Sensitization of adenylate cyclase by Galpha i/o-coupled receptors

Inhibition of adenylyl cyclase 1 (AC1) and exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (EPAC) restores ATP-sensitive potassium (K ATP ) channel activity after chronic opioid exposure

Prolonged exposure to Gαi/o receptor agonists such as opioids can lead to a sensitization of adenylyl cyclases (ACs), resulting in heterologous sensitization or cyclic AMP (cAMP) overshoot. The molecular consequences of cAMP overshoot are not well understood, but this adaptive response is suggested to play a critical role in the development of opioid tolerance and withdrawal. We found that genetic reduction of AC1 and simultaneous upregulation of ATP-sensitive potassium (K ATP ) channel subunits, SUR1 or Kir6.2, significantly attenuated morphine tolerance and reduced naloxone-precipitated withdrawal. In vitro models utilized an EPAC2-GFP-cAMP biosensor to investigate sensitization of adenylyl cyclase in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and HEKΔAC3/6 knockout cells. Acute application of DAMGO significantly decreased the cAMP signal from the EPAC2-GFP-cAMP biosensor, while chronic DAMGO administration resulted in enhanced cAMP production following AC stimulation. Inhibition of cAMP overshoot was observed with naloxone (NAL), pertussis toxin (PTX), and the neddylation inhibitor, MLN4924 (Pevonedistat), as well as co-expression of β-adrenergic receptor kinase C-terminus (βARK-CT). After establishment of the AC1-EPAC sensitization in the in vitro models, we found that inhibition of AC1 or EPAC enhanced potassium channel activity after chronic morphine treatment, using a thallium-based assay in SH-SY5Y cells. Similar data were obtained in mouse dorsal root ganglia (DRG) after chronic morphine treatment. This study presents evidence for investigating further AC1 signaling as a target for opioid tolerance and withdrawal, by increasing EPAC activity and affecting potassium channels downstream of opioid receptors.

Chemokines Signature and T Cell Dynamics in Leishmaniasis: Molecular insight and therapeutic application

Leishmaniasis, caused by obligate intracellular Leishmania parasites, poses a significant global health burden. The control of Leishmania infection relies on an effective T cell-dependent immune response; however, various factors impede the host’s ability to mount a successful defence. Alterations in the chemokine profile, responsible for cell trafficking to the infection site, can disrupt optimal immune responses and influence the outcome of pathogenesis by facilitating parasite persistence. This review aims to emphasize the significance of the chemokine system in T cell responses and to summarize the current knowledge on the dysregulation of chemokines and their receptors associated with different subsets of T lymphocytes during Leishmaniasis. A comprehensive understanding of the dynamic nature of the chemokine system during Leishmaniasis is crucial for the development of successful immunotherapeutic approaches.

Biochemical pharmacology of adenylyl cyclases in cancer

Globally, despite extensive research and pharmacological advancement, cancer remains one of the most common causes of mortality. Understanding the signaling pathways involved in cancer progression is essential for the discovery of new drug targets. The adenylyl cyclase (AC) superfamily comprises glycoproteins that regulate intracellular signaling and convert ATP into cyclic AMP, an important second messenger. The present review highlights the involvement of ACs in cancer progression and suppression, broken down for each specific mammalian AC isoform. The precise mechanisms by which ACs contribute to cancer cell proliferation and invasion are not well understood and are variable among cancer types; however, AC overactivation, along with that of downstream regulators, presents a potential target for novel anticancer therapies. The expression patterns of ACs in numerous cancers are discussed. In addition, we highlight inhibitors of AC-related signaling that are currently under investigation, with a focus on possible anti-cancer strategies. Recent discoveries with small molecules regarding more direct modulation AC activity are also discussed in detail. A more comprehensive understanding of different components in AC-related signaling could potentially lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for personalized oncology and might enhance the efficacy of chemoimmunotherapy in the treatment of various cancers.

Comparison of the function of two novel human dopamine D2 receptor variants identifies a likely mechanism for their pathogenicity

Two recently discovered DRD2 mutations, c.634A > T, p.Ile212Phe and c.1121T > G, p.Met374Arg, cause hyperkinetic movement disorders that have overlapping features but apparently differ in severity. The two known carriers of the Met374Arg variant had early childhood disease onset and more severe motor, cognitive, and neuropsychiatric deficits than any known carriers of the Ile212Phe variant, whose symptoms were first apparent in adolescence. Here, we evaluated if differences in the function of the two variants in cultured cells could explain differing pathogenicity. Both variants were expressed less abundantly than the wild type receptor and exhibited loss of agonist-induced arrestin binding, but differences in expression and arrestin binding between the variants were minor. Basal and agonist-induced activation of heterotrimeric Gi/o/z proteins, however, showed clear differences; agonists were generally more potent at Met374Arg than at the Ile212Phe or wild type variants. Furthermore, all Gα subtypes tested were constitutively activated more by Met374Arg than by Ile212Phe. Met374Arg produced greater constitutive inhibition of cyclic AMP accumulation than Ile212Phe or the wild type D2 receptor. Met374Arg and Ile212Phe were more sensitive to thermal inactivation than the wild type D2 receptor, as reported for other constitutively active receptors, but Ile212Phe was affected more than Met374Arg. Additional pharmacological characterization suggested that the mutations differentially affect the shape of the agonist binding pocket and the potency of dopamine, norepinephrine, and tyramine. Molecular dynamics simulations provided a structural rationale for enhanced constitutive activation and agonist potency. Enhanced constitutive and agonist-induced G protein-mediated signaling likely contributes to the pathogenicity of these novel variants.

Increased cAMP-PKA signaling pathway activation is involved in up-regulation of CTLA-4 expression in CD4+ T cells in acute SIVmac239-infected Chinese rhesus macaques

Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) infection can cause chronic activation, exhaustion, and anergy of the immune system. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) is an immune checkpoint molecule, which plays an important role in immune homeostasis and disease. CTLA-4 expression is elevated in HIV-1-infected patients and is associated with disease progression. However, the mechanism controlling expression of CTLA-4 in HIV-1 infection is poorly characterized. In this study, we used a SIV-infected Chinese rhesus macaque (ChRM) model to explore CTLA-4 expression in SIV infection. Results showed that SIV infection significantly increased CTLA-4 expression in all T cell subsets, especially central memory T cells. CTLA-4+CD4+ T cell frequency was significantly associated with disease progression markers. Activation of the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway regulated CTLA-4 expression in CD4+T cells, as confirmed by stimulation with dibutyryl cyclic adenosine monophosphate, forskolin, and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine, and inhibition with H-89 ex vivo. Simultaneously, cAMP concentration in PBMCs and PKA activity in both PBMCs and CD4+ T cells were increased in acute SIV-infected ChRMs, accompanied by an increase in adenylate cyclase 6 expression and a decrease in cAMP-phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A), PDE4B, and PDE5A expression in PBMCs. In addition, selective inhibition of PDE4B and PDE5A activity enhanced CTLA-4 expression in CD4+ T cells. These results suggest that SIV infection alters cAMP metabolism and increases cAMP-PKA signaling pathway activation, which up-regulates the expression of CTLA-4 in acute SIVmac239-infected ChRMs. Thus, regulation of the cAMP-PKA signaling pathway may be a potential strategy for the restoration of T cell function and therapy for AIDS.

The sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 modulator ponesimod repairs cuprizone-induced demyelination and induces oligodendrocyte differentiation

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators are clinically used to treat relapse-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) and the early phase of progressive MS when inflammation still prevails. In the periphery, S1PR modulators prevent lymphocyte egress from lymph nodes, hence hampering neuroinflammation. Recent findings suggest a role for S1PR modulation in remyelination. As the Giα-coupled S1P1 subtype is the most prominently expressed S1PR in oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), selective modulation (functional antagonism) of S1P1 may have direct effects on OPC functionality. We hypothesized that functional antagonism of S1P1 by ponesimod induces remyelination by boosting OPC differentiation. In the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination, we found ponesimod to decrease the latency time of visual evoked potentials compared to vehicle conditions, which is indicative of functional remyelination. In addition, the Y maze spontaneous alternations test revealed that ponesimod reversed cuprizone-induced working memory deficits. Myelin basic protein (MBP) immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy of the corpus callosum revealed an increase in myelination upon ponesimod treatment. Moreover, treatment with ponesimod alone or in combination with A971432, an S1P5 monoselective modulator, significantly increased primary mouse OPC differentiation based on O4 immunocytochemistry. In conclusion, S1P1 functional antagonism by ponesimod increases remyelination in the cuprizone model of demyelination and significantly increases OPC differentiation in vitro.

Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Function of a G-Protein α Subunit Gene in the Growth and Development of Pleurotus eryngii

Pleurotus eryngii is a commercially important edible fungus with high nutritional and economic value. However, few functional studies have examined key genes affecting the growth and development of P. eryngii. In this study, transformed strains, including over-expression (PeGNAI-OE) and RNA interference (PeGNAI-RNAi) lines, were constructed to elucidate the role of GNAI in P. eryngii growth. GNAI expression was found to affect the mycelial growth and the number of clamp connections. Moreover, the transformed strains were shown to have higher endogenous cAMP levels, thus affecting amylase and laccase activity. Fruiting experiments showed that GNAI expression revealed the formation of P. eryngii primordia and the number of buttons, while transcription analysis identified GNAI gene involvement in the growth and development of P. eryngii. Seven downstream genes regulated by GNAI were differentially expressed in PeGNAI-OE and PeGNAI-RNAi compared to wild type (WT). These genes may be related to mycelial growth and enzyme activity. They were involved in the MAPK signaling pathway, inositol phosphate metabolism, ascorbate, aldarate metabolism, and starch and sucrose metabolism. In summary, GNAI performs different physiological functions in regulating the growth and development of P. eryngii. Importantly, the molecular mechanisms of GNAI regulatory function are relatively complex and need further study.

Intertwined associations between oxidative and nitrosative stress and endocannabinoid system pathways: Relevance for neuropsychiatric disorders

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) appears to regulate metabolic, cardiovascular, immune, gastrointestinal, lung, and reproductive system functions, as well as the central nervous system. There is also evidence that neuropsychiatric disorders are associated with ECS abnormalities as well as oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways. The goal of this mechanistic review is to investigate the mechanisms underlying the ECS's regulation of redox signalling, as well as the mechanisms by which activated oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways may impair ECS-mediated signalling. Cannabinoid receptor (CB)1 activation and upregulation of brain CB2 receptors reduce oxidative stress in the brain, resulting in less tissue damage and less neuroinflammation. Chronically high levels of oxidative stress may impair CB1 and CB2 receptor activity. CB1 activation in peripheral cells increases nitrosative stress and inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) activity, reducing mitochondrial activity. Upregulation of CB2 in the peripheral and central nervous systems may reduce iNOS, nitrosative stress, and neuroinflammation. Nitrosative stress may have an impact on CB1 and CB2-mediated signalling. Peripheral immune activation, which frequently occurs in response to nitro-oxidative stress, may result in increased expression of CB2 receptors on T and B lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and macrophages, reducing the production of inflammatory products and limiting the duration and intensity of the immune and oxidative stress response. In conclusion, high levels of oxidative and nitrosative stress may compromise or even abolish ECS-mediated redox pathway regulation. Future research in neuropsychiatric disorders like mood disorders and deficit schizophrenia should explore abnormalities in these intertwined signalling pathways.

Novel treatments for chronic pain: moving beyond opioids

It is essential that safe and effective treatment options be available to patients suffering from chronic pain. The emergence of an opioid epidemic has shaped public opinions and created stigmas surrounding the use of opioids for the management of pain. This reality, coupled with high risk of adverse effects from chronic opioid use, has led chronic pain patients and their healthcare providers to utilize nonopioid treatment approaches. In this review, we will explore a number of cellular reorganizations that are associated with the development and progression of chronic pain. We will also discuss the safety and efficacy of opioid and nonopioid treatment options for chronic pain. Finally, we will review the evidence for adenylyl cyclase type 1 (AC1) as a novel target for the treatment of chronic pain.

The endocannabinoidome in neuropsychiatry: Opportunities and potential risks

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) comprises two cognate endocannabinoid receptors referred to as CB1R and CB2R_. ECS dysregulation is apparent in neurodegenerative/neuro-psychiatric disorders including but not limited to schizophrenia, major depressive disorder and potentially bipolar disorder. The aim of this paper is to review mechanisms whereby both receptors may interact with neuro-immune and neuro-oxidative pathways, which play a pathophysiological role in these disorders. CB1R is located in the presynaptic terminals of GABAergic, glutamatergic, cholinergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic neurons where it regulates the retrograde suppression of neurotransmission. CB1R plays a key role in long-term depression, and, to a lesser extent, long-term potentiation, thereby modulating synaptic transmission and mediating learning and memory. Optimal CB1R activity plays an essential neuroprotective role by providing a defense against the development of glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity, which is achieved, at least in part, by impeding AMPA-mediated increase in intracellular calcium overload and oxidative stress. Moreover, CB1R activity enables optimal neuron-glial communication and the function of the neurovascular unit. CB2R receptors are detected in peripheral immune cells and also in central nervous system regions including the striatum, basal ganglia, frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala as well as the ventral tegmental area. CB2R upregulation inhibits the presynaptic release of glutamate in several brain regions. CB2R activation also decreases neuroinflammation partly by mediating the transition from a predominantly neurotoxic "M1" microglial phenotype to a more neuroprotective "M2" phenotype. CB1R and CB2R are thus novel drug targets for the treatment of neuro-immune and neuro-oxidative disorders including schizophrenia and affective disorders.

Signaling-Biased and Constitutively Active Dopamine D2 Receptor Variant

A dopamine D2 receptor mutation was recently identified in a family with a novel hyperkinetic movement disorder. Compared to the wild type D2 receptor, the novel allelic variant D2-I²¹²F activates a Gα_i1β₁γ₂ heterotrimer with higher potency and modestly enhanced basal activity in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells and has decreased capacity to recruit arrestin3. We now report that omitting overexpressed G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2 (GRK2) decreased the potency and efficacy of quinpirole for arrestin recruitment. The relative efficacy of quinpirole for arrestin recruitment to D2-I²¹²F compared to D2-WT was considerably lower without overexpressed GRK2 than with added GRK2. D2-I²¹²F exhibited higher basal activation of Gα_oA than Gα_i1 but little or no increase in the potency of quinpirole relative to D2-WT. Other signs of D2-I²¹²F constitutive activity for G protein-mediated signaling, in addition to basal activation of Gα_i/o, were enhanced basal inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation that was reversed by the inverse agonists sulpiride and spiperone and a ∼4-fold increase in the apparent affinity of D2-I²¹²F for quinpirole, determined from competition binding assays. In mouse midbrain slices, inhibition of tonic current by the inverse agonist sulpiride in dopamine neurons expressing D2-I²¹²F was consistent with our hypothesis of enhanced constitutive activity and sensitivity to dopamine relative to D2-WT. Molecular dynamics simulations with D2 receptor models suggested that an ionic lock between the cytoplasmic ends of the third and sixth α-helices that constrains many G protein-coupled receptors in an inactive conformation spontaneously breaks in D2-I²¹²F. Overall, these results confirm that D2-I²¹²F is a constitutively active and signaling-biased D2 receptor mutant and also suggest that the effect of the likely pathogenic variant in a given brain region will depend on the nature of G protein and GRK expression.

The CUL3/neddylation inhibitor MLN4924 reduces ethanol-induced locomotor sensitization and inflammatory pain allodynia in mice

Heterologous sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (AC) is defined by an enhanced cAMP response following persistent activation of Gα_i/o-coupled receptors. This phenomenon was first observed in cellular models, and later reported in animal models of inflammatory pain or following chronic exposure to drugs of abuse including opioids and cocaine. Recently, we used genome-wide siRNA screening to identify Cullin3 signaling as a mediator of AC sensitization in cellular models. We also showed that pharmacological inhibition of Cullin3 with the neddylation inhibitor, MLN4924, abolished heterologous sensitization of several AC isoforms, including AC1, AC2, AC5, and AC6. Because ACs, especially AC1, have been implicated in alcohol-induced locomotor sensitization and inflammatory pain, we assessed the potential activity of MLN4924 in both murine models. We found that MLN4924 (30 mg/kg, i.p.) accumulated in the brain and reduced both locomotor sensitization induced by repeated alcohol administration and allodynia in an inflammatory pain model. Based on our previous findings that MLN4924 potently blocks AC sensitization in cellular models, we propose that the activity of MLN4924 in both animal models potentially occurs through blocking AC sensitization. Our findings provide the basis for understanding the molecular mechanism and yield a new pathway for drug development for pathological disorders associated with AC sensitization.

