The effects of long-term honey, sucrose or sugar-free diets on memory and anxiety in rats

The relationship between dietary sugar consumption and anxiety disorders: A systematic review

High-sugar intake is a risk factor for chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, but less is known about its role in anxiety disorders. This systematic review aimed to systematically synthesise and assess the existing evidence regarding the association between dietary sugars intake and anxiety disorders. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsycArticles and APA PsycINFO was conducted up to 19th August 2022. Study quality was assessed by the Newcastle-Ottawa scale (NOS) and the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Eleven studies (10 cross-sectional and 1 randomised controlled trial [RCT]) were included. Seven cross-sectional studies had very good quality or good quality, and the quality of the RCT was at low risk of bias. These studies examined sugar-sweetened beverages (n = 7), sugar-sweetened foods (n = 4) and/or added sugar (n = 5). The findings suggest a possible positive relationship of added sugar consumption with anxiety disorders, with age as a potential moderator in such association. No conclusions can be drawn on the associations between sugar-sweetened beverages, sugar-sweetened foods consumption and anxiety disorders. Due to the included studies being mostly cross-sectional, the conclusions drawn from the existing evidence should be interpreted with caution. The longitudinal design is warranted to investigate any causal relationship and the potential mechanisms underlying these heterogeneous results. The potential difference in effect at different ages observed in this review should be further examined.

A Review of Post-Stroke Cognitive Impairment and the Potential Benefits of Stingless Bee Honey Supplementation

Post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) is a common decline in cognitive abilities that occurs within 3 months after a stroke. During recovery, stroke survivors often experience varying degrees of cognitive decline, with some patients experiencing permanent cognitive deficits. Thus, it is crucial to prioritise recovery and rehabilitation after a stroke to promote optimal protection of and improvement in cognitive function. Honey derived from stingless bees has been linked to various therapeutic properties, including neuroprotective effects. However, scientific evidence for the mechanisms through which these honey supplements enhance cognitive function remains limited. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the causes of PSCI, current treatments, the biomarkers influencing cognition in post-stroke patients and the potential of stingless bee honey (SBH) as a neuroprotective agent against the progression of PSCI.

Diet quality and anxiety: a critical overview with focus on the gut microbiome

Anxiety disorders disproportionally affect females and are frequently comorbid with eating disorders. With the emerging field of nutritional psychiatry, focus has been put on the impact of diet quality in anxiety pathophysiology and gut microbiome underlying mechanisms. While the relationship between diet and anxiety is bidirectional, improving dietary habits could better facilitate the actions of pharmacological and psychological therapies, or prevent their use. A better understanding of how gut bacteria mediate and moderate such relationship could further contribute to develop personalized programs and inform probiotics and prebiotics manufacturing. To date, studies that look simultaneously at diet, the gut microbiome, and anxiety are missing as only pairwise relationships among them have been investigated. Therefore, this study aims at summarizing and integrating the existing knowledge on the dietary effects on anxiety with focus on gut microbiome. Findings on the effects of diet on anxiety are critically summarized and reinterpreted in relation to findings on (i) the effects of diet on the gut microbiome composition, and (ii) the associations between the abundance of certain gut bacteria and anxiety. This novel interpretation suggests a theoretical model where the relationship between diet and anxiety is mediated and/or modulated by the gut microbiome through multiple mechanisms. In parallel, this study critically evaluates methodologies employed in the nutritional field to investigate the effects of diet on anxiety highlighting a lack of systematic operationalization and assessment strategies. Therefore, it ultimately proposes a novel evidence-based approach that can enhance studies validity, reliability, systematicity, and translation to clinical and community settings.

The role of oral antioxidants in the improvement of sperm parameters in infertile men

PURPOSE

A variety of pathologic conditions may increase oxidative stress in semen resulting in structural modifications to spermozoa's plasma membrane that interfere with sperm motility, morphology, and count. Antioxidants are currently being marketed to treat male infertility. In semen, antioxidants may decrease oxidative stress and potentially improve sperm parameters. In this narrative, mini-review we evaluated the effectiveness of antioxidants in infertility.

METHODS

This mini-review of the current literature has been carried out through searching of the PubMed and Google scholar databases.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The literature review suggests that there is evidence that oral antioxidants such as selenium, carnitine, zinc, coenzymeQ10, vitamins E and C, etc. alone or in combinations, improve sperm count, motility, morphology as well as pregnancy rates in infertile men with idiopathic oligoasthenospermia. Unfortunately, most of these studies are poorly designed, limited by sample size, varying in dosage, differing in primary end points, and most notably lacking live birth data. Importantly, large randomized, well-designed, placebo-controlled trials are needed.

Molecular bases for the use of functional foods in the management of healthy aging: Berries, curcumin, virgin olive oil and honey; three realities and a promise

As the number of older people has grown in recent decades, the search for new approaches to manage or delay aging is also growing. Among the modifiable factors, diet plays a crucial role in healthy aging and in the prevention of age-related diseases. Thus, the interest in the use of foods, which are rich in bioactive compounds such as functional foods with anti-aging effects is a growing market. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of action of foods considered as functional foods in aging, namely berries, curcumin, and virgin olive oil. Moreover, honey is also analyzed as a food with well-known healthy benefits, but which has not been deeply evaluated from the point of view of aging. The effects of these foods on aging are analyzed from the point of view of molecular mechanisms including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, genomic stability, telomere attrition, cellular senescence, and deregulated nutrient-sensing. A comprehensive study of the scientific literature shows that the aforementioned foods have demonstrated positive effects on certain aspects of aging, which might justify their use as functional foods in elderly. However, more research is needed, especially in humans, designed to understand in depth the mechanisms of action through which they act.

Maternal monosaccharide diets evoke cognitive, locomotor, and emotional disturbances in adolescent and young adult offspring rats

Anxiety and depression are the most common mental disorders affecting people worldwide. Recent studies have highlighted that a maternal high-sugar diet (HSD) could be a risk factor for neurobehavioural dysregulations, including mood disorders. Increased consumption of added sugar in food such as refined fructose/glucose can increase the risk of metabolic disorders and impact susceptibility to mental disorders. Furthermore, a few papers have reported disabilities in learning and memory among offspring after maternal HSD, thus suggesting a relationship between maternal nutrition and offspring neurogenesis. In this study, we evaluated the impact of maternal monosaccharide consumption based on a glucose (GLU) or fructose (FRU) diet during pregnancy and lactation in adolescent and young adult offspring rats of both sexes on cognitive, locomotor, and emotional disturbances. Locomotor activity, short-term memory, anxiety-like and depressive-like behavior were evaluated in the offspring. We report for the first time that the maternal GLU or FRU diet is sufficient to evoke anxiety-like behavior among adolescent and young adult offspring. Moreover, we found that maternal monosaccharide diets lead to hyperactivity and depressive-like behavior in male adolescent rats. We also noticed that a maternal FRU diet significantly enhanced novelty-seeking behavior only in young adult male rats. Our novel findings indicated that the maternal monosaccharide diet, especially a diet enriched in FRU, resulted in strong behavioral alterations in offspring rats at early life stages. This study also revealed that male rats were more susceptible to hyperactivity and anxiety- and depressive-like phenotypes than female rats. These results suggest that maternal monosaccharide consumption during pregnancy and lactation is an important factor affecting the emotional status of offspring.

