Pharmacological effects of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) on miR-146a, IRAK1, TRAF6 and NF-κB gene expression, as target molecules in inflammatory reactions

Evaluation of cell adhesion molecules (LFA-1 and L-selectin) in ankylosing spondylitis patients after treatment with β-D-mannuronic acid (M2000)

Background & objectives

To examine β-D-mannuronic acid (M2000) effects on L-selectin shedding and leucocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) expression as mechanisms of action of this drug in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS).

Methods

To investigate the molecular consequences of β-D-mannuronic acid on L-selectin shedding, flow cytometry method was used. Furthermore, the effect of it on LFA-1 gene expression was analyzed by using quantitative real time (qRT)-PCR technique.

Results

The LFA-1 expression in patients with AS was higher than controls (P=0.046). The LFA-1 expression after 12 wk therapy with β-D-mannuronic acid was meaningfully decreased (P=0.01). After 12 wk treatment with β-D-mannuronic acid, the frequency of CD62L-expressing CD4+ T cells in patients with AS, was not considerably altered, compared to the patients before therapy (P=0.5). Furthermore, after 12 wk therapy with β-D-mannuronic acid, L-selectin expression levels on CD4+ T-cells in patients with AS, were not remarkably changed, compared to the expression levels of these in patients before treatment (P=0.2).

Interpretation & conclusions

The results of this study for the first time showed that β-D-mannuronic acid can affect events of adhesion cascade in patients with AS. Moreover, β-D-mannuronic acid presented as an acceptable benefit to AS patients and could aid in the process of disease management.

Dysregulated miRNAs network in the critical COVID-19: An important clue for uncontrolled immunothrombosis/thromboinflammation

Known as a pivotal immunohemostatic response, immunothrombosis is activated to restrict the diffusion of pathogens. This beneficial intravascular defensive mechanism represents the close interaction between the immune and coagulation systems. However, its uncontrolled form can be life-threatening to patients with the critical coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Hyperinflammation and ensuing cytokine storm underlie the activation of the coagulation system, something which results in the provocation of more immune-inflammatory responses by the thrombotic mediators. This vicious cycle causes grave clinical complications and higher risks of mortality. Classified as an evolutionarily conserved family of the small non-coding RNAs, microRNAs (miRNAs) serve as the fine-tuners of genes expression and play a key role in balancing the pro/anticoagulant and pro-/anti-inflammatory factors maintaining homeostasis. Therefore, any deviation from their optimal expression levels or efficient functions can lead to severe complications. Despite their extensive effects on the molecules and processes involved in uncontrolled immunothrombosis, some genetic agents and uncontrolled immunothrombosis-induced interfering factors (e.g., miRNA-single nucleotide polymorphysms (miR-SNPs), the complement system components, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases, and reactive oxygen species (ROS)) have apparently disrupted their expressions/functions. This review study aims to give an overview of the role of miRNAs in the context of uncontrolled immunothrombosis/thromboinflammation accompanied by some presumptive interfering factors affecting their expressions/functions in the critical COVID-19. Detecting, monitoring, and resolving these interfering agents mafy facilitate the design and development of the novel miRNAs-based therapeutic approaches to the reduction of complications incidence and mortality in patients with the critical COVID-19.

Anti-rheumatoid drugs advancements: New insights into the molecular treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is one of more than 100 types of arthritis. This chronic autoimmune disorder affects the lining of synovial joints in about 0.5% of people and may induce severe joints deformity and disability. RA impacts health life of people from all sexes and ages with more prevalence in elderly and women people. Significant improvement has been noted in the last two decades revealing the mechanisms of the development of RA, the improvement of the early diagnosis and the development of new treatment options. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, and disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) remain the most known treatments used against RA. However, not all patients respond well to these drugs and therefore, new solutions are of immense need to improve the disease outcomes. In the present review, we discuss and highlight the recent findings concerning the different classes of RA therapies including the conventional and modern drug therapies, as well as the recent emerging options including the phyto-cannabinoid and cell- and RNA-based therapies. A better understanding of their mechanisms and pathways might help find a specific target against inflammation, cartilage damage, and reduce side effects in arthritis.

