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Oliveira-Filho ER, Rodionov DA, Hanson AD. Comparative Genomic and Genetic Evidence on a Role for the OarX Protein in Thiamin Salvage. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:28888-28894. [PMID: 38973919 PMCID: PMC11223231 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c03514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024]
Abstract
Salvage pathways for thiamin and its thiazole and pyrimidine moieties are poorly characterized compared to synthesis pathways. A candidate salvage gene is oarX, which encodes a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase. In diverse bacteria, oarX clusters on the chromosome with genes of thiamin synthesis, salvage, or transport and is preceded by a thiamin pyrophosphate riboswitch. Thiamin and its moieties can undergo oxidations that convert a side-chain hydroxymethyl group to a carboxyl group, or the thiazole ring to a thiazolone, causing a loss of biological activity. To test if OarX participates in salvage of the carboxyl or thiazolone products, we used a genetic approach in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 14067, which is auxotrophic for thiamin's pyrimidine moiety. This strain could not utilize the pyrimidine carboxyl derivative. This excluded a role in salvaging this product and narrowed the function search to metabolism of the carboxyl or thiazolone derivatives of thiamin or its thiazole moiety. However, a ΔthiG (thiazole auxotroph) strain was not rescued by any of these derivatives. Nor did deleting oarX affect rescue by the physiological pyrimidine and thiazole precursors of thiamin. These findings reinforce the genomic evidence that OarX has a function in thiamin metabolism and rule out five logical possibilities for what this function is.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmar R. Oliveira-Filho
- Horticultural
Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Dmitry A. Rodionov
- Infectious
and Inflammatory Diseases Center, Sanford
Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Andrew D. Hanson
- Horticultural
Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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2
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Fitzpatrick TB. B Vitamins: An Update on Their Importance for Plant Homeostasis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 75:67-93. [PMID: 38424064 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-060223-025336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
B vitamins are a source of coenzymes for a vast array of enzyme reactions, particularly those of metabolism. As metabolism is the basis of decisions that drive maintenance, growth, and development, B vitamin-derived coenzymes are key components that facilitate these processes. For over a century, we have known about these essential compounds and have elucidated their pathways of biosynthesis, repair, salvage, and degradation in numerous organisms. Only now are we beginning to understand their importance for regulatory processes, which are becoming an important topic in plants. Here, I highlight and discuss emerging evidence on how B vitamins are integrated into vital processes, from energy generation and nutrition to gene expression, and thereby contribute to the coordination of growth and developmental programs, particularly those that concern maintenance of a stable state, which is the foundational tenet of plant homeostasis.
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3
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Chung YH, Chen TC, Yang WJ, Chen SZ, Chang JM, Hsieh WY, Hsieh MH. Ectopic expression of a bacterial thiamin monophosphate kinase enhances vitamin B1 biosynthesis in plants. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2024; 117:1330-1343. [PMID: 37996996 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Plants and bacteria have distinct pathways to synthesize the bioactive vitamin B1 thiamin diphosphate (TDP). In plants, thiamin monophosphate (TMP) synthesized in the TDP biosynthetic pathway is first converted to thiamin by a phosphatase, which is then pyrophosphorylated to TDP. In contrast, bacteria use a TMP kinase encoded by ThiL to phosphorylate TMP to TDP directly. The Arabidopsis THIAMIN REQUIRING2 (TH2)-encoded phosphatase is involved in TDP biosynthesis. The chlorotic th2 mutants have high TMP and low thiamin and TDP. Ectopic expression of Escherichia coli ThiL and ThiL-GFP rescued the th2-3 mutant, suggesting that the bacterial TMP kinase could directly convert TMP into TDP in Arabidopsis. These results provide direct evidence that the chlorotic phenotype of th2-3 is caused by TDP rather than thiamin deficiency. Transgenic Arabidopsis harboring engineered ThiL-GFP targeting to the cytosol, chloroplast, mitochondrion, or nucleus accumulated higher TDP than the wild type (WT). Ectopic expression of E. coli ThiL driven by the UBIQUITIN (UBI) promoter or an endosperm-specific GLUTELIN1 (GT1) promoter also enhanced TDP biosynthesis in rice. The pUBI:ThiL transgenic rice accumulated more TDP and total vitamin B1 in the leaves, and the pGT1:ThiL transgenic lines had higher TDP and total vitamin B1 in the seeds than the WT. Total vitamin B1 only increased by approximately 25-30% in the polished and unpolished seeds of the pGT1:ThiL transgenic rice compared to the WT. Nevertheless, these results suggest that genetic engineering of a bacterial vitamin B1 biosynthetic gene downstream of TMP can enhance vitamin B1 production in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Hsin Chung
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Chieh Chen
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ju Yang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Soon-Ziet Chen
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Jia-Ming Chang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Yu Hsieh
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Hsiun Hsieh
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
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4
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Wu Y, Zhu L, Zhang Y, Xu W. Multidimensional Applications and Challenges of Riboswitches in Biosensing and Biotherapy. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2304852. [PMID: 37658499 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202304852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Riboswitches have received significant attention over the last two decades for their multiple functionalities and great potential for applications in various fields. This article highlights and reviews the recent advances in biosensing and biotherapy. These fields involve a wide range of applications, such as food safety detection, environmental monitoring, metabolic engineering, live cell imaging, wearable biosensors, antibacterial drug targets, and gene therapy. The discovery, origin, and optimization of riboswitches are summarized to help readers better understand their multidimensional applications. Finally, this review discusses the multidimensional challenges and development of riboswitches in order to further expand their potential for novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Longjiao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yangzi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Wentao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
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5
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Rowland FE, Richter CA, Tillitt DE, Walters DM. Evolutionary and ecological correlates of thiaminase in fishes. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18147. [PMID: 37875540 PMCID: PMC10598016 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44654-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Thiamine (vitamin B1) is required by all living organisms in multiple metabolic pathways. It is scarce in natural systems, and deficiency can lead to reproductive failure, neurological issues, and death. One major cause of thiamine deficiency is an overreliance on diet items containing the enzyme thiaminase. Thiaminase activity has been noted in many prey fishes and linked to cohort failure in salmonid predators that eat prey fish with thiaminase activity, yet it is generally unknown whether evolutionary history, fish traits, and/or environmental conditions lead to production of thiaminase. We conducted literature and GenBank BLAST sequence searches to collect thiaminase activity data and sequence homology data in expressed protein sequences for 300 freshwater and marine fishes. We then tested whether presence or absence of thiaminase could be predicted by evolutionary relationships, trophic level, omega-3 fatty acid concentrations, habitat, climate, invasive potential, and body size. There was no evolutionary relationship with thiaminase activity. It first appears in Class Actinoptergyii (bony ray-finned fishes) and is present across the entire Actinoptergyii phylogeny in both primitive and derived fish orders. Instead, ecological factors explained the most variation in thiaminase: fishes were more likely to express thiaminase if they fed closer to the base of the food web, were high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, lived in freshwater, and were from tropical climates. These data provide a foundation for understanding sources of thiaminase leading to thiamine deficiency in fisheries and other organisms, including humans that eat uncooked fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freya E Rowland
- U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research Center, 4200 New Haven Rd, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA.