Honey and Alzheimer's Disease-Current Understanding and Future Prospects

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a leading cause of dementia, has been a global concern. AD is associated with the involvement of the central nervous system that causes the characteristic impaired memory, cognitive deficits, and behavioral abnormalities. These abnormalities caused by AD is known to be attributed by extracellular aggregates of amyloid beta plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles. Additionally, genetic factors such as abnormality in the expression of APOE, APP, BACE1, PSEN-1, and PSEN-2 play a role in the disease. As the current treatment aims to treat the symptoms and to slow the disease progression, there has been a continuous search for new nutraceutical agent or medicine to help prevent and cure AD pathology. In this quest, honey has emerged as a powerful nootropic agent. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the high flavonoids and phenolic acids content in honey exerts its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. This review summarizes the effect of main flavonoid compounds found in honey on the physiological functioning of the central nervous system, and the effect of honey intake on memory and cognition in various animal model. This review provides a new insight on the potential of honey to prevent AD pathology, as well as to ameliorate the damage in the developed AD.

The potential neuroprotective effects of stingless bee honey

Tropical Meliponini bees produce stingless bee honey (SBH). Studies have shown beneficial properties, including antibacterial, bacteriostatic, anti-inflammatory, neurotherapeutic, neuroprotective, wound, and sunburn healing capabilities. High phenolic acid and flavonoid concentrations offer SBH its benefits. SBH can include flavonoids, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid, tocopherol, organic acids, amino acids, and protein, depending on its botanical and geographic origins. Ursolic acid, p-coumaric acid, and gallic acid may diminish apoptotic signals in neuronal cells, such as nuclear morphological alterations and DNA fragmentation. Antioxidant activity minimizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and lowers oxidative stress, inhibiting inflammation by decreasing enzymes generated during inflammation. Flavonoids in honey reduce neuroinflammation by decreasing proinflammatory cytokine and free radical production. Phytochemical components in honey, such as luteolin and phenylalanine, may aid neurological problems. A dietary amino acid, phenylalanine, may improve memory by functioning on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) pathways. Neurotrophin BDNF binds to its major receptor, TrkB, and stimulates downstream signaling cascades, which are crucial for neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Through BDNF, SBH can stimulate synaptic plasticity and synaptogenesis, promoting learning and memory. Moreover, BDNF contributes to the adult brain's lasting structural and functional changes during limbic epileptogenesis by acting through the cognate receptor tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB). Given the higher antioxidants activity of SBH than the Apis sp. honey, it may be more therapeutically helpful. There is minimal research on SBH's neuroprotective effects, and the related pathways contribute to it is unclear. More research is needed to elucidate the underlying molecular process of SBH on BDNF/TrkB pathways in producing neuroprotective effects.

Synergic Effect of Honey with Other Natural Agents in Developing Efficient Wound Dressings

Honey has been used for therapeutic and nutritional purposes since ancient times. It was considered one of the essential medical assets in wound healing. According to research, honeybees have significant antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and wound-healing properties. Lately, scientific researchers have focused on apitherapy, using bee products to protect and strengthen the immune system. Since honey is the most important natural product rich in minerals, proteins, and vitamins, it has been intensively used in such therapies. Honey has gained significant consideration because of the beneficial role of its antioxidant compounds, such as enzymes, proteins, amino and organic acids, polyphenols, and carotenoids, but mainly due to flavonoids and phenolic acids. It has been proven that phenolic compounds are responsible for honey's biological activity and that its physicochemical properties, antioxidants, and antimicrobial potential are significant for human health. The review also presents some mechanisms of action and the medical applications of honey, such as wound healing dressings, skin grafts, honey-based nanofibers, and cochlear implants, as the most promising wound healing tools. This extensive review has been written to highlight honey's applications in medicine; its composition with the most important bioactive compounds also illustrates its synergistic effect with other natural products having remarkable therapeutic properties in wound healing.

Sucrose Consumption during Late Adolescence Impairs Adult Neurogenesis of the Ventral Dentate Gyrus without Inducing an Anxiety-like Behavior

Sucrose consumption impairs behavioral and cognitive functions that correlate with decreased neurogenesis in animal models. When consumed during early adolescence, this disaccharide promotes anxious and depressive behaviors, along with a reduction in the generation of new neurons in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. Data concerning sucrose consumption during late adolescence are lacking, and the effect of sucrose intake on the ventral dentate gyrus of the hippocampus (which modulates anxiety and depression) remains elusive. Here, we tested whether sucrose intake during late adolescence causes anxiety or impaired neurogenesis in the ventral dentate gyrus. Rats did not display anxiety-like behaviors neither at the light−dark box test nor at the open field exploration. However, there was a significant increase in proliferative cells in the subgranular zone of the ventral dentate gyrus in rats exposed to sucrose (p < 0.05). This increased proliferation corresponded to neural stem cells (Radial Type 1 cells) in the group exposed to sucrose until adulthood but was not present in rats exposed to sucrose only during late adolescence. Remarkably, the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 kinases was increased in the hippocampi of rats exposed to sucrose only during late adolescence, suggesting that the increased proliferation in this group could be mediated by the MAPK pathway. On the other hand, although no differences were found in the number of immature granular neurons, we observed more immature granular neurons with impaired dendritic orientation in both groups exposed to sucrose. Finally, GAD65/67 and BCL2 levels did not change between groups, suggesting an unaltered hippocampal GABAergic system and similar apoptosis, respectively. This information provides the first piece of evidence of how sucrose intake, starting in late adolescence, impacts ventral dentate gyrus neurogenesis and contributes to a better understanding of the effects of this carbohydrate on the brain at postnatal stages.