Cytokine storm in the pathophysiology of COVID-19: Possible functional disturbances of miRNAs

SARS-CoV-2, as the causative agent of COVID-19, is an enveloped positives-sense single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Beta-CoVs sub-family. A sophisticated hyper-inflammatory reaction named cytokine storm is occurred in patients with severe/critical COVID-19, following an imbalance in immune-inflammatory processes and inhibition of antiviral responses by SARS-CoV-2, which leads to pulmonary failure, ARDS, and death. The miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs with an average length of 22 nucleotides which play various roles as one of the main modulators of genes expression and maintenance of immune system homeostasis. Recent evidence has shown that Homo sapiens (hsa)-miRNAs have the potential to work in three pivotal areas including targeting the virus genome, regulating the inflammatory signaling pathways, and reinforcing the production/signaling of IFNs-I. However, it seems that several SARS-CoV-2-induced interfering agents such as viral (v)-miRNAs, cytokine content, competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), etc. preclude efficient function of hsa-miRNAs in severe/critical COVID-19. This subsequently leads to increased virus replication, intense inflammatory processes, and secondary complications development. In this review article, we provide an overview of hsa-miRNAs roles in viral genome targeting, inflammatory pathways modulation, and IFNs responses amplification in severe/critical COVID-19 accompanied by probable interventional factors and their function. Identification and monitoring of these interventional elements can help us in designing the miRNAs-based therapy for the reduction of complications/mortality rate in patients with severe/critical forms of the disease.

Efficient roles of miR-146a in cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuroinflammatory disorders: An effectual review in neuroimmunology

Known as one of the most sophisticated systems of the human body, the nervous system consists of neural cells and controls all parts of the body. It is closely related to the immune system. The effects of inflammation and immune reactions have been observed in the pathogenesis of some neurological disorders. Defined as the gene expression regulators, miRNAs participate in cellular processes. miR-146a is a mediator in the neuroimmune system, leaving substantial effects on the homeostasis of immune and brain cells, neuronal identities acquisition, and immune responses regulation in the nervous system. Its positive efficiency has been proven in modulating inflammatory reactions, hemorrhagic complications, and pain. Moreover, the miR-146a targets play a key role in the pathogenesis of these illnesses. Based on the performance of its targets, miR-146a can have various effects on the disease progress. The abnormal expression/function of miR-146a has been reported in neuroinflammatory disorders. There is research evidence that this molecule qualifies as a desirable biomarker for some disorders and can even be a therapeutic target. This study aims to provide a meticulous review regarding the roles of miR-146a in the pathogenesis and progression of several neuroinflammatory disorders such as multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, temporal lobe epilepsy, ischemic stroke, etc. The study also considers its eligibility for use as an ideal biomarker and therapeutic target in these diseases. The awareness of these mechanisms can facilitate the disease management/treatment, lead to patients' amelioration, improve the quality of life, and mitigate the risk of death.

Influence of β-D-mannuronic Acid, as a New Member of Non-steroidal Anti- Inflammatory Drugs Family, on the Expression Pattern of Chemokines and their Receptors in Rheumatoid Arthritis

BACKGROUND

Based on the encouraging results of phase III clinical trial of β-Dmannuronic acid (M2000) (as a new anti-inflammatory drug) in patients with RA, in this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of this drug on the expression of chemokines and their receptors in PBMCs of RA patients.

METHODS

PBMCs of RA patients and healthy controls were separated and the patients' cells were treated with low, moderate and high doses (5, 25 and 50 μg/mL) of M2000 and optimum dose (1 μg/mL) of diclofenac, as a control in RPMI-1640 medium. Real-time PCR was used for evaluating the mRNA expression of CXCR3, CXCR4, CCR2, CCR5 and CCL2/MCP-1. Cell surface expression of CCR2 was investigated using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

CCR5 mRNA expression reduced significantly, after treatment of the patients' cells with all three doses of M2000 and optimum dose of diclofenac. CXCR3 mRNA expression was downregulated significantly followed by the treatment of these cells with moderate and high doses of M2000 and optimum dose of diclofenac. CXCR4 mRNA expression declined significantly after the treatment of these cells with moderate and high doses of M2000. CCL2 mRNA expression significantly reduced only followed by the treatment of these cells with a high dose of M2000, whereas, mRNA and cell surface expressions of CCR2 diminished significantly followed by the treatment of these cells with a high dose of M2000 and optimum dose of diclofenac.