| | - Catherine A Richter
- U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research Center, 4200 New Haven Rd, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA
| | - Donald E Tillitt
- U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research Center, 4200 New Haven Rd, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA
| | - David M Walters
- U.S. Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research Center, 4200 New Haven Rd, Columbia, MO, 65201, USA
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6
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Gelder K, Oliveira-Filho ER, García-García JD, Hu Y, Bruner SD, Hanson AD. Directed Evolution of Aerotolerance in Sulfide-Dependent Thiazole Synthases. ACS Synth Biol 2023; 12:963-970. [PMID: 36920242 PMCID: PMC10127261 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.2c00512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Sulfide-dependent THI4 thiazole synthases could potentially be used to replace plant cysteine-dependent suicide THI4s, whose high protein turnover rates make thiamin synthesis exceptionally energy-expensive. However, sulfide-dependent THI4s are anaerobic or microoxic enzymes and hence unadapted to the aerobic conditions in plants; they are also slow enzymes (kcat < 1 h-1). To improve aerotolerance and activity, we applied continuous directed evolution under aerobic conditions in the yeast OrthoRep system to two sulfide-dependent bacterial THI4s. Seven beneficial single mutations were identified, of which five lie in the active-site cleft predicted by structural modeling and two recapitulate features of naturally aerotolerant THI4s. That single mutations gave substantial improvements suggests that further advance under selection will be possible by stacking mutations. This proof-of-concept study established that the performance of sulfide-dependent THI4s in aerobic conditions is evolvable and, more generally, that yeast OrthoRep provides a plant-like bridge to adapt nonplant enzymes to work better in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen
Van Gelder
- Horticultural
Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Edmar R. Oliveira-Filho
- Horticultural
Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | | | - You Hu
- Chemistry
Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Steven D. Bruner
- Chemistry
Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Andrew D. Hanson
- Horticultural
Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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7
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Noordally Z, Land L, Trichtinger C, Dalvit I, de Meyer M, Wang K, Fitzpatrick TB. Clock and riboswitch control of THIC in tandem are essential for appropriate gauging of TDP levels under light/dark cycles in Arabidopsis. iScience 2023; 26:106134. [PMID: 36866249 PMCID: PMC9972560 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic homeostasis is regulated by enzyme activities, but the importance of regulating their corresponding coenzyme levels is unexplored. The organic coenzyme thiamine diphosphate (TDP) is suggested to be supplied as needed and controlled by a riboswitch-sensing mechanism in plants through the circadian-regulated THIC gene. Riboswitch disruption negatively impacts plant fitness. A comparison of riboswitch-disrupted lines to those engineered for enhanced TDP levels suggests that time-of-day regulation of THIC expression particularly under light/dark cycles is crucial. Altering the phase of THIC expression to be synchronous with TDP transporters disrupts the precision of the riboswitch implying that temporal separation of these processes by the circadian clock is important for gauging its response. All defects are bypassed by growing plants under continuous light conditions, highlighting the need to control levels of this coenzyme under light/dark cycles. Thus, consideration of coenzyme homeostasis within the well-studied domain of metabolic homeostasis is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeenat Noordally
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Lara Land
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Celso Trichtinger
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ivan Dalvit
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Mireille de Meyer
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Kai Wang
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Teresa B. Fitzpatrick
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland,Corresponding author
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8
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Garcia A, Gaju O, Bowerman AF, Buck SA, Evans JR, Furbank RT, Gilliham M, Millar AH, Pogson BJ, Reynolds MP, Ruan Y, Taylor NL, Tyerman SD, Atkin OK. Enhancing crop yields through improvements in the efficiency of photosynthesis and respiration. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 237:60-77. [PMID: 36251512 PMCID: PMC10100352 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The rate with which crop yields per hectare increase each year is plateauing at the same time that human population growth and other factors increase food demand. Increasing yield potential (Y p ) of crops is vital to address these challenges. In this review, we explore a component ofY p that has yet to be optimised - that being improvements in the efficiency with which light energy is converted into biomass (ε c ) via modifications to CO2 fixed per unit quantum of light (α), efficiency of respiratory ATP production (ε prod ) and efficiency of ATP use (ε use ). For α, targets include changes in photoprotective machinery, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase kinetics and photorespiratory pathways. There is also potential forε prod to be increased via targeted changes to the expression of the alternative oxidase and mitochondrial uncoupling pathways. Similarly, there are possibilities to improveε use via changes to the ATP costs of phloem loading, nutrient uptake, futile cycles and/or protein/membrane turnover. Recently developed high-throughput measurements of respiration can serve as a proxy for the cumulative energy cost of these processes. There are thus exciting opportunities to use our growing knowledge of factors influencing the efficiency of photosynthesis and respiration to create a step-change in yield potential of globally important crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres Garcia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Oorbessy Gaju
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- College of Science, Lincoln Institute for Agri‐Food TechnologyUniversity of LincolnLincolnshireLN2 2LGUK
| | - Andrew F. Bowerman
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Sally A. Buck
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - John R. Evans
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Robert T. Furbank
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Matthew Gilliham
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine & Waite Research InstituteUniversity of AdelaideGlen OsmondSA5064Australia
| | - A. Harvey Millar
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, School of Molecular Sciences & Institute of AgricultureThe University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWA6009Australia
| | - Barry J. Pogson