Preventive Impact of Long-Term Ingestion of Chestnut Honey on Glucose Disorders and Neurodegeneration in Obese Mice

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of long-term honey ingestion on metabolic disorders and neurodegeneration in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD). Three groups of mice were fed with a standard diet (STD), HFD or HFD supplemented with honey (HFD-H) for 16 weeks. Biochemical, histological, Western blotting, RT-PCR and Profiler PCR array were performed to assess metabolic parameters, peripheral and central insulin resistance and neurodegeneration. Daily honey intake prevented the HFD-induced glucose dysmetabolism. In fact, it reduced plasma fasting glucose, insulin and leptin concentrations and increased adiponectin levels. It improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity and HOMA index without affecting plasma lipid concentration. HFD mice showed a significantly higher number of apoptotic nuclei in the superficial and deep cerebral cortex, upregulation of Fas-L, Bim and P27 (neuronal pro-apoptotic markers) and downregulation of Bcl-2 and BDNF (anti-apoptotic factors) in comparison with STD- and HFD-H mice, providing evidence for honey neuroprotective effects. PCR-array analysis showed that long-term honey intake increased the expression of genes involved in insulin sensitivity and decreased genes involved in neuroinflammation or lipogenesis, suggesting improvement of central insulin resistance. The expressions of p-AKT and p-GSK3 in HFD-H mice, which were decreased and increased, respectively, in HFD mouse brain, index of central insulin resistance, were similar to STD animals supporting the ability of regular honey intake to protect brain neurons from insulin resistance. In conclusion, the present results provide evidence for the beneficial preventative impact of regular honey ingestion on neuronal damage caused by HFD.

History, phytochemistry, experimental pharmacology and clinical uses of honey: A comprehensive review with special reference to Unani medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Honey is one of the most popular functional foods, speculated to be in use since the advent of human civilization. Its health-protective activity is endorsed by many religions and traditional medicines. In Unani medicine, honey is prescribed for many health conditions as wound-healing, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, etc. In the present era, honey is gaining popularity over sugar for its myriad health benefits and low glycemic index. This review attempts to provide a comprehensive account of the biological activities and potential therapeutic uses of honey, with scientific evidence.

METHODOLOGY

In this paper, we have provided a comprehensive overview of historical uses, types, physical characteristics, bioactive constituents and pharmacological activities of honey. The information was gathered from Classical Unani textbooks and leading scientific databases. There is a plethora of information regarding various therapeutic activities of honey, and it is daunting to draw practical conclusions. Hence, in this paper, we have tried to summarize those aspects which are most relevant to clinical application.

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

Many important bioactive constituents are identified in different honey types, e.g. phenolics, proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates, organic acids, etc., which exert important biological activities like anti-microbial, wound healing, immunomodulatory, anti-toxin, antioxidant, and many others. Honey has the potential to alleviate many lifestyle disorders, mitigate the adverse effects of drugs and toxins, and also provide healthy nutrition. Although conclusive clinical evidence is not available, yet honey may potentially be a safer alternative to sucrose for diabetic patients.

Long-Term Overconsumption of Sugar Starting at Adolescence Produces Persistent Hyperactivity and Neurocognitive Deficits in Adulthood

Sugar has become embedded in modern food and beverages. This has led to overconsumption of sugar in children, adolescents, and adults, with more than 60 countries consuming more than four times (>100 g/person/day) the WHO recommendations (25 g/person/day). Recent evidence suggests that obesity and impulsivity from poor dietary habits leads to further overconsumption of processed food and beverages. The long-term effects on cognitive processes and hyperactivity from sugar overconsumption, beginning at adolescence are not known. Using a well-validated mouse model of sugar consumption, we found that long-term sugar consumption, at a level that significantly augments weight gain, elicits an abnormal hyperlocomotor response to novelty and alters both episodic and spatial memory. Our results are similar to those reported in attention deficit and hyperactivity disorders. The deficits in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory were accompanied by altered hippocampal neurogenesis, with an overall decrease in the proliferation and differentiation of newborn neurons within the dentate gyrus. This suggests that long-term overconsumption of sugar, as that which occurs in the Western Diet might contribute to an increased risk of developing persistent hyperactivity and neurocognitive deficits in adulthood.

Maternal Sweeteners Intake During Gestation and Lactation Affects Learning and Memory in Rat Female Offspring

Maternal high-sweetener diet, such as sucrose, has been associated with an increased risk of metabolic and cognitive-related diseases in the offspring. This study was performed to determine the effect of maternal sweetener intake during gestation and lactation on learning and memory in adult female offspring rats. Twenty-eight female pups from dams fed standard diet (Control-C, n = 10), high-sucrose diet (HS-C, n = 6), and high-honey diet (Ho-C, n = 12) were fed standard diet after weaning and body weight and food intake were recorded once a week for 19 weeks. Learning and memory tests were conducted at week 14 (Y-maze) and 18 (Barnes maze). We found that birth weight of Control-C group was greater than the Ho-C (P < .001). Blood glucose levels of the HS-C group were significantly higher than the Control-C and Ho-C groups. Control-C pups recognized the novel arm of the Y-maze compared with HS-C and Ho-C groups (P < .01). Also, offspring of the HS-C group showed deficient performance in the Barnes test when compared with the Control-C and Ho-C groups (P < .05). These results suggest that dams fed a high-sucrose diet during gestation and lactation favor high-glucose levels and deficient long-term memory performance in adult female offspring rats.

Long-Term Music Exposure Prevents Age-Related Cognitive Deficits in Rats Independently of Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Cognitive decline appears across aging. While some studies report beneficial effects of musical listening and practice on cognitive aging, the underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unknown. This study aims to determine whether chronic (6 h/day, 3 times/week) and long-lasting (4-8 months) music exposure, initiated at middle age in rats (15 months old), can influence behavioral parameters sensitive to age effects and reduce age-related spatial memory decline in rats. Spontaneous locomotor, circadian rhythmic activity, and anxiety-like behavior as well as spatial working and reference memory were assessed in 14-month-old rats and then after 4 and 8 months of music exposure (19 and 23 months old, respectively). Spatial learning and reference memory data were followed up by considering cognitive status of animals prior to music exposure (14 months old) given by K-means clustering of individual Z-score. Hippocampal cell proliferation and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) level in the hippocampus and frontal cortex were measured. Results show that music exposure differentially rescues age-related deficits in spatial navigation tasks according to its duration without affecting spontaneous locomotor, circadian rhythmic activity, and anxiety-like behavior. Hippocampal cell proliferation as well as hippocampal and frontal cortex BDNF levels was not affected by music across aging. Cognitive improvement by music in aging rats may require distinct neurobiological mechanisms than hippocampal cell proliferation and BDNF.

