought stress. Several physiological parameters were measured, including among others, plant growth, photosynthetic efficiency, nutrients content, oxidative damage to lipids, accumulation of proline and antioxidant compounds, root hydraulic conductivity and the expression of plant aquaporin genes. Under drought conditions, the inoculation of Bt increased significantly the accumulation of nutrients. The combined inoculation of both microorganisms decreased the oxidative damage to lipids and accumulation of proline induced by drought. Several maize aquaporins able to transport water, CO2 and other compounds were regulated by the microbial inoculants. The impact of these microorganisms on plant drought tolerance was complementary, since Bt increased mainly plant nutrition and AM fungi were more active improving stress tolerance/homeostatic mechanisms, including regulation of plant aquaporins with several putative physiological functions. Thus, the use of autochthonous beneficial microorganisms from a degraded Mediterranean area is useful to protect not only native plants against drought, but also an agronomically important plant such as maize.

A hemicellulose-bound form of silicon with potential to improve the mechanical properties and regeneration of the cell wall of rice

Silicon (Si) plays a large number of diverse roles in plants, but the structural and chemical mechanisms operating at the single-cell level remain unclear. We isolate the cell walls from suspension-cultured individual cells of rice (Oryza sativa) and fractionate them into three main fractions including cellulose (C), hemicellulose (HC) and pectin (P). We find that most of the Si is in HC as determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), where Si may covalently crosslink the HC polysacchrides confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The HC-bound form of Si could improve both the mechanical property and regeneration of the cell walls investigated by a combination of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). This study provides further evidence that HC could be the major ligand bound to Si, which broadens our understanding of the chemical nature of 'anomalous' Si in plant cell walls.

Salt bladders: do they matter?

Soil salinity is claiming about three hectares of arable land from conventional crop farming every minute. At the same time, the challenge of feeding 9.3 billion people by 2050 is forcing agricultural production into marginal areas, and providing sufficient food for this growing population cannot be achieved without a major breakthrough in crop breeding for salinity tolerance. In this Opinion article, we argue that the current trend of targeting Na(+) exclusion mechanisms in breeding programmes for salinity tolerance in crops needs revising. We propose that progress in this area will be achieved by learning from halophytes, naturally salt-loving plants capable of surviving in harsh saline environments, by targeting the mechanisms conferring Na(+) sequestration in external storage organs.

New insights into the regulation of aquaporins by the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in maize plants under drought stress and possible implications for plant performance

The relationship between modulation by arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) of aquaporin expression in the host plant and changes in root hydraulic conductance, plant water status, and performance under stressful conditions is not well known. This investigation aimed to elucidate how the AM symbiosis modulates the expression of the whole set of aquaporin genes in maize plants under different growing and drought stress conditions, as well as to characterize some of these aquaporins in order to shed further light on the molecules that may be involved in the mycorrhizal responses to drought. The AM symbiosis regulated a wide number of aquaporins in the host plant, comprising members of the different aquaporin subfamilies. The regulation of these genes depends on the watering conditions and the severity of the drought stress imposed. Some of these aquaporins can transport water and also other molecules which are of physiological importance for plant performance. AM plants grew and developed better than non-AM plants under the different conditions assayed. Thus, for the first time, this study relates the well-known better performance of AM plants under drought stress to not only the water movement in their tissues but also the mobilization of N compounds, glycerol, signaling molecules, or metalloids with a role in abiotic stress tolerance. Future studies should elucidate the specific function of each aquaporin isoform regulated by the AM symbiosis in order to shed further light on how the symbiosis alters the plant fitness under stressful conditions.

Evidence for 'silicon' within the cell walls of suspension-cultured rice cells

Despite the ubiquity and beneficial role of silicon (Si) in plant biology, structural and chemical mechanisms operating at the single-cell level have not been extensively studied. To obtain insights regarding the effect of Si on individual cells, we cultivated suspended rice (Oryza sativa) cells in the absence and presence of Si and analyzed single cells using a combination of physical techniques including atomic force microscopy (AFM). Si is naturally present as a constituent of the cell walls, where it is firmly bound to the cell wall matrix rather than occurring within intra- or extracellular silica deposition, as determined by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). This species of Si, linked with the cell wall matrix, improves the structural stability of cell walls during their expansion and subsequent cell division. Maintaining cell shape is thereby enhanced, which may be crucial for the function and survival of cells. This study provides further evidence that organosilicon is present in plant cell walls, which broadens our understanding of the chemical nature of 'anomalous Si' in plant biology.