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Matthew P. Reynolds
- International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)Km. 45, Carretera Mexico, El BatanTexcoco56237Mexico
| | - Yong‐Ling Ruan
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Nicolas L. Taylor
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, School of Molecular Sciences & Institute of AgricultureThe University of Western AustraliaCrawleyWA6009Australia
| | - Stephen D. Tyerman
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine & Waite Research InstituteUniversity of AdelaideGlen OsmondSA5064Australia
| | - Owen K. Atkin
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, Research School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
- Division of Plant Sciences, Research School of BiologyAustralian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
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9
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Llavero‐Pasquina M, Geisler K, Holzer A, Mehrshahi P, Mendoza‐Ochoa GI, Newsad SA, Davey MP, Smith AG. Thiamine metabolism genes in diatoms are not regulated by thiamine despite the presence of predicted riboswitches. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 235:1853-1867. [PMID: 35653609 PMCID: PMC9544697 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), an essential co-factor for all species, is biosynthesised through a metabolically expensive pathway regulated by TPP riboswitches in bacteria, fungi, plants and green algae. Diatoms are microalgae responsible for c. 20% of global primary production. They have been predicted to contain TPP aptamers in the 3'UTR of some thiamine metabolism-related genes, but little information is known about their function and regulation. We used bioinformatics, antimetabolite growth assays, RT-qPCR, targeted mutagenesis and reporter constructs to test whether the predicted TPP riboswitches respond to thiamine supplementation in diatoms. Gene editing was used to investigate the functions of the genes with associated TPP riboswitches in Phaeodactylum tricornutum. We found that thiamine-related genes with putative TPP aptamers are not responsive to supplementation with thiamine or its precursor 4-amino-5-hydroxymethyl-2-methylpyrimidine (HMP), and targeted mutation of the TPP aptamer in the THIC gene encoding HMP-P synthase does not deregulate thiamine biosynthesis in P. tricornutum. Through genome editing we established that PtTHIC is essential for thiamine biosynthesis and another gene, PtSSSP, is necessary for thiamine uptake. Our results highlight the importance of experimentally testing bioinformatic aptamer predictions and provide new insights into the thiamine metabolism shaping the structure of marine microbial communities with global biogeochemical importance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katrin Geisler
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
| | - Andre Holzer
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
| | - Payam Mehrshahi
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
| | | | - Shelby A. Newsad
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
| | - Matthew P. Davey
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
- Scottish Association of Marine SciencesObanPA37 1QAUK
| | - Alison G. Smith
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeDowning StreetCambridgeCB2 3EAUK
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10
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Hsieh WY, Wang HM, Chung YH, Lee KT, Liao HS, Hsieh MH. THIAMIN REQUIRING2 is involved in thiamin diphosphate biosynthesis and homeostasis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 111:1383-1396. [PMID: 35791282 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The THIAMIN REQUIRING2 (TH2) protein comprising a mitochondrial targeting peptide followed by a transcription enhancement A and a haloacid dehalogenase domain is a thiamin monophosphate (TMP) phosphatase in the vitamin B1 biosynthetic pathway. The Arabidopsis th2-3 T-DNA insertion mutant was chlorotic and deficient in thiamin diphosphate (TDP). Complementation assays confirmed that haloacid dehalogenase domain alone was sufficient to rescue the th2-3 mutant. In pTH2:TH2-GFP/th2-3 complemented plants, the TH2-GFP was localized to the cytosol, mitochondrion, and nucleus, indicating that the vitamin B1 biosynthetic pathway extended across multi-subcellular compartments. Engineered TH2-GFP localized to the cytosol, mitochondrion, nucleus, and chloroplast, could complement the th2 mutant. Together, these results highlight the importance of intracellular TMP and thiamin trafficking in vitamin B1 biosynthesis. In an attempt to enhance the production of thiamin, we created various constructs to overexpress TH2-GFP in the cytosol, mitochondrion, chloroplast, and nucleus. Unexpectedly, overexpressing TH2-GFP resulted in an increase rather than a decrease in TMP. While studies on th2 mutants support TH2 as a TMP phosphatase, analyses of TH2-GFP overexpression lines implicating TH2 may also function as a TDP phosphatase in planta. We propose a working model that the TMP/TDP phosphatase activity of TH2 connects TMP, thiamin, and TDP into a metabolic cycle. The TMP phosphatase activity of TH2 is required for TDP biosynthesis, and the TDP phosphatase activity of TH2 may modulate TDP homeostasis in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Yu Hsieh
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Mei Wang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsin Chung
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Kim-Teng Lee
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Sciences, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Hong-Sheng Liao
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Hsiun Hsieh
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Molecular and Biological Agricultural Sciences, Taiwan International Graduate Program, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Department of Life Sciences, National Central University, Taoyuan, 32001, Taiwan
- Biotechnology Center, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, 40227, Taiwan
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11
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Liu Z, Farkas P, Wang K, Kohli M, Fitzpatrick TB. B vitamin supply in plants and humans: the importance of vitamer homeostasis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 111:662-682. [PMID: 35673947 PMCID: PMC9544542 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
B vitamins are a group of water-soluble micronutrients that are required in all life forms. With the lack of biosynthetic pathways, humans depend on dietary uptake of these compounds, either directly or indirectly, from plant sources. B vitamins are frequently given little consideration beyond their role as enzyme accessory factors and are assumed not to limit metabolism. However, it should be recognized that each individual B vitamin is a family of compounds (vitamers), the regulation of which has dedicated pathways. Moreover, it is becoming increasingly evident that individual family members have physiological relevance and should not be sidelined. Here, we elaborate on the known forms of vitamins B1 , B6 and B9 , their distinct functions and importance to metabolism, in both human and plant health, and highlight the relevance of vitamer homeostasis. Research on B vitamin metabolism over the past several years indicates that not only the total level of vitamins but also the oft-neglected homeostasis of the various vitamers of each B vitamin is essential to human and plant health. We briefly discuss the potential of plant biology studies in supporting human health regarding these B vitamins as essential micronutrients. Based on the findings of the past few years we conclude that research should focus on the significance of vitamer homeostasis - at the organ, tissue and subcellular levels - which could improve the health of not only humans but also plants, benefiting from cross-disciplinary approaches and novel technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeguang Liu