Maternal Sweeteners Intake Modulates Gut Microbiota and Exacerbates Learning and Memory Processes in Adult Male Offspring

Background: There is increasing evidence that gut microbiota in offspring is derived in part from maternal environment such as diet. Thus, sweeteners intake including caloric or non-caloric during perinatal period can induce gut dysbiosis and program the offspring to develop cognitive problems later in life. Objective: To determine the effect of maternal high-sweeteners intake during gestation and lactation on gut microbiota shifts in adult male offspring rats and the impact on cognitive dysfunction. Methods: Thirty-four male pups from dams fed standard diet (Control-C, n = 10), high-sucrose diet (HS-C, n = 11), high-honey diet (Ho-C, n = 8), and high-stevia diet (HSt-C, n = 5) were fed standard diet after weaning, and body weight and food intake were recorded once a week for 26 weeks. Learning and memory tests were performed at week 23 of life using the Barnes maze. Fecal samples from the breastfeeding and adulthood periods were collected and analyzed by sequencing the 16S rRNA V3-V4 region of gut microbiota. Results: Maternal high-sucrose and stevia diets programmed the male offspring, and changes in microbial diversity by Shannon index were observed after weaning (p < 0.01). Furthermore, maternal high-stevia diet programming lasted into adulthood. The increase of Firmicutes abundance and the decrease in phylum Bacteroidetes were significant in HS-C and HSt-C groups. This led to an increase in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes index, although only in HS-C group was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Of note, the downstream gram-negative Bacteroidales and the upregulation of the gram-positive Clostridiales abundance contribute to cognitive dysfunction. Conclusion: These results suggest that dams fed a high-sucrose and stevia diets during gestation and lactation favor a deficient memory performance in adult male offspring rats through shifts gut microbiota diversity and relative abundance at several taxa.

Feeding pattern, biochemical, anthropometric and histological effects of prolonged ad libitum access to sucrose, honey and glucose-fructose solutions in Wistar rats

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The exposure to sucrose in rats has mimic abnormalities attributed to metabolic syndrome (MetS). The effects of honey bee and "free" glucose and fructose, have not been explored in this context. The aim was to expose Wistar rodents to sucrose solution (SS), honey solution (HS) and fructose/glucose solution (GFS) at 30% to assess their effects.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

HS (n = 10), SS (n = 10) and GFS (n = 10) groups were formed. Solutions were ad libitum along 14-weeks.

RESULTS

Between solutions consumptions, honey was significantly 42% higher (P = 0.000), while similar consumption was observed among GFS and SS. The feeding pattern of HS consumption was irregular along experiment; while the food intake pattern showed the similar trend among groups along time. Non statistical differences were obtained in any biochemical and anthropometric measure, however, a higher concentration of leptin (721 ± 507 pg/mL), lower concentration of total cholesterol (TC; 48.87 ± 2.41 mg/100 mL), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL; 16.47 ± 6.55 mg/100 mL) and triglycerides (82.37 ± 32.77 mg/100 mL) was obtained in SS group. For anthropometric values, HS showed less total adipose tissue (AT; average 26 vs. 31-33 g) and adiposity index (average 6.11 vs. 7.6). Due to sugar-sweetened beverages consumption increases the risk for the development of chronic diseases; correlations between fluid intake and anthropometric and biochemical parameters were assessed. A moderate correlation was obtained in groups with the weight of total AT and solution intake; for the weight gain in GFS group and for triglycerides in HS and GFS. The highest hepatic tissue damage was observed in SS group with multiple intracytoplasmic vacuoles, atypia changes, moderate pleomorphism and hepatocellular necrosis.

CONCLUSIONS

In spite of the significantly higher consumption of HS, biochemical, anthropometrical and histological effects were not remarkably different in comparision to other sweeteners.

Tualang Honey Ameliorates Hypoxia-induced Memory Deficits by Reducing Neuronal Damage in the Hippocampus of Adult Male Sprague Dawley Rats

Objectives

A growing body of evidence indicates that hypoxia exposure causes learning and memory deficits. An effective natural therapeutic approach has, however, not been explored widely. Our previous studies found that Tualang honey administration protected learning and memory functions in ovariectomized rats. Therefore, the present study investigated its efficacy in ameliorating hypoxia-induced memory deficits in adult male Sprague Dawley rats.

Materials and Methods

The rats were divided into four groups: i) Normoxia treated with sucrose (n=12), ii) Normoxia treated with Tualang honey (n=12), iii) Hypoxia treated with sucrose (n=12), and iv) Hypoxia treated with Tualang honey (n=12). Tualang honey (0.2 g/kg/BW) and sucrose (1 mL of 7.9%) supplementations were administered orally to the rats daily for 14 days. Then the hypoxia groups were exposed to hypoxia (~11%) for 7 days, while the normoxia groups were kept in normal conditions. Following exposure to hypoxia, the rats' memories were analyzed using a novel object recognition task and T-maze test.

Results

The data revealed that rats exposed to hypoxia showed significant impairment in short-term memory (STM), spatial memory (p<0.01), and long-term memory (LTM) when compared to the normoxia group. Hypoxia rats treated with Tualang honey showed significant improvement in STM, LTM, and spatial memory (p<0.05) compared with those treated with sucrose (p<0.05). Tualang honey also reduced neuronal damage in the hippocampus of adult male Sprague Dawley rats exposed to hypoxia.

Conclusion

It is suggested that Tualang honey pretreatment has protective effects against hypoxia-induced memory deficits, possibly through its antioxidant contents.

Quality Parameters and Consumer Acceptance of Jelly Candies Based on Pomegranate Juice "Mollar de Elche"

There is an upward trend towards reducing or suppressing additives in foods, as well as reducing the use of E-numbers in labels providing clean label foods. Therefore, the development of confectionary products based exclusively on natural ingredients with antioxidant properties may offer valuable solutions to the confectionery industry. Fruit juices and purées may provide functional and organoleptic properties in jelly candies in a natural way. The consumption of pomegranate fruit and derivative products has increased due to their association with health benefits. The aim of this study was to determine consumer insights about pomegranate-based jellies, cultivar “Mollar de Elche”, as affected by formulation (100% pomegranate juice or 50%–50% pomegranate juice–apple purée) and type of sweetener (sugar or honey), and to link affective and descriptive data from sensory studies. The most valued quality parameter of pomegranate products, red color (measured by the green–red coordinate, a*), was not negatively affected by jelly preparation. It was determined that the main liking drivers for pomegranate jellies were intense red color and high brightness. The results might be used by pomegranate processing companies to improve their manufacturing protocols and to develop successful products meeting consumer demands and needs. The formulation containing 20% gelatin, pure “Mollar de Elche” pomegranate juice, 1% citric acid, and sucrose as sweetener provided the best quality of jellies in terms of color, texture, antioxidant capacity, and sensory attributes.

Honey and obesity-related dysfunctions: a summary on health benefits

Honey is a natural product, containing flavonoids and phenolic acids, appreciated for its therapeutic abilities since ancient times. Although the bioactive potential is linked to the composition, that is variable depending on mainly the botanical origin, honey has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, honey, administered alone or in combination with conventional therapy, might result useful in the management of chronic diseases that are commonly associated with oxidative stress and inflammation state. Obesity is a metabolic disorder characterized by visceral adiposity. The adipose tissue becomes hypertrophic and undergoes hyperplasia, resulting in a hypoxic environment, oxidative stress and production of pro-inflammatory mediators that can be responsible for other disorders, such as metabolic syndrome and neurodegeneration. Experimental evidence from animals have shown that honey improves glycemic control and lipid profile with consequent protection from endothelial dysfunction and neurodegeneration. The purpose of the present review is to summarize the current literature concerning the beneficial effects of honey in the management of the obesity-related dysfunctions, including neurodegeneration. Based on the key constituents of honey, the paper also highlights polyphenols to be potentially responsible for the health benefits of honey. Further well-designed and controlled studies are necessary to validate these benefits in humans.