Silica uptake from nanoparticles and silica condensation state in different tissues of Phragmites australis

Silicon is described as beneficial for grasses by enhancing yield and fitness via a considerable contribution to pathogen, drought, and pest resistance. Silicic acid is the predominant form for uptake and transport within the plant and will precipitate in leaves. But it is unknown whether polymeric nanosilicon compounds in its synthetic form, with an increasing concentration in aquatic environments, can be suitable for plant nutrition. Therefore, we investigated the uptake, transport, and deposition of silicic acid/silica within plants using synthetic nanosilica. Our results show a significant difference in silicon (Si) content within the different tissues of Phragmites australis. The nanosilica had been dissolved prior to the uptake by plants. The chemical form of Si during uptake was not traceable. A significant enhancement in the condensation state of the silica was found from root to leaves especially from culm to leaf tips visible by the increasing content of Q(4)-groups in the NMR spectra. We conclude that synthetic nanosilica has the same quality as source for the beneficial element Si like natural silica. Since the condensation state is described to control silica solubility, we suggest that different condensation states within the plant may result in different remobilization of silicon during decomposition of the plant material.

Members of rice plasma membrane intrinsic proteins subfamily are involved in arsenite permeability and tolerance in plants

Rice accumulates high level of arsenic (As) in its edible parts and thus plays an important role in the transfer of As into the food chain. However, the mechanisms of As uptake and its detoxification in rice are not well understood. Recently, members of the Nodulin 26-like intrinsic protein (NIP) subfamily of plant aquaporins were shown to transport arsenite in rice and Arabidopsis. Here we report that members of the rice plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) subfamily are also involved in As tolerance and transport. Based on the homology search with the mammalian AQP9 and yeast Fps1 arsenite transporters, we identified and cloned five rice PIP gene subfamily members. qRT-PCR analysis of PIPs in rice root and shoot tissues revealed a significant down regulation of transcripts encoding OsPIP1;2, OsPIP1;3, OsPIP2;4, OsPIP2;6, and OsPIP2;7 in response to arsenite treatment. Heterologous expression of OsPIP2;4, OsPIP2;6, and OsPIP2;7 in Xenopus laevis oocytes significantly increased the uptake of arsenite. Overexpression of OsPIP2;4, OsPIP2;6, and OsPIP2;7 in Arabidopsis yielded enhanced arsenite tolerance and higher biomass accumulation. Further, these transgenic plants showed no significant accumulation of As in shoot and root tissues in long term uptake assays. Whereas, short duration exposure to arsenite caused both active influx and efflux of As in the roots. The data suggests a bidirectional arsenite permeability of rice PIPs in plants. These rice PIPs genes will be highly useful for engineering important food and biofuel crops for enhanced crop productivity on contaminated soils without increasing the accumulation of toxic As in the biomass or edible tissues.

Boron induced expression of some stress-related genes in tomato

Boron (B) is a potential environmental toxicant for plants under excessive conditions. To understand the molecular stress response involved in high B exposure, we focused on the transcript accumulation of three stress-related genes: Hsp90, MT2 and GR1. Transcript accumulations were determined on B-stressed tomato plants by using a quantitative real-time PCR technique. Tomato seedlings were exposed to B ranging from 80 to 5120 μM for 24 h in nutrient solution. Root and shoot transcript accumulations were assessed. Results showed that the genes were over-expressed in B-stressed tomato. The highest relative fold change value was measured on GR1 for both root and shoot (8-10 and 30-34-fold increases, respectively), indicating the activation of the oxidative stress enzyme to tolerate B-stress as an early response. The activation of these genes could be a protection mechanism against to B stress.