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant BiologyUniversity of GenevaQuai Ernest‐Ansermet 30CH‐1211Geneva 4Switzerland
| | - Peter Farkas
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant BiologyUniversity of GenevaQuai Ernest‐Ansermet 30CH‐1211Geneva 4Switzerland
| | - Kai Wang
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant BiologyUniversity of GenevaQuai Ernest‐Ansermet 30CH‐1211Geneva 4Switzerland
| | - Morgan‐Océane Kohli
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant BiologyUniversity of GenevaQuai Ernest‐Ansermet 30CH‐1211Geneva 4Switzerland
| | - Teresa B. Fitzpatrick
- Vitamins and Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant BiologyUniversity of GenevaQuai Ernest‐Ansermet 30CH‐1211Geneva 4Switzerland
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12
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Liu Y, Qin Z, Chen N, Bu Z, Yang Y, Hu X, Zheng H, Zhu Z, Xu T, Gao Y, Niu S, Xing J, Lin J, Liu X, Zhu Y. The Vital Role of ShTHIC from the Endophyte OsiSh-2 in Thiamine Biosynthesis and Blast Resistance in the OsiSh-2-Rice Symbiont. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:6993-7003. [PMID: 35667655 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c00776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Endophytes can benefit the growth and stress resistance of host plants by secreting bioactive components. Thiamine is an essential vitamin involved in many metabolic pathways and can only be synthesized by microbes and plants. In this study, we found that thiamine could inhibit the development of the phytopathogen Magnaporthe oryzae and decrease the rice blast index under field conditions. In the thiamine biosynthesis pathway, the key enzyme ShTHIC of an endophyte Streptomyces hygroscopicus OsiSh-2 and OsTHIC of rice (Oryza sativa) were highly homologous. Gene overexpression or knockout approaches revealed that both THIC contributed to thiamine synthesis and resistance to M. oryzae. Furthermore, S. hygroscopicus OsiSh-2 colonization led to a decrease in the thiamine synthesis level of rice but still maintained thiamine homeostasis in rice. However, inoculation with the ShTHIC knockout strain ΔTHIC reduced the thiamine content in rice, although the thiamine synthesis level of rice was increased. After infection with M. oryzae, blast resistance was dramatically improved in OsiSh-2-inoculated rice but decreased in ΔTHIC-inoculated rice compared with non-inoculated rice. This result demonstrated that ShTHIC could regulate thiamine biosynthesis and consequently assist blast resistance in the OsiSh-2-rice symbiont. Our results revealed a novel blast-resistance mechanism mediated by a key thiamine biosynthetic enzyme from an endophyte OsiSh-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Ziwei Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Ning Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Bu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Yuanzhu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, Yahua Seeds Science Academy of Hunan, Changsha, Hunan 410000, P. R. China
| | - Xiaochun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, Yahua Seeds Science Academy of Hunan, Changsha, Hunan 410000, P. R. China
| | - Heping Zheng
- Bioinformatics Center, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Zhuoyi Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Ting Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Yan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Shuqi Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Junjie Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, Hunan Hybrid Rice Research Center, Changsha, Hunan Province 410125, P. R. China
| | - Jianzhong Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Xuanming Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
| | - Yonghua Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan Province 410082, P. R. China
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García-García JD, Van Gelder K, Joshi J, Bathe U, Leong BJ, Bruner SD, Liu CC, Hanson AD. Using continuous directed evolution to improve enzymes for plant applications. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 188:971-983. [PMID: 34718794 PMCID: PMC8825276 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Continuous directed evolution of enzymes and other proteins in microbial hosts is capable of outperforming classical directed evolution by executing hypermutation and selection concurrently in vivo, at scale, with minimal manual input. Provided that a target enzyme's activity can be coupled to growth of the host cells, the activity can be improved simply by selecting for growth. Like all directed evolution, the continuous version requires no prior mechanistic knowledge of the target. Continuous directed evolution is thus a powerful way to modify plant or non-plant enzymes for use in plant metabolic research and engineering. Here, we first describe the basic features of the yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) OrthoRep system for continuous directed evolution and compare it briefly with other systems. We then give a step-by-step account of three ways in which OrthoRep can be deployed to evolve primary metabolic enzymes, using a THI4 thiazole synthase as an example and illustrating the mutational outcomes obtained. We close by outlining applications of OrthoRep that serve growing demands (i) to change the characteristics of plant enzymes destined for return to plants, and (ii) to adapt ("plantize") enzymes from prokaryotes-especially exotic prokaryotes-to function well in mild, plant-like conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge D García-García
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, Escuela de Ingenieria y Ciencias, Zapopan, Mexico
| | - Kristen Van Gelder
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Jaya Joshi
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Ulschan Bathe
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Bryan J Leong
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Steven D Bruner
- Chemistry Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
| | - Chang C Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, California 92617
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92617
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697
| | - Andrew D Hanson
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611
- Author for communication:
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14