Stingless Bee Honey Improves Spatial Memory in Mice, Probably Associated with Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) and Inositol 1,4,5-Triphosphate Receptor Type 1 (Itpr1) Genes

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of stingless bee honey (SBH) supplementation on memory and learning in mice. Despite many studies that show the benefits of honey on memory, reports on the nootropic effects of SBH are still lacking, and their underlying mechanism is still unclear. SBH is a honey produced by the bees in the tribe of Meliponini that exist in tropical countries. It features unique storage of honey collected in cerumen pots made of propolis. This SBH may offer a better prospect for therapeutic performance as the previous report identifies the presence of antioxidants that were greater than other honey produced by Apis sp. In this study, SBH was tested on Swiss albino mice following acute (7 days) and semichronic (35 days) supplementation. Experiments were then conducted using Morris water maze (MWM) behaviour analysis, RT-PCR for gene expression of mice striatum, and NMR for metabolomics analysis of the honey. Results indicate spatial working memory and spatial reference memory of mice were significantly improved in the honey-treated group compared with the control group. Improved memory consolidations were also observed in prolonged supplementation. Gene expression analyses of acutely treated mice demonstrated significant upregulation of BDNF and Itpr1 genes that involve in synaptic function. NMR analysis also identified phenylalanine, an essential precursor for tyrosine that plays a role at the BDNF receptor. In conclusion, SBH supplementation for seven days at 2000 mg/kg, which is equivalent to a human dose of 162 mg/kg, showed strong capabilities to improve spatial working memory. And prolonged intake up to 35 days increased spatial reference memory in the mice model. The phenylalanine in SBH may have triggered the upregulation of BDNF genes in honey-treated mice and improved their spatial memory performance.

Habitual sugar intake and cognitive impairment among multi-ethnic Malaysian older adults

Background: Sugar is widely consumed in Malaysia, and the excessive intake of sugar has been associated with cognitive functions. However, the association between sugar intake and cognitive impairment among Malaysian older adults is yet to be determined.

Purpose: The objective of this study was to evaluate the associations between types and sources of sugar intake and cognitive functions and to identify their risk in predicting cognitive impairment (MMSE score <24).

Subjects and methods: A total of 1,209 subjects aged ≥60 years were recruited through multi-stage random sampling from selected states in Malaysia. Dietary intake was derived using a 7-day dietary history questionnaire and supplemented with a quantitative food frequency questionnaire for added sugar intake.

Results: The prevalence of cognitive impairment as defined by Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) less than 24 was 31.9%, while the prevalence of mild cognitive impairment was 13.1%. The median (IQR) for total sugar intake was 44.60 g/day (26.21–68.81) or 8 tsp, and free sugar intake was 33.08 g/day (17.48–57.26) or 6 tsp. The higher intake of total sugars, free sugars, sucrose, lactose, sugar-sweetened beverages, sugar-sweetened cakes, and dessert was found to be significantly associated with a lower MMSE score, after adjusting for covariates. On the other hand, the consumption of cooked dishes and fruits was significantly associated with a better MMSE score. The adjusted OR for risk of cognitive impairment (MMSE score <24) was 3.30 (95% CI 2.15–5.08) for total sugars and 3.58 (95% CI 2.32–5.52) for free sugars, comparing the highest with the lowest intake percentiles.

Conclusion: Excessive sugar consumption among older adults showed a notable association with poor cognitive functions, but longitudinal studies and clinical trials are further needed to clarify the direction of causality and to investigate the underlying mechanism.

Sugars, exercise and health

BACKGROUND

There is a direct link between a variety of addictions and mood states to which exercise could be relieving. Sugar addiction has been recently counted as another binge/compulsive/addictive eating behavior, differently induced, leading to a high-significant health problem. Regularly exercising at moderate intensity has been shown to efficiently and positively impact upon physiological imbalances caused by several morbid conditions, including affective disorders. Even in a wider set of physchiatric diseases, physical exercise has been prescribed as a complementary therapeutic strategy.

METHOD

A comprehensive literature search was carried out in the Cochrane Library and MEDLINE databases (search terms: sugar addiction, food craving, exercise therapy, training, physical fitness, physical activity, rehabilitation and aerobic).

RESULTS

Seeking high-sugar diets, also in a reward- or craving-addiction fashion, can generate drastic metabolic derangements, often interpolated with affective disorders, for which exercise may represent a valuable, universal, non-pharmachological barrier.

LIMITATIONS

More research in humans is needed to confirm potential exercise-mechanisms that may break the bond between sugar over-consumption and affective disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this review is to address the importance of physical exercise in reversing the gloomy scenario of unhealthy diets and sedentary lifestyles in our modern society.

Increased anxiety-like behavior is associated with the metabolic syndrome in non-stressed rats

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a cluster of signs that increases the risk to develop diabetes mellitus type 2 and cardiovascular disease. In the last years, a growing interest to study the relationship between MS and psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, has emerged obtaining conflicting results. Diet-induced MS rat models have only examined the effects of high-fat or mixed cafeteria diets to a limited extent. We explored whether an anxiety-like behavior was associated with MS in non-stressed rats chronically submitted to a high-sucrose diet (20% sucrose in drinking water) using three different anxiety paradigms: the shock-probe/burying test (SPBT), the elevated plus-maze (EPM) and the open-field test (OFT). Behaviorally, the high-sucrose diet group showed an increase in burying behavior in the SPBT. Also, these animals displayed both avoidance to explore the central part of the arena and a significant increase in freezing behavior in the OFT and lack of effects in the EPM. Also, high-sucrose diet group showed signs of an MS-like condition: significant increases in body weight and body mass index, abdominal obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and dyslipidemia. Plasma leptin and resistin levels were also increased. No changes in plasma corticosterone levels were found. These results indicate that rats under a 24-weeks high-sucrose diet develop an MS associated with an anxiety-like behavior. Although the mechanisms underlying this behavioral outcome remain to be investigated, the role of leptin is emphasized.