Allostatic Changes in the cAMP System Drive Opioid-Induced Adaptation in Striatal Dopamine Signaling

Opioids are powerful addictive agents that alter dopaminergic influence on reward signaling in medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the nucleus accumbens. Repeated opioid exposure triggers adaptive changes, shifting reward valuation to the allostatic state underlying tolerance. However, the cellular substrates and molecular logic underlying such allostatic changes are not well understood. Here, we report that the plasticity of dopamine-induced cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling in MSNs serves as a cellular substrate for drug-induced allostatic adjustments. By recording cAMP responses to optically evoked dopamine in brain slices from mice subjected to various opioid exposure paradigms, we define profound neuronal-type-specific adaptations. We find that opioid exposure pivots the initial hyper-responsiveness of D1-MSNs toward D2-MSN dominance as dependence escalates. Presynaptic dopamine transporters and postsynaptic phosphodiesterases critically enable cell-specific adjustments of cAMP that control the balance between opponent D1-MSN and D2-MSN channels. We propose a quantitative model of opioid-induced allostatic adjustments in cAMP signal strength that balances circuit activity.

Muntean et al. examine how opioid exposure influences cyclic AMP (cAMP) responses to dopamine in striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). They describe allostatic adaptations in the processing of dopaminergic signals by D1-MSN and D2-MSN populations as opioid administration progresses from acute exposure to chronic use, and they define molecular elements contributing to the process.

Optogenetic activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins by LOV2GIVe, a rationally engineered modular protein

Heterotrimeric G-proteins are signal transducers involved in mediating the action of many natural extracellular stimuli and many therapeutic agents. Non-invasive approaches to manipulate the activity of G-proteins with high precision are crucial to understand their regulation in space and time. Here, we developed LOV2GIVe, an engineered modular protein that allows the activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins with blue light. This optogenetic construct relies on a versatile design that differs from tools previously developed for similar purposes, that is metazoan opsins, which are light-activated G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Instead, LOV2GIVe consists of the fusion of a G-protein activating peptide derived from a non-GPCR regulator of G-proteins to a small plant protein domain, such that light uncages the G-protein activating module. Targeting LOV2GIVe to cell membranes allowed for light-dependent activation of Gi proteins in different experimental systems. In summary, LOV2GIVe expands the armamentarium and versatility of tools available to manipulate heterotrimeric G-protein activity.

Signaling models for dopamine-dependent temporal contiguity in striatal synaptic plasticity

Animals remember temporal links between their actions and subsequent rewards. We previously discovered a synaptic mechanism underlying such reward learning in D1 receptor (D1R)-expressing spiny projection neurons (D1 SPN) of the striatum. Dopamine (DA) bursts promote dendritic spine enlargement in a time window of only a few seconds after paired pre- and post-synaptic spiking (pre-post pairing), which is termed as reinforcement plasticity (RP). The previous study has also identified underlying signaling pathways; however, it still remains unclear how the signaling dynamics results in RP. In the present study, we first developed a computational model of signaling dynamics of D1 SPNs. The D1 RP model successfully reproduced experimentally observed protein kinase A (PKA) activity, including its critical time window. In this model, adenylate cyclase type 1 (AC1) in the spines/thin dendrites played a pivotal role as a coincidence detector against pre-post pairing and DA burst. In particular, pre-post pairing (Ca2+ signal) stimulated AC1 with a delay, and the Ca2+-stimulated AC1 was activated by the DA burst for the asymmetric time window. Moreover, the smallness of the spines/thin dendrites is crucial to the short time window for the PKA activity. We then developed a RP model for D2 SPNs, which also predicted the critical time window for RP that depended on the timing of pre-post pairing and phasic DA dip. AC1 worked for the coincidence detector in the D2 RP model as well. We further simulated the signaling pathway leading to Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activation and clarified the role of the downstream molecules of AC1 as the integrators that turn transient input signals into persistent spine enlargement. Finally, we discuss how such timing windows guide animals' reward learning.

Annexin A4 N-terminal peptide inhibits adenylyl cyclase 5 and limits β-adrenoceptor-mediated prolongation of cardiac action potential

Adenylyl cyclases (AC) are essential for the normal and pathophysiological response of many cells. In cardiomyocytes, the predominant AC isoforms are AC5 and AC6. Specific AC5 inhibition was suggested as an option for the treatment of heart failure potentially advantageous over β-blockers. We previously reported an interaction between the calcium-binding protein annexin A4 (ANXA4) and AC5 in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells and an inhibition of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production in cardiomyocytes. Here, we investigated whether ANXA4 is able to differentiate between AC5 and AC6. In transfected HEK293 cells, ANXA4 specifically co-immunoprecipitated with AC5 and not with AC6, via its N-terminal domain. Both ANXA4 and a peptide comprising the ANXA4 N-terminal sequence (A4N_1-22 ) decreased the cAMP production in AC5 and not in AC6 expressing cells. In line with ACs inhibition, in myocytes from ANXA4-deficient mice, β-adrenoceptor (βAR) stimulation led to a higher increase of the L-type calcium current (I_CaL ) and to an excessive action potential duration (APD) prolongation as compared to wild-type cardiomyocytes. This enhanced response was reversed in the presence of A4N_1-22 peptide likely via specific AC5 inhibition. We conclude that via the N-terminal domain ANXA4 inhibits AC5 not AC6, and that A4N_1-22 as a specific AC5 inhibitor could serve as a novel therapeutic tool for the treatment of AC5-linked diseases.

Unusually persistent Gαi-signaling of the neuropeptide Y2 receptor depletes cellular Gi/o pools and leads to a Gi-refractory state

BACKGROUND

A sensitive balance between receptor activation and desensitization is crucial for cellular homeostasis. Like many other GPCR, the human neuropeptide Y₂ receptor (hY₂R) undergoes ligand dependent activation and internalization into intracellular compartments, followed by recycling to the plasma membrane. This receptor is involved in the pathophysiology of distinct diseases e.g. epilepsy and cancer progression and conveys anorexigenic signals which makes it an interesting and promising anti-obesity target. However, Y₂R desensitization was observed after daily treatment with a selective PYY_13-36 analog in vivo by a yet unknown mechanism.

MATERIALS

We studied the desensitization and activatability of recycled Y₂R in transiently transfected HEK293 cells as well as in endogenously Y₂R expressing SH-SY5Y and SMS-KAN cells. Results were evaluated by one-way ANOVA and Tukey post test.

RESULTS

We observed strong desensitization of the Y₂R in a second round of stimulation despite its reappearance at the membrane. Already the first activation of the Y₂R leads to depletion of the functional cellular Gα_i/o protein pool and consequently desensitizes the linked signal transduction pathways, independent of receptor internalization. This desensitization also extends to other Gα_i/o-coupled GPCR and can be detected in transfected HEK293 as well as in SH-SY5Y and SMS-KAN cell lines, both expressing the Y₂R endogenously. By overexpression of chimeric Gα_qi proteins in a model system, activation has been rescued, which identifies a critical role of the G protein status for cellular signaling. Furthermore, Y₂R displays strong allosteric coupling to inhibitory G proteins in radioligand binding assays, and loses 10-fold affinity in the G protein-depleted state observed after activation, which can be largely abrogated by overexpression of the Gα_i-subunit.

CONCLUSION

The unusually persistent Gα_i-signaling of the Y₂R leads to a state of cellular desensitization of the inhibitory Gα_i-pathway. The strong allosteric effects of the Y₂R-Gα_i-interaction might be a mechanism that contributes to the burst of Gα_i-signaling, but also serves as a mechanism to limit the Y₂-mediated signaling after recycling. Thus, the cell is left in a refractory state, preventing further Gα_i-signaling of the Y₂R itself but also other Gα_i/o-coupled receptors by simply controlling the repertoire of downstream effectors. Video abstract.