CONCLUSION

According to our results, M2000 through the down-regulation of chemokines and their receptors may restrict the infiltration of immune cells into the synovium.

A comprehensive review on miR-146a molecular mechanisms in a wide spectrum of immune and non-immune inflammatory diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are single-strand endogenous and non-coding RNA molecules with a length of about 22 nucleotides, which regulate genes expression, through modulating the translation and stability of their target mRNAs. miR-146a is one of the most studied miRNAs, due to its central role in immune system homeostasis and control of the innate and acquired immune responses. Accordingly, abnormal expression or function of miR-146a results in the incidence and progression of immune and non-immune inflammatory diseases. Its deregulated expression pattern and inefficient function have been reported in a wide spectrum of these illnesses. Based on the existing evidence, this miRNA qualifies as an ideal biomarker for diagnosis, prognosis, and activity evaluation of immune and non-immune inflammatory disorders. Moreover, much attention has recently been paid to therapeutic potential of miR-146a and several researchers have assessed the effects of different drugs on expression and function of this miRNA at diverse experimental, animal, besides human levels, reporting motivating results in the treatment of the diseases. Here, in this comprehensive review, we provide an overview of miR-146a role in the pathogenesis and progression of several immune and non-immune inflammatory diseases such as Rheumatoid arthritis, Systemic lupus erythematosus, Inflammatory bowel disease, Multiple sclerosis, Psoriasis, Graves' disease, Atherosclerosis, Hepatitis, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, etc., discuss about its eligibility for being a desirable biomarker for these disorders, and also highlight its therapeutic potential. Understanding these mechanisms underlies the selecting and designing the proper therapeutic targets and medications, which eventually facilitate the treatment process.

The regulated profile of noncoding RNAs associated with inflammation by tanshinone IIA on atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is the principal cause of heart attack, sudden cardiac death, stroke, and necrosis of the extremities, in which significant changes in gene expression associated with inflammation are found. However, the molecular mechanisms of AS are not clearly elucidated. In this study, ApoE^-/- mice were fed with a high fat diet for 12 weeks to induce atherosclerosis and half of the mice were treated with tanshinone IIA (TAN). Then sequencing analysis was performed to investigate the expression patterns of ncRNAs in AS plaques obtained from mice treated with TAN and AS Model mice. A total of 22 long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), 74 microRNAs (miRNAs), 13 circular RNAs (circRNAs), and 1359 mRNAs in AS plaque were more significantly regulated from TAN mice, compared with model mice. Bioinformatics tools and databases were employed to investigate the potential ncRNA functions and their interaction. Our data showed that the most significantly pathways regulated by TAN were associated with inflammation, and involved in the signaling pathways of Ras, Rap1, MAPK, cAMP, T cell receptor, and so on. In addition, the competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network had been constructed and the core nodes included circ-Tns3/let-7d-5p/Ctsl, circ-Wdr91/miR-378a-5p/Msr1, and circ-Cd84/ miR-30c/ Tlr2. The DERNAs were validated by quantitative RT-PCR and dual luminescence reporter assay in RAW264.7 cells in vitro. This study identified ceRNAs network regulated by TAN and elucidated the ncRNAs profile and signal pathways to attenuate AS comprehensively. This research would contribute to further research on the pathogenesis of AS, and facilitate the development of novel therapeutics targeting ncRNAs.

The Situation of Chemokine Ligands and Receptors Gene Expression, Following the Oral Administration of Drug Mannuronic Acid in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients

BACKGROUND

Regarding the leukocytes infiltration into the synovium of Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) patients is mostly mediated by chemokine ligands and receptors, and following the efficient and motivating results of international Phase III clinical trial of β-D-Mannuronic acid (M2000) patented EP067919 (2017), as a novel anti-inflammatory drug, in patients with RA, the present research was designed.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the oral administration effects of this new drug on gene expression of some chemokine receptors and ligands, including CXCR4, CXCR3, CCR2, CCR5 and CCL2/MCP-1 in PBMCs of patients with active form of RA.