Exogenous antioxidants--Double-edged swords in cellular redox state: Health beneficial effects at physiologic doses versus deleterious effects at high doses

The balance between oxidation and antioxidation is believed to be critical in maintaining healthy biological systems. Under physiological conditions, the human antioxidative defense system including e.g., superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione (GSH) and others, allows the elimination of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) including, among others superoxide anions (O₂^.-), hydroxyl radicals (OH.), alkoxyl radicals (RO.) and peroxyradicals (ROO.). However, our endogenous antioxidant defense systems are incomplete without exogenous originating reducing compounds such as vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenoids and polyphenols, playing an essential role in many antioxidant mechanisms in living organisms. Therefore, there is continuous demand for exogenous antioxidants in order to prevent oxidative stress, representing a disequilibrium redox state in favor of oxidation. However, high doses of isolated compounds may be toxic, owing to prooxidative effects at high concentrations or their potential to react with beneficial concentrations of ROS normally present at physiological conditions that are required for optimal cellular functioning. This review aims to examine the double-edged effects of dietary originating antioxidants with a focus on the most abundant compounds, especially polyphenols, vitamin C, vitamin E and carotenoids. Different approaches to enrich our body with exogenous antioxidants such as via synthetic antioxidants, diets rich in fruits and vegetables and taking supplements will be reviewed and experimental and epidemiological evidences discussed, highlighting that antioxidants at physiological doses are generally safe, exhibiting interesting health beneficial effects.

Dietary composition affects the development of cognitive deficits in WT and Tg AD model mice

Clinical and epidemiological evidence suggests that lifestyle factors, including nutrition, may influence the chances of developing of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and also likely affect the aging process. Whereas it is clear that high-fat diets are increasing both body weight and the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, to date, there have been very few studies comparing diets high with different sources of calories (i.e., high fat versus high protein versus high carbohydrates) to determine whether dietary composition has importance beyond the known effect of high caloric intake to increase body weight, AD pathology and cognitive deficits. In the current study we examined the effects that different diets high in carbohydrate, protein or fat content, but similar in caloric value, have on the development of cognitive impairment and brain pathology in wild-type and Tg AD model mice. The results demonstrate that long term feeding with balanced diets similar in caloric content but with significant changes in the source of calories, all negatively influence cognition compared to the control diet, and that this effect is more pronounced in Tg animals with AD pathology.

Tualang Honey Attenuates Noise Stress-Induced Memory Deficits in Aged Rats

Ageing and stress exposure may lead to memory impairment while oxidative stress is thought to be one of the underlying mechanisms involved. This study aimed to investigate the potential protective effects of Tualang honey supplementation on memory performance in aged rats exposed to noise stress. Tualang honey supplementation was given orally, 200 mg/kg body weight for 28 days. Rats in the stress group were subjected to loud noise, 100 dB(A), 4 hours daily for 14 days. All rats were subjected to novel object recognition test for evaluation of memory performance. It was observed that the rats subjected to noise stress exhibited significantly lower memory performance and higher oxidative stress as evident by elevated malondialdehyde and protein carbonyl levels and reduction of antioxidant enzymes activities compared to the nonstressed rats. Tualang honey supplementation was able to improve memory performance, decrease oxidative stress levels, increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) concentration, decrease acetylcholinesterase activity, and enhance neuronal proliferation in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and hippocampus. In conclusion, Tualang honey protects against memory decline due to stress exposure and/or ageing via enhancement of mPFC and hippocampal morphology possibly secondary to reduction in brain oxidative stress and/or upregulation of BDNF concentration and cholinergic system.

ACEMg Diet Supplement Modifies Progression of Hereditary Deafness

Dietary supplements consisting of beta-carotene (precursor to vitamin A), vitamins C and E and the mineral magnesium (ACEMg) can be beneficial for reducing hearing loss due to aminoglycosides and overstimulation. This regimen also slowed progression of deafness for a boy with GJB2 (CONNEXIN 26) mutations. To assess the potential for treating GJB2 and other forms of hereditary hearing loss with ACEMg, we tested the influence of ACEMg on the cochlea and hearing of mouse models for two human mutations: GJB2, the leading cause of childhood deafness, and DIAPH3, a cause of auditory neuropathy. One group of mice modeling GJB2 (Gjb2-CKO) received ACEMg diet starting shortly after they were weaned (4 weeks) until 16 weeks of age. Another group of Gjb2-CKO mice received ACEMg in utero and after weaning. The ACEMg diet was given to mice modeling DIAPH3 (Diap3-Tg) after weaning (4 weeks) until 12 weeks of age. Control groups received food pellets without the ACEMg supplement. Hearing thresholds measured by auditory brainstem response were significantly better for Gjb2-CKO mice fed ACEMg than for the control diet group. In contrast, Diap3-Tg mice displayed worse thresholds than controls. These results indicate that ACEMg supplementation can influence the progression of genetic hearing loss.

[The potential role of microbiota in major psychiatric disorders: Mechanisms, preclinical data, gastro-intestinal comorbidities and therapeutic options]

While forecasts predict an increase in the prevalence of mental health disorders in the worldwide general population, the response rate to classical psychiatric treatment remains unsatisfactory. Resistance to psychotropic drugs can be due to clinical, pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic factors. Among these factors, recent animal findings suggest that microbiota may have an underestimated influence on its host's behavior and on drug metabolism that may explain ineffectiveness or increased side effects of psychiatric medications such as weight gain. The following issues were identified in the present review: (i) microbiota dysbiosis and putative consequences on central nervous system functioning; (ii) chronic microbiota dysbiosis-associated illnesses in humans; (iii) microbiota-oriented treatments and their potential therapeutic applications in psychiatry.

Novel Insights into the Health Importance of Natural Honey

Honey is a sweet, flavourful liquid substance with several beneficial constituents. Extensive research has shown the therapeutic promise of the use of honey in enhancing health values and improving body systems. This manuscript documents the ancient medicinal uses of honey and provides evidence-based data demonstrating its benefits in animal models, patients, and healthy individuals. Several reports by various researchers are discussed regarding health indices and biomarkers used following apitherapy. These include physiological processes in virtually all animal and human organs. The responses of body systems after oral and systemic administration of honey are also mentioned. Honey is also evaluated for its wide acceptability as a complementary and alternative medicine for most ailments. All types of honey exhibit different biochemical activities and show greater variability in their potency as apitherapeutic agents than conventional medicines. The mechanisms of action conferring honey's protective effects, as suggested by various authors, are documented. These entail synergistic interaction of the bioactive physical and chemical constituents of honey to produce the desired beneficial effects. The use of apitherapy in synergy with chemotherapy to manage microbial and cancer ailments is also helpful in reducing drug-induced cytotoxicity. The mechanistic insights into the overall protective, preventive, and therapeutic effects of honey portend the presence of a unique factor, a 'synergistic multiple ingredients factor', designated SMIF.