The short-chain free fatty acid receptor FFAR3 is expressed and potentiates contraction in human airway smooth muscle

Emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiota-derived short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetate, propionate, and butyrate) are important modulators of the inflammatory state in diseases such as asthma. However, the functional expression of the G_i protein-coupled free fatty acid receptors (FFAR2/GPR43 and FFAR3/GPR41) has not been identified on airway smooth muscle (ASM). Classically, acute activation of G_i-coupled receptors inhibits cyclic AMP (cAMP) synthesis, which impairs ASM relaxation and can also induce crosstalk between G_i- and G_q-signaling pathways, potentiating increases in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i), favoring ASM contraction. In contrast, chronic activation of G_i-coupled receptors can sensitize adenylyl cyclase resulting in increased cAMP synthesis favoring relaxation. We questioned whether the G_i-coupled FFAR2 or FFAR3 is expressed in human ASM, whether they modulate cAMP and [Ca²⁺]_i, and whether SCFAs modulate human ASM tone. We detected the protein expression of FFAR3 but not FFAR2 in native human ASM and primary cultured human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cells. In HASM cells, acute activation of FFAR3 with SCFAs inhibited forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation, but chronic activation did not sensitize cAMP synthesis. SCFAs induced [Ca²⁺]_i increases that were attenuated by pertussis toxin, gallein, U73122, or xestospongin C. Acute treatment with SCFAs potentiated acetylcholine-stimulated [Ca²⁺]_i increases and stress fiber formation in cells and contraction of ex vivo human airway tissues. In contrast, chronic pretreatment of human ASM with propionate did not potentiate airway relaxation. Together, these findings demonstrate that FFAR3 is expressed in human ASM and contributes to ASM contraction via reduced cAMP and increased [Ca²⁺]_i.

Genome-Wide Small Interfering RNA Screening Reveals a Role for Cullin3-Really Interesting New Gene Ligase Signaling in Heterologous Sensitization of Adenylyl Cyclase

Heterologous sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (AC) is revealed as enhanced or exaggerated AC/cAMP signaling that occurs following persistent activation of Gα _i/o-coupled receptors. This paradoxical phenomenon was discovered more than 40 years ago and was proposed as a cellular mechanism to explain the adaptive changes that occur following chronic exposure to drugs of abuse. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of heterologous sensitization of AC remain largely unknown. In the present study, we performed a genome-wide cell-based RNA interference screen as an unbiased approach to identify genes associated with heterologous sensitization of AC. Following a series of validation and confirmation assays, three genes that form an E3 ligase complex, cullin3 (CUL3), neural precursor-cell-expressed and developmentally downregulated 8 (NEDD8), and really interesting new gene (RING)-box protein 1 (RBX1), were identified as specific modulators of heterologous sensitization of AC. Furthermore, based on the downstream actions of these genes, we evaluated the activity of proteasome inhibitors as well as the specific NEDD8-activating enzyme inhibitor, MLN4924 (Pevonedistat), in AC sensitization. We demonstrate that MG-132 and bortezomib treatments could mimic the inhibitory effects observed with gene knockdown, and MLN4924 was potent and efficacious in blocking the development of heterologous sensitization of endogenous and recombinant AC isoforms, including AC1, AC2, AC5, and AC6. Together, by using genetic and pharmacological approaches, we identified, for the first time, cullin3-RING ligases and the protein degradation pathway as essential modulators for heterologous sensitization of AC. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Through a genome-wide cell-based RNA interference screening, we identified three genes that form an E3 ligase complex, cullin3, neural precursor-cell-expressed and developmentally downregulated 8 (NEDD8), and really interesting new gene-box protein 1, as specific modulators of heterologous sensitization of AC. The effect of cullin3, NEDD8, or really interesting new gene-box protein 1 small interfering RNAs on heterologous sensitization was recapitulated by proteasome inhibitors, MG132 and bortezomib, and the specific NEDD8-activating enzyme inhibitor, MLN4924. These results suggest a novel hypothesis in which protein degradation is involved in the sensitization of AC signaling that occurs following chronic activation of Gα_i/o-coupled receptors.

Identification of Novel Adenylyl Cyclase 5 (AC5) Signaling Networks in D1 and D2 Medium Spiny Neurons using Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation Screening

Adenylyl cyclase type 5 (AC5), as the principal isoform expressed in striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs), is essential for the integration of both stimulatory and inhibitory midbrain signals that initiate from dopaminergic G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) activation. The spatial and temporal control of cAMP signaling is dependent upon the composition of local regulatory protein networks. However, there is little understanding of how adenylyl cyclase protein interaction networks adapt to the multifarious pressures of integrating acute versus chronic and inhibitory vs. stimulatory receptor signaling in striatal MSNs. Here, we presented the development of a novel bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC)-based protein-protein interaction screening methodology to further identify and characterize elements important for homeostatic control of dopamine-modulated AC5 signaling in a neuronal model cell line and striatal MSNs. We identified two novel AC5 modulators: the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) catalytic subunit (PPP2CB) and the intracellular trafficking associated protein-NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor) attachment protein alpha (NAPA). The effects of genetic knockdown (KD) of each gene were evaluated in several cellular models, including D₁- and D₂-dopamine receptor-expressing MSNs from CAMPER mice. The knockdown of PPP2CB was associated with a reduction in acute and sensitized adenylyl cyclase activity, implicating PP2A is an important and persistent regulator of adenylyl cyclase activity. In contrast, the effects of NAPA knockdown were more nuanced and appeared to involve an activity-dependent protein interaction network. Taken together, these data represent a novel screening method and workflow for the identification and validation of adenylyl cyclase protein-protein interaction networks under diverse cAMP signaling paradigms.

Homeostatic cAMP regulation by the RGS7 complex controls depression-related behaviors

Affective disorders arise from abnormal responses of the brain to prolonged exposure to challenging environmental stimuli. Recent work identified the orphan receptor GPR158 as a molecular link between chronic stress and depression. Here we reveal a non-canonical mechanism by which GPR158 exerts its effects on stress-induced depression by the complex formation with Regulator of G protein Signaling 7 (RGS7). Chronic stress promotes membrane recruitment of RGS7 via GPR158 in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). The resultant complex suppresses homeostatic regulation of cAMP by inhibitory GPCRs in the region. Accordingly, RGS7 loss in mice induces an antidepressant-like phenotype and resiliency to stress, whereas its restoration within the mPFC is sufficient to rescue this phenotype in a GPR158-dependent way. These findings mechanistically link the unusual orphan receptor-RGS complex to a major stress mediator, the cAMP system and suggest new avenues for pharmacological interventions in affective disorders.

Prolonged Morphine Treatment Alters Expression and Plasma Membrane Distribution of β-Adrenergic Receptors and Some Other Components of Their Signaling System in Rat Cerebral Cortex

β-Adrenergic signaling plays an important role in regulating diverse brain functions and alterations in this signaling have been observed in different neuropathological conditions. In this study, we investigated the effect of a 10-day treatment with high doses of morphine (10 mg/kg per day) on major components and functional state of the β-adrenergic receptor (β-AR) signaling system in the rat cerebral cortex. β-ARs were characterized by radioligand binding assays and amounts of various G protein subunits, adenylyl cyclase (AC) isoforms, G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs), and β-arrestin were examined by Western blot analysis. AC activity was determined as a measure of functionality of the signaling system. We also assessed the partitioning of selected signaling proteins between the lipid raft and non-raft fractions prepared from cerebrocortical plasma membranes. Morphine treatment resulted in a significant upregulation of β-ARs, GRK3, and some AC isoforms (AC-I, -II, and -III). There was no change in quantity of G proteins and some other signaling molecules (AC-IV, AC-V/VI, GRK2, GRK5, GRK6, and β-arrestin) compared with controls. Interestingly, morphine exposure caused a partial redistribution of β-ARs, G_sα, G_oα, and GRK2 between lipid rafts and bulk plasma membranes. Spatial localization of other signaling molecules within the plasma membrane was not changed. Basal as well as fluoride- and forskolin-stimulated AC activities were not significantly different in membrane preparations from control and morphine-treated animals. However, AC activity stimulated by the beta-AR agonist isoprenaline was markedly increased. This is the first study to demonstrate lipid raft association of key components of the cortical β-AR system and its sensitivity to morphine.