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Mangel N, Fudge JB, Gruissem W, Fitzpatrick TB, Vanderschuren H. Natural Variation in Vitamin B 1 and Vitamin B 6 Contents in Rice Germplasm. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:856880. [PMID: 35444674 PMCID: PMC9014206 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.856880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Insufficient dietary intake of micronutrients contributes to the onset of deficiencies termed hidden hunger-a global health problem affecting approximately 2 billion people. Vitamin B1 (thiamine) and vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) are essential micronutrients because of their roles as enzymatic cofactors in all organisms. Metabolic engineering attempts to biofortify rice endosperm-a poor source of several micronutrients leading to deficiencies when consumed monotonously-have led to only minimal improvements in vitamin B1 and B6 contents. To determine if rice germplasm could be exploited for biofortification of rice endosperm, we screened 59 genetically diverse accessions under greenhouse conditions for variation in vitamin B1 and vitamin B6 contents across three tissue types (leaves, unpolished and polished grain). Accessions from low, intermediate and high vitamin categories that had similar vitamin levels in two greenhouse experiments were chosen for in-depth vitamer profiling and selected biosynthesis gene expression analyses. Vitamin B1 and B6 contents in polished seeds varied almost 4-fold. Genes encoding select vitamin B1 and B6 biosynthesis de novo enzymes (THIC for vitamin B1, PDX1.3a-c and PDX2 for vitamin B6) were differentially expressed in leaves across accessions contrasting in their respective vitamin contents. These expression levels did not correlate with leaf and unpolished seed vitamin contents, except for THIC expression in leaves that was positively correlated with total vitamin B1 contents in polished seeds. This study expands our knowledge of diversity in micronutrient traits in rice germplasm and provides insights into the expression of genes for vitamin B1 and B6 biosynthesis in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Mangel
- Plant Biotechnology, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jared B. Fudge
- Vitamin & Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant Biology, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Wilhelm Gruissem
- Plant Biotechnology, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Wilhelm Gruissem,
| | - Teresa B. Fitzpatrick
- Vitamin & Environmental Stress Responses in Plants, Department of Botany and Plant Biology, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
- Teresa B. Fitzpatrick,
| | - Hervé Vanderschuren
- Plant Biotechnology, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Plant Genetics Laboratory, TERRA Teaching and Research Center, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Université de Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
- Hervé Vanderschuren,
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15
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Structure and function of aerotolerant, multiple-turnover THI4 thiazole synthases. Biochem J 2021; 478:3265-3279. [PMID: 34409984 PMCID: PMC8454699 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20210565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Plant and fungal THI4 thiazole synthases produce the thiamin thiazole moiety in aerobic conditions via a single-turnover suicide reaction that uses an active-site Cys residue as sulfur donor. Multiple-turnover (i.e. catalytic) THI4s lacking an active-site Cys (non-Cys THI4s) that use sulfide as sulfur donor have been biochemically characterized —– but only from archaeal methanogens that are anaerobic, O2-sensitive hyperthermophiles from sulfide-rich habitats. These THI4s prefer iron as cofactor. A survey of prokaryote genomes uncovered non-Cys THI4s in aerobic mesophiles from sulfide-poor habitats, suggesting that multiple-turnover THI4 operation is possible in aerobic, mild, low-sulfide conditions. This was confirmed by testing 23 representative non-Cys THI4s for complementation of an Escherichia coli ΔthiG thiazole auxotroph in aerobic conditions. Sixteen were clearly active, and more so when intracellular sulfide level was raised by supplying Cys, demonstrating catalytic function in the presence of O2 at mild temperatures and indicating use of sulfide or a sulfide metabolite as sulfur donor. Comparative genomic evidence linked non-Cys THI4s with proteins from families that bind, transport, or metabolize cobalt or other heavy metals. The crystal structure of the aerotolerant bacterial Thermovibrio ammonificans THI4 was determined to probe the molecular basis of aerotolerance. The structure suggested no large deviations compared with the structures of THI4s from O2-sensitive methanogens, but is consistent with an alternative catalytic metal. Together with complementation data, use of cobalt rather than iron was supported. We conclude that catalytic THI4s can indeed operate aerobically and that the metal cofactor inserted is a likely natural determinant of aerotolerance.
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Strobbe S, Verstraete J, Stove C, Van Der Straeten D. Metabolic engineering provides insight into the regulation of thiamin biosynthesis in plants. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 186:1832-1847. [PMID: 33944954 PMCID: PMC8331165 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiab198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Thiamin (or thiamine) is a water-soluble B-vitamin (B1), which is required, in the form of thiamin pyrophosphate, as an essential cofactor in crucial carbon metabolism reactions in all forms of life. To ensure adequate metabolic functioning, humans rely on a sufficient dietary supply of thiamin. Increasing thiamin levels in plants via metabolic engineering is a powerful strategy to alleviate vitamin B1 malnutrition and thus improve global human health. These engineering strategies rely on comprehensive knowledge of plant thiamin metabolism and its regulation. Here, multiple metabolic engineering strategies were examined in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. This was achieved by constitutive overexpression of the three biosynthesis genes responsible for B1 synthesis, HMP-P synthase (THIC), HET-P synthase (THI1), and HMP-P kinase/TMP pyrophosphorylase (TH1), either separate or in combination. By monitoring the levels of thiamin, its phosphorylated entities, and its biosynthetic intermediates, we gained insight into the effect of either strategy on thiamin biosynthesis. Moreover, expression analysis of thiamin biosynthesis genes showed the plant's intriguing ability to respond to alterations in the pathway. Overall, we revealed the necessity to balance the pyrimidine and thiazole branches of thiamin biosynthesis and assessed its biosynthetic intermediates. Furthermore, the accumulation of nonphosphorylated intermediates demonstrated the inefficiency of endogenous thiamin salvage mechanisms. These results serve as guidelines in the development of novel thiamin metabolic engineering strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Strobbe
- Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jana Verstraete
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Dominique Van Der Straeten