Tualang honey improves memory performance and decreases depressive-like behavior in rats exposed to loud noise stress

Recent evidence has exhibited dietary influence on the manifestation of different types of behavior induced by stressor tasks. The present study examined the effects of Tualang honey supplement administered with the goal of preventing or attenuating the occurrence of stress-related behaviors in male rats subjected to noise stress. Forty-eight adult male rats were randomly divided into the following four groups: i) nonstressed with vehicle, ii) nonstressed with Tualang honey, iii) stressed with vehicle, and iv) stressed with honey. The supplement was given once daily via oral gavage at 0.2 g/kg body weight. Two types of behavioral tests were performed, namely, the novel object recognition test to evaluate working memory and the forced swimming test to evaluate depressive-like behavior. Data were analyzed by a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using IBM SPSS 18.0. It was observed that the rats subjected to noise stress expressed higher levels of depressive-like behavior and lower memory functions compared to the unexposed control rats. In addition, our results indicated that the supplementation regimen successfully counteracted the effects of noise stress. The forced swimming test indicated that climbing and swimming times were significantly increased and immobility times significantly decreased in honey-supplemented rats, thereby demonstrating an antidepressant-like effect. Furthermore, cognitive function was shown to be intensely affected by noise stress, but the effects were counteracted by the honey supplement. These findings suggest that subchronic exposure to noise stress induces depressive-like behavior and reduces cognitive functions, and that these effects can be attenuated by Tualang honey supplementation. This warrants further studies to examine the role of Tulang honey in mediating such effects.

Potential Role of Honey in Learning and Memory

The composition and physicochemical properties of honey are variable depending on its floral source and often named according to the geographical location. The potential medicinal benefits of Tualang honey, a multifloral jungle honey found in Malaysia, have recently been attracting attention because of its reported beneficial effects in various diseases. This paper reviews the effects of honey, particularly Tualang honey, on learning and memory. Information regarding the effects of Tualang honey on learning and memory in human as well as animal models is gleaned to hypothesize its underlying mechanisms. These studies show that Tualang honey improves morphology of memory-related brain areas, reduces brain oxidative stress, increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and acetylcholine (ACh) concentrations, and reduces acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the brain homogenates. Its anti-inflammatory roles in reducing inflammatory trigger and microglial activation have yet to be investigated. It is hypothesized that the improvement in learning and memory following Tualang honey supplementation is due to the significant improvement in brain morphology and enhancement of brain cholinergic system secondary to reduction in brain oxidative damage and/or upregulation of BDNF concentration. Further studies are imperative to elucidate the molecular mechanism of actions.

The "psychomicrobiotic": Targeting microbiota in major psychiatric disorders: A systematic review

The gut microbiota is increasingly considered as a symbiotic partner in the maintenance of good health. Metagenomic approaches could help to discover how the complex gut microbial ecosystem participates in the control of the host's brain development and function, and could be relevant for future therapeutic developments, such as probiotics, prebiotics and nutritional approaches for psychiatric disorders. Previous reviews focused on the effects of microbiota on the central nervous system in in vitro and animal studies. The aim of the present review is to synthetize the current data on the association between microbiota dysbiosis and onset and/or maintenance of major psychiatric disorders, and to explore potential therapeutic opportunities targeting microbiota dysbiosis in psychiatric patients.

Protective Effects of Tualang Honey against Oxidative Stress and Anxiety-Like Behaviour in Stressed Ovariectomized Rats

The present study aims to evaluate the antioxidant and anxiolytic-like effect of Tualang honey in stressed ovariectomized (OVX) rats. The animals were divided into; (i) nonstressed sham-operated control rats, (ii) sham-operated control rats exposed to stress, (iii) nonstressed OVX rats, (iv) OVX rats exposed to stress, (v) OVX rats exposed to stress and treated with 17 β-oestradiol (E2) (20 μg daily, sc), and (vi) OVX rats exposed to stress and treated with Tualang honey (0.2 g/kg body weight, orally). The open field test was used to evaluate the anxiety-like behaviour and ELISA kits were used to measure oxidant/antioxidant status of the brain homogenates. The result showed that anxiety-like behavior was significantly increased in stressed OVX compared to other groups, and administering either E2 or Tualang honey significantly decreased anxiety-like behaviour in stressed OVX rats. The levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyl (PCO) were significantly decreased while the levels/activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferases (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GR) were significantly increased in the brain homogenates of treated stressed OVX groups compared to untreated stressed OVX. In conclusion, Tualang honey has protective effects against brain oxidative stress and may be useful alternative anxiolytic agent especially for postmenopausal women.

Common effects of fat, ethanol, and nicotine on enkephalin in discrete areas of the brain

Fat, ethanol, and nicotine share a number of properties, including their ability to reinforce behavior and produce overconsumption. To test whether these substances act similarly on the same neuronal populations in specific brain areas mediating these behaviors, we administered the substances short-term, using the same methods and within the same experiment, and measured their effects, in areas of the hypothalamus (HYPO), amygdala (AMYG), and nucleus accumbens (NAc), on mRNA levels of the opioid peptide, enkephalin (ENK), using in situ hybridization and on c-Fos immunoreactivity (ir) to indicate neuronal activity, using immunofluorescence histochemistry. In addition, we examined for comparison another reinforcing substance, sucrose, and also took measurements of stress-related behaviors and circulating corticosterone (CORT) and triglycerides (TG), to determine if they contribute to these substances' behavioral and physiological effects. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats were gavaged three times daily over 5 days with 3.5 mL of water, Intralipid (20% v/v), ethanol (12% v/v), nicotine (0.01% w/v) or sucrose (22% w/v) (approximately 7 kcal/dose), and tail vein blood was collected for measurements of circulating CORT and TG. On day five, animals were sacrificed, brains removed, and the HYPO, AMYG, and NAc processed for single- or double-labeling of ENK mRNA and c-Fos-ir. Fat, ethanol, and nicotine, but not sucrose, increased the single- and double-labeling of ENK and c-Fos-ir in precisely the same brain areas, the middle parvocellular but not lateral area of the paraventricular nucleus, central but not basolateral nucleus of the AMYG, and core but not shell of the NAc. While having little effect on stress-related behaviors or CORT levels, fat, ethanol, and nicotine all increased circulating levels of TG. These findings suggest that the overconsumption of these three substances and their potential for abuse are mediated by the same populations of ENK-expressing neurons in specific nuclei of the hypothalamus and limbic system.

Cognitive and behavioural effects of sugar consumption in rodents. A review

The pronounced global rise in sugar consumption in recent years has been driven largely by increased consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. Although high sugar intakes are recognised to increase the risk of obesity and related metabolic disturbances, less is known about how sugar might also impair cognition and learned behaviour. This review considers the effects of sugar in rodents on measures of learning and memory, reward processing, anxiety and mood. The parallels between sugar consumption and addictive behaviours are also discussed. The available evidence clearly indicates that sugar consumption can induce cognitive dysfunction. Deficits have been found most consistently on tasks measuring spatial learning and memory. Younger animals appear to be particularly sensitive to the effects of sugar on reward processing, yet results vary according to what reward-related behaviour is assessed. Sugar does not appear to produce long-term effects on anxiety or mood. Importantly, cognitive impairments have been found when intake approximates levels of sugar consumption in people and without changes to weight gain. There remain several caveats when extrapolating from animal models to putative effects of sugar on cognitive function in people. These issues are discussed in conjunction with potential underlying neural mechanisms and directions for future research.