METHODS

Twelve patients suffering from RA, with inadequate response to conventional drugs were selected (Clinical trial identifier IRCT2017100213739N10) and 1000mg/day of M2000 was orally administrated to them for 12 weeks. The mRNA expression of target molecules was then evaluated in PBMCs of the patients before and after treatment with M2000 using real-time PCR and was compared to healthy controls. Patents related to this study were also reviewed.

RESULTS

The results showed that M2000 was able to significantly down-regulate the mRNA expression of CXCR4, CCR2 and CCL2/MCP-1 in the PBMCs of the RA patients. It should be noted that the gene expression situation of the target molecules was in coordinate with the clinical and paraclinical assessments in the patients.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results of this investigation revealed the part of molecular and immunological mechanisms of drug Mannuronic acid (M2000) in the treatment of RA, based on chemokine ligands and receptors mediated processes.

β-D-Mannuronic Acid (M2000) as a Landmark in Pharmacology

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this article is to retrace the studies of β-D-Mannuronic Acid (M2000) as a new immunosuppressive drug with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) property in miscellaneous aspects including in vitro, in vivo examinations, clinical trials and related to clinical trials studies. Our goal is to compare the effect of this drug with other similar drugs through varied researches and to follow tolerability, biocompatibility, potency, safety, and efficacy of this medication in different studies, as well as to evaluate its therapeutic effectiveness in various diseases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Different methods were applied in the studies of β-D-Mannuronic Acid under in vitro, in vivo examinations, and clinical trials phase I, II and III and related investigations to these clinical trials using different techniques showing the efficacy of this medication in the treatment of various diseases.

RESULTS

The administration of β -D-Mannuronic Acid showed the greatest tolerability and biocompatibility compared to diclofenac, piroxicam, and dexamethasone without or very low side effects. The drug has shown a punchy effect on many molecules which participate either in physiologic or in pathogenic activities in animal models and human. This new drug not only revealed the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties but also based on the results of various investigations, β-D-Mannuronic Acid showed the antidiabetic, cardioprotective and anti-tumoral effects.

CONCLUSION

β-D-Mannuronic Acid (M2000) as a novel immunosuppressive drug with NSAID properties along with antidiabetic, cardioprotective and anti-tumoral efficacy showed great tolerability and safety profile. In addition, it has no or mild adverse events compared with many other medicines, therefore this medicament could be considered as a landmark in pharmacology and represent turn point in the treatment of different diseases based on the experimental and in vitro studies explained and clinical and related studies proved.

Anti-diabetic effect of -D-mannuronic acid (M2000) as a novel NSAID with immunosuppressive property on insulin production, blood glucose, and inflammatory markers in the experimental diabetes model

This research aimed to evaluate the anti-diabetic effects of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) on blood glucose, insulin production, and inflammatory markers in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Our data showed that the final fasting serum glucose level was significantly lower in the M2000-treated group compared to the diabetic control group (p < .05). In addition, the final fasting serum insulin level significantly increased in the M2000-treated group compared to the diabetic control group (p < .05). Our finding revealed that the serum level of hs-CRP and IL-6 decreased significantly in the M2000-treated group compared to the diabetic control group (p < .05). This study showed that M2000, as a new NSAID, was able to decrease serum glucose levels and increase serum insulin levels and this drug could significantly decrease the inflammatory markers in the M2000-treated group. Collectively, treatment with M2000 might be recommended reducing the severity of diabetes-induced inflammatory symptoms.

miR-146a promotes Borna disease virus 1 replication through IRAK1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) is a negative single-stranded RNA virus that is highly neurotropic. BoDV-1 infection can damage the central nervous system and cause inflammation. To survive in host cells, BoDV-1 must evade the host innate immune response. A previous study showed that miR-146a expression increased in neonatal rats infected with BoDV-1. miR-146a is a microRNA suggested to negatively regulate innate immune and inflammatory responses and antiviral pathways. Many groups have reported that its overexpression facilitates viral replication. However, it is unclear whether miR-146a is involved in escape from the host immune response during BoDV-1 infection.