Arabidopsis thaliana NIP7;1: an anther-specific boric acid transporter of the aquaporin superfamily regulated by an unusual tyrosine in helix 2 of the transport pore

Plant nodulin-26 intrinsic proteins (NIPs) are members of the aquaporin superfamily that serve as multifunctional transporters of uncharged metabolites. In Arabidopsis thaliana, a specific NIP pore subclass, known as the NIP II proteins, is represented by AtNIP5;1 and AtNIP6;1, which encode channel proteins expressed in roots and leaf nodes, respectively, that participate in the transport of the critical cell wall nutrient boric acid. Modeling of the protein encoded by the AtNIP7;1 gene shows that it is a third member of the NIP II pore subclass in Arabidopsis. However, unlike AtNIP5;1 and AtNIP6;1 proteins, which form constitutive boric acid channels, AtNIP7;1 forms a channel with an extremely low intrinsic boric acid transport activity. Molecular modeling and molecular dynamics simulations of AtNIP7;1 suggest that a conserved tyrosine residue (Tyr81) located in transmembrane helix 2 adjacent to the aromatic arginine (ar/R) pore selectivity region stabilizes a closed pore conformation through interaction with the canonical Arg220 in ar/R region. Substitution of Tyr81 with a Cys residue, characteristic of established NIP boric acid channels, results in opening of the AtNIP7;1 pore that acquires a robust, transport activity for boric acid as well as other NIP II test solutes (glycerol and urea). Substitution of a Phe for Tyr81 also opens the channel, supporting the prediction from MD simulations that hydrogen bond interaction between the Tyr81 phenol group and the ar/R Arg may contribute to the stabilization of a closed pore state. Expression analyses show that AtNIP7;1 is selectively expressed in developing anther tissues of young floral buds of A. thaliana, principally in developing pollen grains of stage 9-11 anthers. Because boric acid is both an essential nutrient as well as a toxic compound at high concentrations, it is proposed that Tyr81 modulates transport and may provide an additional level of regulation for this transporter in male gametophyte development.

Plant nutrition for sustainable development and global health

BACKGROUND

Plants require at least 14 mineral elements for their nutrition. These include the macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S) and the micronutrients chlorine (Cl), boron (B), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo). These are generally obtained from the soil. Crop production is often limited by low phytoavailability of essential mineral elements and/or the presence of excessive concentrations of potentially toxic mineral elements, such as sodium (Na), Cl, B, Fe, Mn and aluminium (Al), in the soil solution.

SCOPE

This article provides the context for a Special Issue of the Annals of Botany on 'Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Development and Global Health'. It provides an introduction to plant mineral nutrition and explains how mineral elements are taken up by roots and distributed within plants. It introduces the concept of the ionome (the elemental composition of a subcellular structure, cell, tissue or organism), and observes that the activities of key transport proteins determine species-specific, tissue and cellular ionomes. It then describes how current research is addressing the problems of mineral toxicities in agricultural soils to provide food security and the optimization of fertilizer applications for economic and environmental sustainability. It concludes with a perspective on how agriculture can produce edible crops that contribute sufficient mineral elements for adequate animal and human nutrition.

Morphology and oxidative physiology of boron-deficient mulberry plants

The aim of the study was to induce B deficiency symptoms and to relate the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and altered cellular redox environment with the effects of B deficiency in mulberry (Morus alba L.) cv. Kanva-2 plants. Study was undertaken on antioxidant responses, malondialdehyde (MDA) content as an indicator of oxidative damage and ratio of dehydroascorbate (DHA) to ascorbic acid (AsA) as an index of cellular redox environment in B-deficient (0.0 microM) and B-supraoptimal (33 microM) mulberry plants. B deficiency symptoms appeared as upward cupping of the young emerging leaves. Later on, B-deficient plants developed lenticels like cracks on major vein, petiole and stem. B-deficient leaves had higher water potential (Psi) and relative water content (RWC), contained a lower concentration of B, less chloroplastic pigments and high tissue Fe, Mn and Zn concentrations compared to the controls. Hydrogen peroxide was accumulated in leaves of B-deficient and B-supraoptimal plants. B-supraoptimal plants also showed an increased DHA/AsA ratio. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6), peroxidase (POD, EC 1.11.1.7) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11) were increased in B-deficient leaves. The activities of SOD and POD were decreased in B-supraoptimal plants. The results suggest that B deficiency aggravates oxidative stress through enhanced generation of ROS in mulberry plants.