Neurological effects of honey: current and future prospects

Honey is the only insect-derived natural product with therapeutic, traditional, spiritual, nutritional, cosmetic, and industrial value. In addition to having excellent nutritional value, honey is a good source of physiologically active natural compounds, such as polyphenols. Unfortunately, there are very few current research projects investigating the nootropic and neuropharmacological effects of honey, and these are still in their early stages. Raw honey possesses nootropic effects, such as memory-enhancing effects, as well as neuropharmacological activities, such as anxiolytic, antinociceptive, anticonvulsant, and antidepressant activities. Research suggests that the polyphenol constituents of honey can quench biological reactive oxygen species and counter oxidative stress while restoring the cellular antioxidant defense system. Honey polyphenols are also directly involved in apoptotic activities while attenuating microglia-induced neuroinflammation. Honey polyphenols are useful in improving memory deficits and can act at the molecular level. Therefore, the ultimate biochemical impact of honey on specific neurodegenerative diseases, apoptosis, necrosis, neuroinflammation, synaptic plasticity, and behavior-modulating neural circuitry should be evaluated with appropriate mechanistic approaches using biochemical and molecular tools.

Effects of chronic fluoride exposure on object recognition memory and mRNA expression of SNARE complex in hippocampus of male mice

This study aimed to investigate the effects of long-term fluoride exposure on object recognition memory and mRNA expression of soluble N-ethylmaleimidesensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptors (SNARE) complex (synaptosome-associated protein of 25 kDa (SNAP-25), vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP-2), and syntaxin 1A) in the hippocampus of male mice. Sixty sexually matured male Kunming mice were randomly divided into four groups: control group (given distilled water), low F group (25 mg/L NaF, corresponding to 11 mg/L F(-)), medium F group (50 mg/L NaF, corresponding to 22 mg/L F(-)), and high F group (100 mg/L NaF, corresponding to 45 mg/L F(-)). After 180 days, the spontaneous locomotor behavior and object recognition memory were detected by open field test and novel object recognition (NOR) test. Results showed that compared with the control group, frequency in each zone, total distance, and line crosses were significantly increased in low F and medium F groups, suggesting fluoride enhanced excitement of mice, while there were no marked changes in high F group. Twenty-four hours after training, a deficit of long-term memory (LTM) occurred only in high F group (P < 0.05), but there was no significant change of short-term memory (STM) 1.5 h later. The mRNA expression levels of SNAP-25, VAMP-2, and syntaxin 1A were detected by real-time quantitative RT-PCR, which revealed that the mRNA expression of VAMP-2 was significantly increased in medium F and high F groups (P < 0.01). Taken together, these results indicated that long-term fluoride administration can enhance the excitement of male mice, impair recognition memory, and upregulate VAMP-2 mRNA expression, which are involved in the adverse effects of fluoride on the object recognition memory of nervous system.

The protective effects of insulin and natural honey against hippocampal cell death in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

We investigated the effects of insulin and honey as antioxidants to prevent the hippocampal cell death in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. We selected sixty Wister rats (5 groups of 12 animals each), including the control group (C), and four diabetic groups (control (D) and 3 groups treated with insulin (I), honey (H), and insulin plus honey (I + H)). Diabetes was induced by streptozotocin injection (IP, 60 mg/kg). Six weeks after the induction of diabetes, the group I received insulin (3-4 U/kg/day, SC), group H received honey (5 mg/kg/day, IP), and group I + H received a combination of the above at the same dose. Groups C and D received normal saline. Two weeks after treatment, rats were sacrificed and the hippocampus was extracted. Neuronal cell death in the hippocampal region was examined using trypan blue assay, "H & E" staining, and TUNEL assay. Cell viability assessment showed significantly lower number of living cells in group D than in group C. Besides, the mean number of living cells was significantly higher in group I, H, and I + H compared to group D. Therefore, it can be concluded that the treatment of the diabetic rats with insulin, honey, and a combination of insulin and honey can prevent neuronal cell death in different hippocampal areas of the studied samples.

Association of oxidative stress to the genesis of anxiety: implications for possible therapeutic interventions

Oxidative stress caused by reactive species, including reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and unbound, adventitious metal ions (e.g., iron [Fe] and copper [Cu]), is an underlying cause of various neurodegenerative diseases. These reactive species are an inevitable by-product of cellular respiration or other metabolic processes that may cause the oxidation of lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Oxidative stress has recently been implicated in depression and anxiety-related disorders. Furthermore, the manifestation of anxiety in numerous psychiatric disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder, depressive disorder, panic disorder, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder, highlights the importance of studying the underlying biology of these disorders to gain a better understanding of the disease and to identify common biomarkers for these disorders. Most recently, the expression of glutathione reductase 1 and glyoxalase 1, which are genes involved in antioxidative metabolism, were reported to be correlated with anxiety-related phenotypes. This review focuses on direct and indirect evidence of the potential involvement of oxidative stress in the genesis of anxiety and discusses different opinions that exist in this field. Antioxidant therapeutic strategies are also discussed, highlighting the importance of oxidative stress in the etiology, incidence, progression, and prevention of psychiatric disorders.

Fermented foods, microbiota, and mental health: ancient practice meets nutritional psychiatry

The purposeful application of fermentation in food and beverage preparation, as a means to provide palatability, nutritional value, preservative, and medicinal properties, is an ancient practice. Fermented foods and beverages continue to make a significant contribution to the overall patterns of traditional dietary practices. As our knowledge of the human microbiome increases, including its connection to mental health (for example, anxiety and depression), it is becoming increasingly clear that there are untold connections between our resident microbes and many aspects of physiology. Of relevance to this research are new findings concerning the ways in which fermentation alters dietary items pre-consumption, and in turn, the ways in which fermentation-enriched chemicals (for example, lactoferrin, bioactive peptides) and newly formed phytochemicals (for example, unique flavonoids) may act upon our own intestinal microbiota profile. Here, we argue that the consumption of fermented foods may be particularly relevant to the emerging research linking traditional dietary practices and positive mental health. The extent to which traditional dietary items may mitigate inflammation and oxidative stress may be controlled, at least to some degree, by microbiota. It is our contention that properly controlled fermentation may often amplify the specific nutrient and phytochemical content of foods, the ultimate value of which may associated with mental health; furthermore, we also argue that the microbes (for example, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria species) associated with fermented foods may also influence brain health via direct and indirect pathways.