METHODS

In this study, BoDV-1 was used to infect neonatal rats within 24 h of birth intracranially, as well as to infect human microglial cells (HMC3). miR-146a expression was analyzed by RT-qPCR. The TargetScanHuman database was used to find the target genes of miR-146a. A search of the binding sites of miR-146a and its target gene's 3'-untranslated region (3'UTR) was also performed using RNAhybrid software. The binding sites of miR-146a and the target gene's 3'UTR were detected by dual luciferase reporter assays. Overexpression and suppression studies of miR-146a were performed to determine its effect on BoDV-1 replication. The relative protein expression of members of the IRAK1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway was also evaluated by western blotting in HMC3.

RESULTS

After BoDV-1 infection of neurons in vivo and of HMC3 cells, miR-146a expression was significantly upregulated. miR-146a overexpression in HMC3 cells promoted viral replication, while its inhibition inhibited it. Through the TargetScanHuman database, we identified the target genes of anti-inflammatory miR-146a: IRAK1 and TRAF6. We also found that BoDV-1 could inhibit IRAK1 and TRAF6 expression in HMC3 cells. Moreover, we showed that the inhibition of IRAK1 and TRAF6 also led to decreases in the expression of P65 and phosphorylated P65 in the downstream NF-κB pathway. Subsequently, we confirmed the interaction of miR-146a with IRAK1 and TRAF6 by luciferase assay.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that miR-146a inhibits the IRAK1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway to facilitate BoDV-1 survival in host cells.

Antagonistic Property of G2013 (α-L-Guluronic Acid) on Gene Expression of MyD88, Tollip, and NF-κB in HEK293 TLR2 and HEK293 TLR4

INTRODUCTION

Inhibition of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) signaling plays a crucial role in suppressing the inflammation and available data presenting G2013 as an immunomodulatory agent, therefore, we designed this study to answer whether G2013 can affect the signaling pathway of TLR2 and TLR4.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity study of G2013 was performed by MTT assay. HEK293 TLR2 and HEK293 TLR4 cell lines were cultured and treated with low dose (5µg/ml) and high dose (25µg/ml) of G2013 for 24 hours. Gene expressions of MyD88, Tollip, and NF-κB were defined by quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

The cytotoxicity assay showed that the concentrations lesser than 125μg/ml of G3012 had no apparent cytotoxicity, however, the concentrations of 5µg/ml and 25µg/ml could suppress the mRNA expression of MyD88, Tollip and NF-κB in HEK293 TLR2 and HEK293 TLR4 cell lines.

CONCLUSION

in our study, we verified the linkage between the immunosuppressive property of G2013 and TLR2, TLR4 signaling cascade; but so far, the specific target of G2013 and its molecular mechanism has not been detected yet. We recommend further studies on other Patten Recognition Receptors (PRRs)and other mechanisms of inflammation like oxidative stress to be conducted in the future.

International multicenter randomized, placebo-controlled phase III clinical trial of β-D-mannuronic acid in rheumatoid arthritis patients

BACKGROUND

The oral administration of drug β-D-mannuronic acid (M2000) showed a potent therapeutic effect in phase I/II study in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Here, our aim is to assess the efficacy and safety of this new drug in RA patients under a multinational, randomized placebo-controlled phase III clinical trial.

METHOD

Patients (n = 288) with active disease at baseline and inadequate response to conventional drugs were randomly allocated to three groups; (1) receiving mannuronic acid at a dose of two capsules (500 mg) per day orally for 12 weeks, (2) placebo-controlled, and (3) conventional. The primary endpoints were the America College of Rheumatology 20 response (ACR20), 28-joint disease activity score (DAS28) and Modified Health Assessment Questionnaire-Disability Index (M-HAQ-DI). In addition, the participants were followed-up for safety assessment.