Circuit Analysis of a Drosophila Dopamine Type 2 Receptor That Supports Anesthesia-Resistant Memory

Dopamine is central to reinforcement processing and exerts this function in species ranging from humans to fruit flies. It can do so via two different types of receptors (i.e., D1 or D2) that mediate either augmentation or abatement of cellular cAMP levels. Whereas D1 receptors are known to contribute to Drosophila aversive odor learning per se, we here show that D2 receptors are specific for support of a consolidated form of odor memory known as anesthesia-resistant memory. By means of genetic mosaicism, we localize this function to Kenyon cells, the mushroom body intrinsic neurons, as well as GABAergic APL neurons and local interneurons of the antennal lobes, suggesting that consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory requires widespread dopaminergic modulation within the olfactory circuit. Additionally, dopaminergic neurons themselves require D2R, suggesting a critical role in dopamine release via its recognized autoreceptor function. Considering the dual role of dopamine in balancing memory acquisition (proactive function of dopamine) and its "forgetting" (retroactive function of dopamine), our analysis suggests D2R as central player of either process.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Dopamine provides different information; while it mediates reinforcement during the learning act (proactive function), it balances memory performance between two antithetic processes thereafter (retroactive function) (i.e., forgetting and augmentation). Such bidirectional design can also be found at level of dopamine receptors, where augmenting D1 and abating D2 receptors are engaged to balance cellular cAMP levels. Here, we report that consolidated anesthesia-resistant memory (ARM), but not other concomitant memory phases, are sensitive to bidirectional dopaminergic signals. By means of genetic mosaicism, we identified widespread dopaminergic modulation within the olfactory circuit that suggests nonredundant and reiterating functions of D2R in support of ARM. Our results oppose ARM to its concomitant memory phases that localize to mushroom bodies and propose a decentralized organization of consolidated ARM.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. CI. Structures and Small Molecule Modulators of Mammalian Adenylyl Cyclases

Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) generate the second messenger cAMP from ATP. Mammalian cells express nine transmembrane AC (mAC) isoforms (AC1-9) and a soluble AC (sAC, also referred to as AC10). This review will largely focus on mACs. mACs are activated by the G-protein Gαs and regulated by multiple mechanisms. mACs are differentially expressed in tissues and regulate numerous and diverse cell functions. mACs localize in distinct membrane compartments and form signaling complexes. sAC is activated by bicarbonate with physiologic roles first described in testis. Crystal structures of the catalytic core of a hybrid mAC and sAC are available. These structures provide detailed insights into the catalytic mechanism and constitute the basis for the development of isoform-selective activators and inhibitors. Although potent competitive and noncompetitive mAC inhibitors are available, it is challenging to obtain compounds with high isoform selectivity due to the conservation of the catalytic core. Accordingly, caution must be exerted with the interpretation of intact-cell studies. The development of isoform-selective activators, the plant diterpene forskolin being the starting compound, has been equally challenging. There is no known endogenous ligand for the forskolin binding site. Recently, development of selective sAC inhibitors was reported. An emerging field is the association of AC gene polymorphisms with human diseases. For example, mutations in the AC5 gene (ADCY5) cause hyperkinetic extrapyramidal motor disorders. Overall, in contrast to the guanylyl cyclase field, our understanding of the (patho)physiology of AC isoforms and the development of clinically useful drugs targeting ACs is still in its infancy.

Identification of a selective small-molecule inhibitor of type 1 adenylyl cyclase activity with analgesic properties

Adenylyl cyclase 1 (AC1) belongs to a group of adenylyl cyclases (ACs) that are stimulated by calcium in a calmodulin-dependent manner. Studies with AC1 knockout mice suggest that inhibitors of AC1 may be useful for treating pain and opioid dependence. However, nonselective inhibition of AC isoforms could result in substantial adverse effects. We used chemical library screening to identify a selective AC1 inhibitor with a chromone core structure that may represent a new analgesic agent. After demonstrating that the compound (ST034307) inhibited Ca²⁺-stimulated adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells stably transfected with AC1 (HEK-AC1 cells), we confirmed selectivity for AC1 by testing against all isoforms of membrane-bound ACs. ST034307 also inhibited AC1 activity stimulated by forskolin- and Gα_s-coupled receptors in HEK-AC1 cells and showed inhibitory activity in multiple AC1-containing membrane preparations and mouse hippocampal homogenates. ST034307 enhanced μ-opioid receptor (MOR)-mediated inhibition of AC1 in short-term inhibition assays in HEK-AC1 cells stably transfected with MOR; however, the compound blocked heterologous sensitization of AC1 caused by chronic MOR activation in these cells. ST034307 reduced pain responses in a mouse model of inflammatory pain. Our data indicate that ST034307 is a selective small-molecule inhibitor of AC1 and suggest that selective AC1 inhibitors may be useful for managing pain.

The Epac-Phospholipase Cε Pathway Regulates Endocannabinoid Signaling and Cocaine-Induced Disinhibition of Ventral Tegmental Area Dopamine Neurons

Exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac) is a direct effector for the ubiquitous second messenger cAMP. Epac activates the phospholipase Cε (PLCε) pathway. PLCβ has been linked to the synthesis of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). Here, we report that Epac facilitates endocannabinoid-mediated retrograde synaptic depression through activation of PLCε. Intracellular loading of a selective Epac agonist 8-CPT-2Me-cAMP into ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons enabled previously ineffective stimuli to induce depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition (DSI) and long-term depression of IPSCs (I-LTD) in the VTA. DSI and I-LTD are mediated by 2-AG since they were blocked by a diacylglycerol lipase inhibitor. The effects of 8-CPT-2Me-cAMP on DSI and I-LTD were absent in Epac2 and PLCε knock-out mice, but remained intact in Epac1 knock-out mice. These results identify a novel mechanism for on-demand synthesis of retrograde signaling 2-AG by the Epac2-PLCε pathway. We investigated the functional significance of Epac2-PLCε-2-AG signaling in regulating inhibitory synaptic plasticity in VTA dopamine neurons induced by in vivo cocaine exposure. We showed that cocaine place conditioning led to a decrease in the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous IPSCs and an increase in action potential firing in wild-type mice, but not in Epac2 or PLCε knock-out mice. Together, these results indicate that the Epac2-PLCε-2-AG signaling cascade contributes to cocaine-induced disinhibition of VTA dopamine neurons.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is an endogenous cannabinoid that depresses synaptic transmission through stimulation of CB₁ receptors. Among the six isoforms of phospholipase C (PLC; PLCβ, PLCγ, PLCδ, PLCε, PLCζ, PLCη), only PLCβ has been linked to 2-AG synthesis. Here we demonstrate that 8-CPT-2Me-cAMP, a selective agonist of the cAMP sensor protein Epac, enhances 2-AG-mediated synaptic depression in ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine neurons via activation of PLCε. These results identify a novel mechanism for 2-AG synthesis via activation of the Epac-PLCε pathway. Furthermore, we show that cocaine-induced conditioned place preference and disinhibition of VTA dopamine neurons were impaired in mice lacking Epac or PLCε. Thus, the Epac-PLCε signaling pathway contributes to cocaine-induced disinhibition of VTA dopamine neurons and formation of drug-associated memories.

Persistent Electrical Activity in Primary Nociceptors after Spinal Cord Injury Is Maintained by Scaffolded Adenylyl Cyclase and Protein Kinase A and Is Associated with Altered Adenylyl Cyclase Regulation

Little is known about intracellular signaling mechanisms that persistently excite neurons in pain pathways. Persistent spontaneous activity (SA) generated in the cell bodies of primary nociceptors within dorsal root ganglia (DRG) has been found to make major contributions to chronic pain in a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI) (Bedi et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2014). The occurrence of SCI-induced SA in a large fraction of DRG neurons and the persistence of this SA long after dissociation of the neurons provide an opportunity to define intrinsic cell signaling mechanisms that chronically drive SA in pain pathways. The present study demonstrates that SCI-induced SA requires continuing activity of adenylyl cyclase (AC) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), as well as a scaffolded complex containing AC5/6, A-kinase anchoring protein 150 (AKAP150), and PKA. SCI caused a small but significant increase in the expression of AKAP150 but not other AKAPs. DRG membranes isolated from SCI animals revealed a novel alteration in the regulation of AC. AC activity stimulated by Ca(2+)-calmodulin increased, while the inhibition of AC activity by Gαi showed an unexpected and dramatic decrease after SCI. Localized enhancement of the activity of AC within scaffolded complexes containing PKA is likely to contribute to chronic pathophysiological consequences of SCI, including pain, that are promoted by persistent hyperactivity in DRG neurons.