- Laboratory of Functional Plant Biology, Department of Biology, Ghent University, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Author for communication:
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17
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Strobbe S, Verstraete J, Stove C, Van Der Straeten D. Metabolic engineering of rice endosperm towards higher vitamin B1 accumulation. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2021; 19:1253-1267. [PMID: 33448624 PMCID: PMC8196658 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Rice is a major food crop to approximately half of the human population. Unfortunately, the starchy endosperm, which is the remaining portion of the seed after polishing, contains limited amounts of micronutrients. Here, it is shown that this is particularly the case for thiamin (vitamin B1). Therefore, a tissue-specific metabolic engineering approach was conducted, aimed at enhancing the level of thiamin specifically in the endosperm. To achieve this, three major thiamin biosynthesis genes, THIC, THI1 and TH1, controlled by strong endosperm-specific promoters, were employed to obtain engineered rice lines. The metabolic engineering approaches included ectopic expression of THIC alone, in combination with THI1 (bigenic) or combined with both THI1 and TH1 (trigenic). Determination of thiamin and thiamin biosynthesis intermediates reveals the impact of the engineering approaches on endosperm thiamin biosynthesis. The results show an increase of thiamin in polished rice up to threefold compared to WT, and stable upon cooking. These findings confirm the potential of metabolic engineering to enhance de novo thiamin biosynthesis in rice endosperm tissue and aid in steering future biofortification endeavours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Strobbe
- Laboratory of Functional Plant BiologyDepartment of BiologyGhent UniversityGentBelgium
| | - Jana Verstraete
- Laboratory of ToxicologyDepartment of BioanalysisGhent UniversityGentBelgium
| | - Christophe Stove
- Laboratory of ToxicologyDepartment of BioanalysisGhent UniversityGentBelgium
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Varaprasad D, Narasimham D, Paramesh K, Sudha NR, Himabindu Y, Keerthi Kumari M, Nazaneen Parveen S, Chandrasekhar T. Improvement of ethanol production using green alga Chlorococcum minutum. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2021; 42:1383-1391. [PMID: 31526318 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2019.1669719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Incessant depletion of fossil fuels urges the governments and non-governmental organizations to invest more on renewable energy sectors including generation of biofuels such as bioethanol. Production of ethanol from algal feedstock has been an interesting area of research in recent times. In the present investigation, feedstock of a green alga Chlorococcum minutum was selected for ethanol production and compared with feedstock of model alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Both the species were grown under in vitro conditions using universal tris-acetate-phosphate (TAP) medium with various concentrations and combinations of vitamins such as thiamin, biotin and cobalamin (B1, B7 and B12) to enhance the biomass in turn reducing sugars in both the algal cultures. Later, these algal feedstocks were used for the production of ethanol under fermentation conditions using yeast. Reducing sugars were more in both the algal cultures grown in Cr3 or Cm3 media (TAP with 0.8 g/L of B1, 0.004 g/L of B7 & 0.004 g/L of B12) and also in Cr2 or Cm2 media (TAP with 0.4 g/L of B1, 0.002 g/L of B7 & 0.002 g/L of B12). In extent, the enhancement of ethanol production was noticed in C. reinhardtii (33.57 g/L) and C. minutum (46.97 g/L) from the feedstocks grown in Cr3 or Cm3 media when compared with feedstocks grown in other vitamin combinations or without vitamin assistance. Specifically, feedstock of C. minutum generated more output at 48 h when compared with model alga. The present work may be useful for the production of ethanol at a commercial level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duddela Varaprasad
- Department of Environmental Science, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, India
| | - Dokka Narasimham
- Department of Environmental Science, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, India
| | - Kurva Paramesh
- Department of Environmental Science, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, India
| | | | - Yeduguri Himabindu
- Department of Environmental Science, Yogi Vemana University, Kadapa, India
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The number of catalytic cycles in an enzyme's lifetime and why it matters to metabolic engineering. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2023348118. [PMID: 33753504 PMCID: PMC8020674 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2023348118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The continuous replacement of enzymes and other proteins appropriates up to half the maintenance energy budget in microorganisms and plants. High enzyme replacement rates therefore cut the productivity of biosystems ranging from microbial fermentations to crops. However, yardsticks to assess what drives enzyme protein replacement and guidelines on how to reduce it are lacking. Accordingly, we compared enzymes’ life spans across kingdoms using a new yardstick (catalytic cycles until replacement [CCR]) and related CCR to enzyme reaction chemistry. We concluded that 1) many enzymes fail due to collateral damage from the reaction they catalyze, and 2) such damage and its attendant enzyme replacement costs are mitigable by engineering and are therefore promising targets for synthetic biology. Metabolic engineering uses enzymes as parts to build biosystems for specified tasks. Although a part’s working life and failure modes are key engineering performance indicators, this is not yet so in metabolic engineering because it is not known how long enzymes remain functional in vivo or whether cumulative deterioration (wear-out), sudden random failure, or other causes drive replacement. Consequently, enzymes cannot be engineered to extend life and cut the high energy costs of replacement. Guided by catalyst engineering, we adopted catalytic cycles until replacement (CCR) as a metric for enzyme functional life span in vivo. CCR is the number of catalytic cycles that an enzyme mediates in vivo before failure or replacement, i.e., metabolic flux rate/protein turnover rate. We used estimated fluxes and measured protein turnover rates to calculate CCRs for ∼100–200 enzymes each from Lactococcus lactis, yeast, and Arabidopsis. CCRs in these organisms had similar ranges (<103 to >107) but different median values (3–4 × 104 in L. lactis and yeast versus 4 × 105 in Arabidopsis). In all organisms, enzymes whose substrates, products, or mechanisms can attack reactive amino acid residues had significantly lower median CCR values than other enzymes. Taken with literature on mechanism-based inactivation, the latter finding supports the proposal that 1) random active-site damage by reaction chemistry is an important cause of enzyme failure, and 2) reactive noncatalytic residues in the active-site region are likely contributors to damage susceptibility. Enzyme engineering to raise CCRs and lower replacement costs may thus be both beneficial and feasible.