RESULTS

In this phase III trial, after 12 weeks of treatment, there was a significant reduction in ACR20 between mannuronic-treated patients compared to placebo and conventional groups. Moreover, there was a similar significant improvement for DAS28 following mannuronic therapy. The statistical analysis showed a significant reduction in the swollen and tender joint count in mannuronic-treated patients compared with the placebo group. On the other side, mannuronic acid showed no-to-very low adverse events in comparison to placebo.

CONCLUSION

The results of this multinational, phase III clinical trial provided a potent evidence base for the use of β-D-mannuronic acid as a new highly safe and efficient drug in the treatment of RA.

The Inhibitory Role of M2000 (β-D-Mannuronic Acid) on Expression of Toll-like Receptor 2 and 4 in HT29 Cell Line

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Anti-inflammatory agents play a crucial role in controlling inflammatory diseases such as Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) but their use is restricted due to their vast side effects. M2000 (β-D-mannuronic acid) is a new immunomodulatory drug. According to the capacity of M2000 in suppressing some molecules involved in Toll Like Receptors (TLRs) signaling and reducing oxidative stress we hypothesize that, this molecule may have a potential role in decreasing inflammatory responses in IBD. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxicity of M2000 and its effect on the gene expression of TLR2 and TLR4.

METHODS

HEK293 cell line was grown and divided into 96-well cell plate and MTT assay was performed. HT29 cells were cultured and treated with low and high doses of M2000. Total RNA was extracted and cDNA synthesized and quantitative real-time PCR was done to quantify the TLR2 and TLR4 mRNA expression.

RESULTS

We found that M2000 at the concentration of ≤ 1000µg/ml had no obvious cytotoxicity effect on the HEK293 cells. Also, low and high doses of M2000 could significantly down-regulate both TLR2 and TLR4 mRNA expression. Moreover, a significant reduction in gene expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in an inflammatory condition resulted in high doses of M2000 in the presence of LPS.

CONCLUSION

Our study which was conducted in colonic epithelial cell model, shows that M2000 can be considered as a new anti-inflammatory agent in IBD. However, more comprehensive experimental and clinical studies are required to recognize the molecular mechanism of M2000 and also its safety and efficacy.

Toll-Like Receptor 2 Signaling and Current Approaches for Therapeutic Modulation in Synucleinopathies

The innate immune response in the central nervous system (CNS) is implicated as both beneficial and detrimental to health. Integral to this process are microglia, the resident immune cells of the CNS. Microglia express a wide variety of pattern-recognition receptors, such as Toll-like receptors, that detect changes in the neural environment. The activation of microglia and the subsequent proinflammatory response has become increasingly relevant to synucleinopathies, including Parkinson's disease the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disease. Within these diseases there is evidence of the accumulation of endogenous α-synuclein that stimulates an inflammatory response from microglia via the Toll-like receptors. There have been recent developments in both new and old pharmacological agents designed to target microglia and curtail the inflammatory environment. This review will aim to delineate the process of microglia-mediated inflammation and new therapeutic avenues to manage the response.

Cardioprotective effect of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) as a novel NSAID on gene expression of oxLDL scavenger receptors in the experimental diabetic model

CONTEXT

The investigations have shown that patients with diabetes have the elevated levels of glucose and oxLDL. These two play an important role in increased expression levels of oxLDL scavenger receptors on the surface of macrophages and endothelial cells that leads to deposition of oxLDL and macrophages in vascular walls.

OBJECTIVE

The present study intends to show the effects of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) on the expression profile of ox-LDL scavenger receptors (including SR-A, LOX-1, CD36, and CD68) in an experimental model of diabetes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into three 6-member groups of the healthy control, diabetic control, and treated rats by M2000. Diabetes was induced in rats by intraperitoneal (IP) administration of 60 mg/kg streptozotocin. The treated rats were given daily intraperitoneal injections of M2000 with a dose of 25 mg/kg for 28 days and at the end of the 28th day, their aortas were removed. The qRT-PCR technique was then used to evaluate the expression levels of the proposed gene.

RESULTS

The gene expression levels of the SR-A, LOX-1, CD36, and CD68 significantly declined in the diabetic group that received M2000 compared with untreated diabetic rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The M2000, as a novel NSAID is able to modify by lowering the gene expression levels of SR-A, LOX-1, CD36, and CD68 in treated rats compared to the untreated diabetic group, which may play an important role in preventing the complications that could lead to a cardioprotective efficacy.