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Chronic neuropathic pain is a major clinical problem with poorly understood mechanisms and inadequate treatments. Recent findings indicate that chronic pain in a rat SCI model depends upon hyperactivity in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons. Although cAMP signaling is involved in many forms of neural plasticity, including hypersensitivity of nociceptors in the presence of inflammatory mediators, our finding that continuing cAMP-PKA signaling is required for persistent SA months after SCI and long after isolation of nociceptors is surprising. The dependence of ongoing SA upon AKAP150 and AC5/6 was unknown. The discovery of a dramatic decrease in Gαi inhibition of AC activity after SCI is novel for any physiological system and potentially has broad implications for understanding chronic pain mechanisms.

Molecular Changes in Opioid Addiction: The Role of Adenylyl Cyclase and cAMP/PKA System

For centuries, opiate analgesics have had a considerable presence in the treatment of moderate to severe pain. While effective in providing analgesia, opiates are notorious in exerting many undesirable adverse reactions. The receptor targets and the intracellular effectors of opioids have largely been identified. Furthermore, much of the mechanisms underlying the development of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal have been delineated. Thus, there is a focus on developing novel compounds or strategies in mitigating or avoiding the development of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal. This review focuses on the adenylyl cyclase and cyclic adenosine 3,5-monophosphate (cAMP)/protein kinase A (AC/cAMP/PKA) system as the central player in mediating the acute and chronic effects of opioids. This chapter also reviews the neuronal adaptive changes in the locus coeruleus, amygdala, periaqueductal gray, and ventral tegmental area induced by acute and chronic actions of opioid because these neuronal adaptive changes in these regions may underlie the behavioral changes observed in opiate users and abusers.

Chloride is an Agonist of Group II and III Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

The elemental anion chloride is generally considered a passive participant in neuronal excitability, and has never been shown to function as an agonist in its own right. We show that the antagonist-mediated, glutamate-independent inverse agonism of group II and III metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors results from inhibition of chloride-mediated activation. In silico molecular modeling, site-directed mutagenesis, and functional assays demonstrate (1) that chloride is an agonist of mGlu3, mGlu4, mGlu6, and mGlu8 receptors with its own orthosteric site, and (2) that chloride is not an agonist of mGlu2 receptors. Molecular modeling-predicted and site-directed mutagenesis supported that this unique property of mGlu2 receptors results from a single divergent amino acid, highlighting a molecular switch for chloride insensitivity that is transduced through an arginine flip. Ultimately, these results suggest that activation of group II and III mGlu receptors is mediated not only by glutamate, but also by physiologically relevant concentrations of chloride.

Gα(i/o)-coupled receptor-mediated sensitization of adenylyl cyclase: 40 years later

Heterologous sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (also referred to as superactivation, sensitization, or supersensitization of adenylyl cyclase) is a cellular adaptive response first described 40 years ago in the laboratory of Dr. Marshall Nirenberg. This apparently paradoxical cellular response occurs following persistent activation of Gαi/o-coupled receptors and causes marked enhancement in the activity of adenylyl cyclases, thereby increasing cAMP production. Since our last review in 2005, significant progress in the field has led to a better understanding of the relevance of, and the cellular biochemical processes that occur during the development and expression of heterologous sensitization. In this review we will discuss the recent advancements in the field and the mechanistic hypotheses on heterologous sensitization.

Adenylyl cyclases 5 and 6 underlie PIP3-dependent regulation

Many different neurotransmitters and hormones control intracellular signaling by regulating the production of the second messenger cAMP. The function of the broadly expressed adenylyl cyclases (ACs) 5 and 6 is regulated by either stimulatory or inhibitory G proteins. By analyzing a well-known rebound stimulation phenomenon after withdrawal of Gi protein in atrial myocytes, we discovered that AC5 and -6 are tightly regulated by the second messenger PIP3. By monitoring cAMP levels in real time by means of Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensors, we reproduced the rebound stimulation in a heterologous expression system specifically for AC5 or -6. Strikingly, this cAMP rebound stimulation was completely blocked by the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin, both in atrial myocytes and in transfected human embryonic kidney cells. Similar effects were observed by heterologous expression of the PIP3 phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN). However, general kinase inhibitors or inhibitors of Akt had no effect, suggesting a PIP3-dependent mechanism. These findings demonstrate the existence of a novel general pathway for regulation of AC5 and -6 activity via PIP3 that leads to pronounced alterations of cytosolic cAMP levels.

In vitro comparison of duration of action of melatonin agonists on melatonin MT1 receptor: possible link between duration of action and dissociation rate from receptor

Melatonin MT1 and MT2 receptors are Gi protein-coupled receptors and promising therapeutic targets for a number of diseases. A proportion of G protein-coupled receptor agonists and antagonists have been classified according to their duration of action, which influences their pharmacological efficacy. However, the duration of action of melatonin agonists remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the duration of action of melatonin agonists (melatonin, 2-iodomelatonin, ramelteon, and the ramelteon metabolite M-II) at the melatonin MT1 receptor, which is more resistant to agonist-induced desensitization than the melatonin MT2 receptor. In Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing the human melatonin MT1 receptor, significant differences in the duration of action were observed after 2-h pretreatment with agonists followed by washout. In contrast to melatonin and M-II, the agonist activities of ramelteon and 2-iodomelatonin were persistent (i.e. inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation and increase in ERK 1/2 phosphorylation) even after repeated washouts. Similar activities were observed for INS-1 cells endogenously expressing the rat MT1 receptor. Further, we examined potential factors linked to the duration of action. Residual activities of melatonin agonists after washout strongly correlated with their dissociation rates from the human melatonin MT1 receptor, but not their lipophilicity or extent of desensitization. These data suggest that the in vitro duration of action significantly differs between melatonin agonists and might dictate dissociation kinetics. Characterization of these in vitro properties may facilitate further in vivo study of the duration of action.

STC1 interference on calcitonin family of receptors signaling during osteoblastogenesis via adenylate cyclase inhibition

Stanniocalcin 1 (STC1) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) are involved in bone formation/remodeling. Here we investigate the effects of STC1 on functional heterodimer complex CALCRL/RAMP1, expression and activity during osteoblastogenesis. STC1 did not modify CALCRL and ramp1 gene expression during osteoblastogenesis when compared to controls. However, plasma membrane spatial distribution of CALCRL/RAMP1 was modified in 7-day pre-osteoblasts exposed to either CGRP or STC1, and both peptides induced CALCRL and RAMP1 assembly. CGRP, but not STC1 stimulated cAMP accumulation in 7-day osteoblasts and in CALCRL/RAMP1 transfected HEK293 cells. Furthermore, STC1 inhibited forskolin stimulated cAMP accumulation of HEK293 cells, but not in CALCRL/RAMP1 transfected HEK293 cells. However, STC1 inhibited cAMP accumulation in calcitonin receptor (CTR) HEK293 transfected cells stimulated by calcitonin. In conclusion, STC1 signals through inhibitory G-protein modulates CGRP receptor spatial localization during osteoblastogenesis and may function as a regulatory factor interacting with calcitonin peptide members during bone formation.

Bias analyses of preclinical and clinical D2 dopamine ligands: studies with immediate and complex signaling pathways

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) often activate multiple signaling pathways, and ligands may evoke functional responses through individual pathways. These unique responses provide opportunities for biased or functionally selective ligands to preferentially modulate one signaling pathway over another. Studies with several GPCRs have suggested that selective activation of signaling pathways downstream of a GPCR may lead to safer and more effective drug therapies. The dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) is one of the main drug targets in the therapies for Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. Recent studies suggest that selective modulation of individual signaling pathways downstream of the D2R may lead to safer antipsychotic drugs. In the present study, immediate effectors of the D2R (i.e., Gαi/o, Gβγ, β-arrestin recruitment) and more complex signaling pathways (i.e., extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, heterologous sensitization, and dynamic mass redistribution) were examined in response to a series of D2R ligands. This was accomplished using Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing the human D2L dopamine receptor in the PathHunter β-Arrestin GPCR Assay Platform. The use of a uniform cellular background was designed to eliminate potential confounds associated with cell-to-cell variability, including expression levels of receptor as well as other components of signal transduction, including G protein subunits. Several well characterized and clinically relevant D2R ligands were evaluated across each signaling pathway in this cellular model. The most commonly used methods to measure ligand bias were compared. Functional selectivity analyses were also used as tools to explore the relative contribution of immediate D2R effectors for the activation of more complex signaling pathways.