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20
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Bioinformatic and experimental evidence for suicidal and catalytic plant THI4s. Biochem J 2020; 477:2055-2069. [PMID: 32441748 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Like fungi and some prokaryotes, plants use a thiazole synthase (THI4) to make the thiazole precursor of thiamin. Fungal THI4s are suicide enzymes that destroy an essential active-site Cys residue to obtain the sulfur atom needed for thiazole formation. In contrast, certain prokaryotic THI4s have no active-site Cys, use sulfide as sulfur donor, and are truly catalytic. The presence of a conserved active-site Cys in plant THI4s and other indirect evidence implies that they are suicidal. To confirm this, we complemented the Arabidopsistz-1 mutant, which lacks THI4 activity, with a His-tagged Arabidopsis THI4 construct. LC-MS analysis of tryptic peptides of the THI4 extracted from leaves showed that the active-site Cys was predominantly in desulfurated form, consistent with THI4 having a suicide mechanism in planta. Unexpectedly, transcriptome data mining and deep proteome profiling showed that barley, wheat, and oat have both a widely expressed canonical THI4 with an active-site Cys, and a THI4-like paralog (non-Cys THI4) that has no active-site Cys and is the major type of THI4 in developing grains. Transcriptomic evidence also indicated that barley, wheat, and oat grains synthesize thiamin de novo, implying that their non-Cys THI4s synthesize thiazole. Structure modeling supported this inference, as did demonstration that non-Cys THI4s have significant capacity to complement thiazole auxotrophy in Escherichia coli. There is thus a prima facie case that non-Cys cereal THI4s, like their prokaryotic counterparts, are catalytic thiazole synthases. Bioenergetic calculations show that, relative to suicide THI4s, such enzymes could save substantial energy during the grain-filling period.
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21
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García-García JD, Joshi J, Patterson JA, Trujillo-Rodriguez L, Reisch CR, Javanpour AA, Liu CC, Hanson AD. Potential for Applying Continuous Directed Evolution to Plant Enzymes: An Exploratory Study. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E179. [PMID: 32899502 PMCID: PMC7555113 DOI: 10.3390/life10090179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant evolution has produced enzymes that may not be optimal for maximizing yield and quality in today's agricultural environments and plant biotechnology applications. By improving enzyme performance, it should be possible to alleviate constraints on yield and quality currently imposed by kinetic properties or enzyme instability. Enzymes can be optimized more quickly than naturally possible by applying directed evolution, which entails mutating a target gene in vitro and screening or selecting the mutated gene products for the desired characteristics. Continuous directed evolution is a more efficient and scalable version that accomplishes the mutagenesis and selection steps simultaneously in vivo via error-prone replication of the target gene and coupling of the host cell's growth rate to the target gene's function. However, published continuous systems require custom plasmid assembly, and convenient multipurpose platforms are not available. We discuss two systems suitable for continuous directed evolution of enzymes, OrthoRep in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and EvolvR in Escherichia coli, and our pilot efforts to adapt each system for high-throughput plant enzyme engineering. To test our modified systems, we used the thiamin synthesis enzyme THI4, previously identified as a prime candidate for improvement. Our adapted OrthoRep system shows promise for efficient plant enzyme engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jaya Joshi
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
| | - Jenelle A. Patterson
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
| | - Lidimarie Trujillo-Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA; (L.T.-R.); (C.R.R.)
| | - Christopher R. Reisch
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA; (L.T.-R.); (C.R.R.)
| | - Alex A. Javanpour
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA; (A.A.J.); (C.C.L.)
| | - Chang C. Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA; (A.A.J.); (C.C.L.)
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Andrew D. Hanson
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA;
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22
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Fitzpatrick TB, Chapman LM. The importance of thiamine (vitamin B 1) in plant health: From crop yield to biofortification. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:12002-12013. [PMID: 32554808 PMCID: PMC7443482 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev120.010918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ensuring that people have access to sufficient and nutritious food is necessary for a healthy life and the core tenet of food security. With the global population set to reach 9.8 billion by 2050, and the compounding effects of climate change, the planet is facing challenges that necessitate significant and rapid changes in agricultural practices. In the effort to provide food in terms of calories, the essential contribution of micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) to nutrition is often overlooked. Here, we focus on the importance of thiamine (vitamin B1) in plant health and discuss its impact on human health. Vitamin B1 is an essential dietary component, and deficiencies in this micronutrient underlie several diseases, notably nervous system disorders. The predominant source of dietary vitamin B1 is plant-based foods. Moreover, vitamin B1 is also vital for plants themselves, and its benefits in plant health have received less attention than in the human health sphere. In general, vitamin B1 is well-characterized for its role as a coenzyme in metabolic pathways, particularly those involved in energy production and central metabolism, including carbon assimilation and respiration. Vitamin B1 is also emerging as an important component of plant stress responses, and several noncoenzyme roles of this vitamin are being characterized. We summarize the importance of vitamin B1 in plants from the perspective of food security, including its roles in plant disease resistance, stress tolerance, and crop yield, and review the potential benefits of biofortification of crops with increased vitamin B1 content to improve human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa B Fitzpatrick
- Department of Botany and Plant Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - Lottie M Chapman
- Department of Botany and Plant Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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Baslam M, Mitsui T, Hodges M, Priesack E, Herritt MT, Aranjuelo I, Sanz-Sáez Á. Photosynthesis in a Changing Global Climate: Scaling Up and Scaling Down in Crops. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:882. [PMID: 32733499 PMCID: PMC7357547 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Photosynthesis is the major process leading to primary production in the Biosphere. There is a total of 7000bn tons of CO2 in the atmosphere and photosynthesis fixes more than 100bn tons annually. The CO2 assimilated by the photosynthetic apparatus is the basis of crop production and, therefore, of animal and human food. This has led to a renewed interest in photosynthesis as a target to increase plant production and there is now increasing evidence showing that the strategy of improving photosynthetic traits can increase plant yield. However, photosynthesis and the photosynthetic apparatus are both conditioned by environmental variables such as water availability, temperature, [CO2], salinity, and ozone. The "omics" revolution has allowed a better understanding of the genetic mechanisms regulating stress responses including the identification of genes and proteins involved in the regulation, acclimation, and adaptation of processes that impact photosynthesis. The development of novel non-destructive high-throughput phenotyping techniques has been important to monitor crop photosynthetic responses to changing environmental conditions. This wealth of data is being incorporated into new modeling algorithms to predict plant growth and development under specific environmental constraints. This review gives a multi-perspective description of the impact of changing environmental conditions on photosynthetic performance and consequently plant growth by briefly highlighting how major technological advances including omics, high-throughput photosynthetic measurements, metabolic engineering, and whole plant photosynthetic modeling have helped to improve our understanding of how the photosynthetic machinery can be modified by different abiotic stresses and thus impact crop production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marouane Baslam