Oral administration effects of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) on Th17 and regulatory T cells in patients with ankylosing spondylitis

BACKGROUND

To explore the effects of β-d-mannuronic acid (M2000) on levels of Th17, regulatory T (Treg) cells and their related cytokines in patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS).

METHODS

30 AS patients and 15 age and sex-matched healthy individuals were enrolled in this study. The frequencies of Th17 and Treg cells and serum levels of related cytokines were measured by flow cytometry analysis and ELISA respectively, before (baseline) and 3 months after M2000 therapy.

RESULTS

Significantly higher baseline Th17 cells and serum IL-17, TNF-α and IL-6 were observed in AS patients than in normal controls, whereas baseline levels of Treg cells and serum IL-10 were not significantly different between AS patients and healthy controls. After M2000 therapy, frequencies of Th17 and serum levels of IL-17 and IL-6 significantly decreased in AS patients. The frequencies of Treg cells and serum level of IL-10 were not significantly changed, in comparison to before therapy. Moreover, the correlation analysis showed that frequencies of Th17 and levels of IL-17, TNF-α and IL-6 were positively correlated with Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Index (BASDAI) and Bath Ankylosing Spondylitis Functional Index (BASFI) scores, whereas Treg cells were revealed to be negatively correlated with BASDAI and BASFI scores.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that the oral administration of M2000 as a novel NSAID with the immunosuppressive property that down-regulates Th17 and Th17-related cytokines and facilitates the correction of the Th17/Treg imbalance can be effective in the process of AS treatment.

Extracellular vesicles regulate immune responses and cellular function in intestinal inflammation and repair

Tightly controlled communication among the various resident and recruited cells in the intestinal tissue is critical for maintaining tissue homeostasis, re-establishment of the barrier function and healing responses following injury. Emerging evidence convincingly implicates extracellular vesicles (EVs) in facilitating this important cell-to-cell crosstalk by transporting bioactive effectors and genetic information in healthy tissue and disease. While many aspects of EV biology, including release mechanisms, cargo packaging, and uptake by target cells are still not completely understood, EVs contribution to cellular signaling and function is apparent. Moreover, EV research has already sparked a clinical interest, as a potential diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic tool. The current review will discuss the function of EVs originating from innate immune cells, namely, neutrophils, monocytes and macrophages, as well as intestinal epithelial cells in healthy tissue and inflammatory disorders of the intestinal tract. Our discussion will specifically emphasize the contribution of EVs to the regulation of vascular and epithelial barrier function in inflamed intestines, wound healing, as well as trafficking and activity of resident and recruited immune cells.

Involvement of microRNA-146a in diabetic peripheral neuropathy through the regulation of inflammation

Purpose

Recent evidence has shown the involvement of inflammation in the development of diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). MicroRNA-146a (miR-146a) is closely involved in the inflammatory response. However, the role of miR-146a in the inflammatory reaction in DPN has not been clarified. This study was designed to explore the role of miR-146a in the regulation of inflammatory responses in DPN.

Methods

Rats were randomly divided into three groups (n=6 per group): control group, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) group and DPN group. T2DM and DPN rats were intraperitoneally injected with streptozotocin. Sciatic nerve conduction velocity (NCV) was determined at the 6th week and the 12th week in each group. The expression of microRNAs was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in three sciatic nerves for each group of rats. Expression of inflammatory cytokines in nerve tissues and plasma was measured by Western blot and Bio-Plex Pro™ assays.

Results

The NCV and expression levels of miR-146a in the DPN group were significantly decreased (P<0.01) compared to the other two groups. Expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) in the DPN group was significantly increased compared with the control and T2DM groups (P<0.01). Pearson’s correlation analysis showed that the expression level of miR-146a was negatively correlated with the levels of IL-1β, TNF-α and NF-κB.

Conclusion

miR-146a is involved in the pathogenesis of DPN, and its expression level is closely related to the inflammatory responses that aggravate sciatic nerve injuries.