New functional activity of aripiprazole revealed: Robust antagonism of D2 dopamine receptor-stimulated Gβγ signaling

The dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is generally considered to be a primary target in the treatment of schizophrenia. First generation antipsychotic drugs (e.g. haloperidol) are antagonists of the DRD2, while second generation antipsychotic drugs (e.g. olanzapine) antagonize DRD2 and 5HT2A receptors. Notably, both these classes of drugs may cause side effects associated with D2 receptor antagonism (e.g. hyperprolactemia and extrapyramidal symptoms). The novel, "third generation" antipsychotic drug, aripiprazole is also used to treat schizophrenia, with the remarkable advantage that its tendency to cause extrapyramidal symptoms is minimal. Aripiprazole is considered a partial agonist of the DRD2, but it also has partial agonist/antagonist activity for other GPCRs. Further, aripiprazole has been reported to have a unique activity profile in functional assays with the DRD2. In the present study the molecular pharmacology of aripiprazole was further examined in HEK cell models stably expressing the DRD2 and specific isoforms of adenylyl cyclase to assess functional responses of Gα and Gβγ subunits. Additional studies examined the activity of aripiprazole in DRD2-mediated heterologous sensitization of adenylyl cyclase and cell-based dynamic mass redistribution (DMR). Aripiprazole displayed a unique functional profile for modulation of G proteins, being a partial agonist for Gαi/o and a robust antagonist for Gβγ signaling. Additionally, aripiprazole was a weak partial agonist for both heterologous sensitization and dynamic mass redistribution.

Differential modulation of nicotine-induced gemcitabine resistance by GABA receptor agonists in pancreatic cancer cell xenografts and in vitro

Background

Pancreatic cancer is frequently resistant to cancer therapeutics. Smoking and alcoholism are risk factors and pancreatic cancer patients often undergo nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and treatment for alcohol dependence. Based on our report that low dose nicotine within the range of NRT causes gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer, our current study has tested the hypothesis that GABA or the selective GABA-B-R agonist baclofen used to treat alcohol dependence reverse nicotine-induced gemcitabine resistance in pancreatic cancer.

Methods

Using mouse xenografts from the gemcitabine--sensitive pancreatic cancer cell line BXPC-3, we tested the effects of GABA and baclofen on nicotine-induced gemcitabine resistance. The levels of cAMP, p-SRC, p-ERK, p-AKT, p-CREB and cleaved caspase-3 in xenograft tissues were determined by ELISA assays. Expression of the two GABA-B receptors, metalloproteinase-2 and 9 and EGR-1 in xenograft tissues was monitored by Western blotting. Mechanistic studies were conducted in vitro, using cell lines BXPC-3 and PANC-1 and included analyses of cAMP production by ELISA assay and Western blots to determine protein expression of GABA-B receptors, metalloproteinase-2 and 9 and EGR-1.

Results

Our data show that GABA was as effective as gemcitabine and significantly reversed gemcitabine resistance induced by low dose nicotine in xenografts whereas baclofen did not. These effects of GABA were accompanied by decreases in cAMP, p-CREB, p-AKT, p-Src, p-ERK metalloproteinases-9 and -2 and EGR-1 and increases in cleaved caspase-3 in xenografts whereas baclofen had the opposite effects. In vitro exposure of cells to single doses or seven days of nicotine induced the protein expression of MMP-2, MMP-9 and EGR-1 and these responses were blocked by GABA. Baclofen downregulated the protein expression of GABA-B-Rs in xenograft tissues and in cells exposed to baclofen for seven days in vitro. This response was accompanied by inversed baclofen effects from inhibition of cAMP formation after single dose exposures to stimulation of cAMP formation in cells pretreated for seven days.

Conclusions

These findings suggest GABA as a promising single agent for the therapy of pancreatic cancer and to overcome nicotine-induced gemcitabine resistance whereas treatment with baclofen may increase gemcitabine resistance.

The melatonin agonist ramelteon induces duration-dependent clock gene expression through cAMP signaling in pancreatic INS-1 β-cells

Prolonged exposure to melatonin improves glycemic control in animals. Although glucose metabolism is controlled by circadian clock genes, little is known about the role of melatonin signaling and its duration in the regulation of clock gene expression in pancreatic β-cells. Activation of MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptors inhibits cAMP signaling, which mediates clock gene expression. Therefore, this study investigated exposure duration-dependent alterations in cAMP element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and clock gene expression that occur during and after exposure to ramelteon, a selective melatonin agonist used to treat insomnia. In rat INS-1 cells, a pancreatic β-cell line endogenously expressing melatonin receptors, ramelteon persistently decreased CREB phosphorylation during the treatment period (2-14 h), whereas the subsequent washout induced an enhancement of forskolin-stimulated CREB phosphorylation in a duration- and concentration-dependent manner. This augmentation was blocked by forskolin or the melatonin receptor antagonist luzindole. Similarly, gene expression analyses of 7 clock genes revealed the duration dependency of the effects of ramelteon on Rev-erbα and Bmal1 expression through melatonin receptor-mediated cAMP signaling; longer exposure times (14 h) resulted in greater increases in the expression and signaling of Rev-erbα, which is related to β-cell functions. Interestingly, this led to amplified oscillatory Rev-erbα and Bmal1 expression after agonist washout and forskolin stimulation. These results provide new insights into the duration-dependent effects of ramelteon on clock gene expression in INS-1 cells and may improve the understanding of its effect in vivo. The applicability of these results to pancreatic islets awaits further investigation.

Acute morphine alters GABAergic transmission in the central amygdala during naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal: role of cyclic AMP

The central amygdala (CeA) plays an important role in opioid addiction. Therefore, we examined the effects of naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal (WD) on GABAergic transmission in rat CeA neurons using whole-cell recordings with naloxone in the bath. The basal frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (mIPSCs) increased in CeA neurons from WD compared to placebo rats. Acute morphine (10 μ M) had mixed effects (≥20% change from baseline) on mIPSCs in placebo and WD rats. In most CeA neurons (64%) from placebo rats, morphine significantly decreased mIPSC frequency and amplitude. In 32% of placebo neurons, morphine significantly increased mIPSC amplitudes but had no effect on mIPSC frequency. In WD rats, acute morphine significantly increased mIPSC frequency but had no effect on mIPSC amplitude in 41% of CeA neurons. In 45% of cells, acute morphine significantly decreased mIPSC frequency and amplitude. Pre-treatment with the cyclic AMP inhibitor (R)-adenosine, cyclic 3',5'-(hydrogenphosphorothioate) triethylammonium (RP), prevented acute morphine-induced potentiation of mIPSCs. Pre-treatment of slices with the Gi/o G-protein subunit inhibitor pertussis toxin (PTX) did not prevent the acute morphine-induced enhancement or inhibition of mIPSCs. PTX and RP decreased basal mIPSC frequencies and amplitudes only in WD rats. The results suggest that inhibition of GABAergic transmission in the CeA by acute morphine is mediated by PTX-insensitive mechanisms, although PTX-sensitive mechanisms cannot be ruled out for non-morphine responsive cells; by contrast, potentiation of GABAergic transmission is mediated by activated cAMP signaling that also mediates the increased basal GABAergic transmission in WD rats. Our data indicate that during the acute phase of WD, the CeA opioid and GABAergic systems undergo neuroadaptative changes conditioned by a previous chronic morphine exposure and dependence.

A real-time method for measuring cAMP production modulated by Gαi/o-coupled metabotropic glutamate receptors

Group II and group III metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that inhibit adenylyl cyclase via activation of Gαi/o. The purpose of this study was to design a universal method that overcomes previous challenges in consistently measuring group II and group III mGlu-receptor (mGluR) activation in stably transfected systems. In Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably transfected with the GloSensor cAMP biosensor, we optimized conditions for simple and highly reproducible (<5% S.E.M.) measurements of cAMP in real time. The GloSensor cAMP biosensor is a recombinant firefly luciferase conjugated to a cAMP-binding domain, where cAMP binding promotes a conformational shift within the GloSensor protein, inducing luciferase activity; cAMP levels are positively correlated with light output resulting from the luciferase-mediated breakdown of d-luciferin. Each group II and group III mGluR was then stably transfected into the CHO-GloSensor cell line, and experimental conditions were optimized for each receptor. During assay optimization, we observed ion sensitivity of several receptors and inverse agonist activity of the antagonist, LY341495 [2-[(1S,2S)-2-carboxycyclopropyl]-3-(9H-xanthen-9-yl)-d-alanine]. Although these phenomena have been previously reported, they remain poorly understood, emphasizing the GloSensor assay as an important tool with which to study group II and group III mGlu receptors. Our results highlight many advantages of using the GloSensor method for measuring activation of group II and group III mGlu receptors, and they further suggest that corresponding methods designed to measure activation of any Gαi/o- or Gαs-coupled GPCR will be similarly advantageous.