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Mitsui
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Michael Hodges
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, Université Evry, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
| | - Eckart Priesack
- Institute of Biochemical Plant Pathology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Matthew T. Herritt
- USDA-ARS Plant Physiology and Genetics Research, US Arid-Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ, United States
| | - Iker Aranjuelo
- Agrobiotechnology Institute (IdAB-CSIC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas-Gobierno de Navarra, Mutilva, Spain
| | - Álvaro Sanz-Sáez
- Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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Patron NJ. Beyond natural: synthetic expansions of botanical form and function. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 227:295-310. [PMID: 32239523 PMCID: PMC7383487 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Powered by developments that enabled genome-scale investigations, systems biology emerged as a field aiming to understand how phenotypes emerge from network functions. These advances fuelled a new engineering discipline focussed on synthetic reconstructions of complex biological systems with the goal of predictable rational design and control. Initially, progress in the nascent field of synthetic biology was slow due to the ad hoc nature of molecular biology methods such as cloning. The application of engineering principles such as standardisation, together with several key technical advances, enabled a revolution in the speed and accuracy of genetic manipulation. Combined with mathematical and statistical modelling, this has improved the predictability of engineering biological systems of which nonlinearity and stochasticity are intrinsic features leading to remarkable achievements in biotechnology as well as novel insights into biological function. In the past decade, there has been slow but steady progress in establishing foundations for synthetic biology in plant systems. Recently, this has enabled model-informed rational design to be successfully applied to the engineering of plant gene regulation and metabolism. Synthetic biology is now poised to transform the potential of plant biotechnology. However, reaching full potential will require conscious adjustments to the skillsets and mind sets of plant scientists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola J. Patron
- Engineering BiologyEarlham InstituteNorwich Research Park, NorwichNorfolkNR4 7UZUK
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25
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Synthetic biology applied in the agrifood sector: Public perceptions, attitudes and implications for future studies. Trends Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2019.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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The metabolite repair enzyme Nit1 is a dual-targeted amidase that disposes of damaged glutathione in Arabidopsis. Biochem J 2019; 476:683-697. [PMID: 30692244 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The tripeptide glutathione (GSH) is implicated in various crucial physiological processes including redox buffering and protection against heavy metal toxicity. GSH is abundant in plants, with reported intracellular concentrations typically in the 1-10 mM range. Various aminotransferases can inadvertently transaminate the amino group of the γ-glutamyl moiety of GSH to produce deaminated glutathione (dGSH), a metabolite damage product. It was recently reported that an amidase known as Nit1 participates in dGSH breakdown in mammals and yeast. Plants have a hitherto uncharacterized homolog of the Nit1 amidase. We show that recombinant Arabidopsis Nit1 (At4g08790) has high and specific amidase activity towards dGSH. Ablating the Arabidopsis Nit1 gene causes a massive accumulation of dGSH and other marked changes to the metabolome. All plant Nit1 sequences examined had predicted plastidial targeting peptides with a potential second start codon whose use would eliminate the targeting peptide. In vitro transcription/translation assays show that both potential translation start codons in Arabidopsis Nit1 were used and confocal microscopy of Nit1-GFP fusions in plant cells confirmed both cytoplasmic and plastidial localization. Furthermore, we show that Arabidopsis enzymes present in leaf extracts convert GSH to dGSH at a rate of 2.8 pmol min-1 mg-1 in the presence of glyoxalate as an amino acceptor. Our data demonstrate that plants have a dGSH repair system that is directed to at least two cellular compartments via the use of alternative translation start sites.
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Feng X, Yang S, Tang K, Zhang Y, Leng J, Ma J, Wang Q, Feng X. GmPGL1, a Thiamine Thiazole Synthase, Is Required for the Biosynthesis of Thiamine in Soybean. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:1546. [PMID: 31824549 PMCID: PMC6883718 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.01546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Thiamine is an essential cofactor in several enzymatic reactions for all living organisms. Animals cannot synthesize thiamine and depend on their diet. Enhancing the content of thiamine is one of the most important goals of plant breeding to solve the thiamine deficiency associated with the low-thiamin staple crops. In this study, a Glycine max pale green leaf 1 (Gmpgl1) mutant was isolated from the EMS mutagenized population of soybean cultivar, Williams 82. Map-based cloning of the GmPGL1 locus revealed a single nucleotide deletion at the 292th nucleotide residue of the first exon of Glyma.10g251500 gene in Gmpgl1 mutant plant, encoding a thiamine thiazole synthase. Total thiamine contents decreased in both seedlings and seeds of the Gmpgl1 mutant. Exogenous application of thiazole restored the pale green leaf phenotype of the mutant. The deficiency of thiamine in Gmpgl1 mutant led to reduced activities of the pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) and pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), and decreased contents of six amino acids as compared to that in the wild type plants. These results revealed that GmPGL1 played an essential role in thiamine thiazole biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingxing Feng
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Suxin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Suxin Yang,
| | - Kuanqiang Tang
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yaohua Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Jiantian Leng
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
| | - Jingjing Ma
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Quan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xianzhong Feng
- Key Laboratory of Soybean Molecular Design Breeding, Northeast Institute of eography and Agroecology, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, China
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28
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Hanson AD, Jez JM. Synthetic biology meets plant metabolism. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 273:1-2. [PMID: 29907301 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2018.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Revised: 04/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Hanson
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States; Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States
| | - Joseph M Jez
- Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States; Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States.
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