Gene expression profiling of CD4⁺ T cells in treatment-naive HIV, HCV mono- or co-infected Chinese

Background

Because of the shared transmission routes, co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HIV) is very common. Accumulated clinical evidence showed that one could alter the infectious course of the other virus in HIV and HCV co-infected individuals. However, little is known on the molecular basis of HIV/HCV interactions and their modulations on hosts.

Methods

In this study, treatment-naive HIV, HCV mono-/co-infected individuals with CD4⁺ T cell counts >300/μl were recruited and their gene expression profiles were investigated by microarray assays. The differentially expressed genes were identified and validated by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). To further understand the biological meanings of the gene expression profiles in these three groups, GSEA analysis (version 2.0, Broad Institute http://www.broad.mit.edu/gsea) was performed.

Results

By gene set enrichment analysis, we revealed that gene sets of cell cycle progression, innate immune response and some transcription factors in CD4⁺ T cells were mainly affected by HIV; while genes associated with GPCR signaling were the major targets of HCV. Metabolic pathways were modulated by both HCV and HIV viruses.

Conclusions

This study for the first time offers gene profiling basis for HCV/HIV mono-/co- infections in human beings. HIV infection displayed the great impact on transcription profile of CD4⁺ T cells in HIV/HCV co-infected individuals. Genes related to cell cycle arrest were significantly mediated by HIV which may lead to dysfunction of CD4⁺ T cells and acceleration of HCV-related disease progression in the co-infections.

Drug-induced sensitization of adenylyl cyclase: assay streamlining and miniaturization for small molecule and siRNA screening applications

Sensitization of adenylyl cyclase (AC) signaling has been implicated in a variety of neuropsychiatric and neurologic disorders including substance abuse and Parkinson's disease. Acute activation of Gαi/o-linked receptors inhibits AC activity, whereas persistent activation of these receptors results in heterologous sensitization of AC and increased levels of intracellular cAMP. Previous studies have demonstrated that this enhancement of AC responsiveness is observed both in vitro and in vivo following the chronic activation of several types of Gαi/o-linked receptors including D2 dopamine and μ opioid receptors. Although heterologous sensitization of AC was first reported four decades ago, the mechanism(s) that underlie this phenomenon remain largely unknown. The lack of mechanistic data presumably reflects the complexity involved with this adaptive response, suggesting that nonbiased approaches could aid in identifying the molecular pathways involved in heterologous sensitization of AC. Previous studies have implicated kinase and Gbγ signaling as overlapping components that regulate the heterologous sensitization of AC. To identify unique and additional overlapping targets associated with sensitization of AC, the development and validation of a scalable cAMP sensitization assay is required for greater throughput. Previous approaches to study sensitization are generally cumbersome involving continuous cell culture maintenance as well as a complex methodology for measuring cAMP accumulation that involves multiple wash steps. Thus, the development of a robust cell-based assay that can be used for high throughput screening (HTS) in a 384 well format would facilitate future studies. Using two D2 dopamine receptor cellular models (i.e. CHO-D2L and HEK-AC6/D2L), we have converted our 48-well sensitization assay (>20 steps 4-5 days) to a five-step, single day assay in 384-well format. This new format is amenable to small molecule screening, and we demonstrate that this assay design can also be readily used for reverse transfection of siRNA in anticipation of targeted siRNA library screening.

Morphine as a Potential Oxidative Stress-Causing Agent

Morphine exhibits important pharmacological effects for which it has been used in medical practice for quite a long time. However, it has a high addictive potential and can be abused. Long-term use of this drug can be connected with some pathological consequences including neurotoxicity and neuronal dysfunction, hepatotoxicity, kidney dysfunction, oxidative stress and apoptosis. Therefore, most studies examining the impact of morphine have been aimed at determining the effects induced by chronic morphine exposure in the brain, liver, cardiovascular system and macrophages. It appears that different tissues may respond to morphine diversely and are distinctly susceptible to oxidative stress and subsequent oxidative damage of biomolecules. Importantly, production of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species induced by morphine, which have been observed under different experimental conditions, can contribute to some pathological processes, degenerative diseases and organ dysfunctions occurring in morphine abusers or morphine-treated patients. This review attempts to provide insights into the possible relationship between morphine actions and oxidative stress.

Airway smooth muscle in airway reactivity and remodeling: what have we learned?

It is now established that airway smooth muscle (ASM) has roles in determining airway structure and function, well beyond that as the major contractile element. Indeed, changes in ASM function are central to the manifestation of allergic, inflammatory, and fibrotic airway diseases in both children and adults, as well as to airway responses to local and environmental exposures. Emerging evidence points to novel signaling mechanisms within ASM cells of different species that serve to control diverse features, including 1) [Ca(2+)]i contractility and relaxation, 2) cell proliferation and apoptosis, 3) production and modulation of extracellular components, and 4) release of pro- vs. anti-inflammatory mediators and factors that regulate immunity as well as the function of other airway cell types, such as epithelium, fibroblasts, and nerves. These diverse effects of ASM "activity" result in modulation of bronchoconstriction vs. bronchodilation relevant to airway hyperresponsiveness, airway thickening, and fibrosis that influence compliance. This perspective highlights recent discoveries that reveal the central role of ASM in this regard and helps set the stage for future research toward understanding the pathways regulating ASM and, in turn, the influence of ASM on airway structure and function. Such exploration is key to development of novel therapeutic strategies that influence the pathophysiology of diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and pulmonary fibrosis.

Minireview: Targeting GPCR Activated ERK Pathways for Drug Discovery

It has become clear in recent years that multiple signal transduction pathways are employed upon GPCR activation. One of the major cellular effectors activated by GPCRs is extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Both G-protein and β-arrestin mediated signaling pathways can lead to ERK activation. However, depending on activation pathway, the subcellular destination of activated ERK1/2 may be different. G-protein -dependent ERK activation results in the translocation of active ERK to the nucleus, whereas ERK activated via an arrestin-dependent mechanism remains largely in the cytoplasm. The subcellular location of activated ERK1/2 determines the downstream signaling cascade. Many substrates of ERK1/2 are found in the nucleus: nuclear transcription factors that participate in gene transcription, cell proliferation and differentiation. ERK1/2 substrates are also found in cytosol and other cellular organelles: they may play roles in translation, mitosis, apoptosis and cross-talk with other signaling pathways. Therefore, determining specific subcellular locations of activated ERK1/2 mediated by GPCR ligands would be important in correlating signaling pathways with cellular physiological functions. While GPCR-stimulated selective ERK pathway activation has been studied in several receptor systems, exploitation of these different signaling cascades for therapeutics has not yet been seriously pursued. Many old drug candidates were identified from screens based on G-protein signaling assays, and their activity on β-arrestin signaling pathways being mostly unknown, especially regarding their subcellular ERK pathways. With today’s knowledge of complicated GPCR signaling pathways, drug discovery can no longer rely on single-pathway approaches. Since ERK activation is an important signaling pathway and associated with many physiological functions, targeting the ERK pathway, especially specific subcellular activation pathways should provide new avenues for GPCR drug discovery.

Neural plasticity and proliferation in the generation of antidepressant effects: hippocampal implication

It is widely accepted that changes underlying depression and antidepressant-like effects involve not only alterations in the levels of neurotransmitters as monoamines and their receptors in the brain, but also structural and functional changes far beyond. During the last two decades, emerging theories are providing new explanations about the neurobiology of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressant strategies based on cellular changes at the CNS level. The neurotrophic/plasticity hypothesis of depression, proposed more than a decade ago, is now supported by multiple basic and clinical studies focused on the role of intracellular-signalling cascades that govern neural proliferation and plasticity. Herein, we review the state-of-the-art of the changes in these signalling pathways which appear to underlie both depressive disorders and antidepressant actions. We will especially focus on the hippocampal cellularity and plasticity modulation by serotonin, trophic factors as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) through intracellular signalling pathways—cAMP, Wnt/β-catenin, and mTOR. Connecting the classic monoaminergic hypothesis with proliferation/neuroplasticity-related evidence is an appealing and comprehensive attempt for improving our knowledge about the neurobiological events leading to depression and associated to antidepressant therapies.