Biosecurity practices on foie gras duck farms, Southwest France

Making the invisible visible: Effectiveness of a training program to increase awareness and biosecurity compliance in poultry barn anterooms, using glowing substances

Biosecurity is the cornerstone of prevention strategies to limit infectious pathogen spread between poultry farms. However, poor compliance of biosecurity measures is often observed when entering or exiting barns. The lack of knowledge, understanding, risk perception or technical skill are often described for anteroom-related biosecurity errors (i.e., not respecting anteroom zoning in relation to changing boots, clothing, and hand sanitation). In this study, we designed and assessed the efficacy of an intervention aiming at improving biosecurity compliance in anterooms, using substances glowing under ultraviolet light, which mimic microbiological contamination. Training exercises offered in a single session were proposed to 145 participants with an interest in animal farming (veterinary students, agricultural students, poultry farmers and poultry farm advisors). The exercises' efficacy was assessed by measuring the change in attitude and intentions of participants about specific biosecurity measures. The participants' attitudes and intentions were quantified using a questionnaire before and after training. The change in score was assessed in a multivariate linear regression model to measure the effect of various parameters on this change. The attitudes and intentions of participants were statistically improved (p < 0.05) and were affected by the initial attitude and intention score, the gender of the participants and the status of the participant (type of student or activity in the poultry industry). The use of this exercise material, perceived as playful and engaging, could be included in the framework of biosecurity training for all stakeholders of the poultry industry.

Development and use of Biocheck.UGent™ scoring system to quantify biosecurity in conventional indoor (turkey, duck, breeder) and free-range (layer and broiler) poultry farms

To assess and enhance the application of biosecurity measures in poultry farming, an objective measurement tool (Biocheck.UGent™) was already available for broiler and layer. This study describes the development, validation and application of a risk-based weighted scoring tool for breeder, turkey, duck, free-range layer and free-range broiler production. In collaboration with an expert panel (n= 38), five different questionnaires were developed, following the format of the existing Biocheck.UGent scoring tools. Weights were attributed to external (7-9 subcategories) and internal (3-4 subcategories) biosecurity categories, as well as to the corresponding individual questions within each subcategory. The biosecurity measures were prioritized and weighed based on their relative importance in preventing disease transmission. Upon completion of the questionnaire, and upload of all answers to the Biocheck.UGent website, the algorithm generates a biosecurity score varying between ''0'' which equals the total absence of any biosecurity measure up to ''100'' which refers to full application of all biosecurity measures. The final scoring systems are available online (https://biocheckgent.com/en) for free and have been used to assess biosecurity in 70 breeders, 100 turkeys, 23 ducks, 16 free-range broilers, and 15 free-range layer farms originating from 12 countries so far. On average, the overall biosecurity score (mean ± std. dev) was 78 ± 7 % for breeders, 73 ± 11 % for turkeys, 71 ± 8 % for ducks, 73 ± 8 % for free-range layers and 70 ± 13 % for free-range broilers. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) in biosecurity (both at the overall and subcategory levels) across different poultry types. The overall farm biosecurity score for breeders was significantly higher than that for turkey (p <.001) and duck production (p = 0.001). External biosecurity levels were highest in breeders in comparison to turkeys (p < 0.001), ducks (p = 0.008) and broiler free-range (p = 0.005). There was a notable difference in internal biosecurity levels between duck and turkey (p = 0.041) production as well. The study contributed to the poultry biosecurity database which allows benchmarking of the biosecurity levels of the users' farm results to national or international averages, indicating room for improvement and aiding to motivate stakeholders to enhance their biosecurity levels.

Factors Affecting Poultry Producers' Attitudes towards Biosecurity

Poultry producers' attitudes towards biosecurity practices were assessed by using the ADKAR® (Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement) behavioral change model. Conventional poultry producers (n = 155) from different production types including broilers (n = 35), layers (n = 22), breeders (n = 24), turkeys (n = 19), ducks (n = 23), free-range broilers (n = 11), free-range layers (n = 11), and hatcheries (n = 10) from seven European countries were scored for each ADKAR element (1 = total absence to 5 = perfect fulfilment). Each country performed selected interventions (e.g., coaching, participatory meetings, etc.) to improve biosecurity compliance. After the interventions, significant change was observed in three of the four attitude elements. The overall mean scores (x¯ ± SD) obtained during the initial assessment (n = 130) were 4.2 ± 0.6 for Awareness, 4.1 ± 0.7 for Desire, 3.8 ± 0.8 for Knowledge, and 4.0 ± 0.7 for Ability, whereas after intervention, the scores were A = 4.3 ± 0.6, D = 4.2 ± 0.7, K = 4.1 ± 0.7, and Ab = 4.1 ± 0.7. The Reinforcement component was only evaluated after the change and obtained a score of 3.7 ± 0.7 on average. Identifying the elements influencing poultry producers and their behavior related to farm management decisions was useful in guiding our educational interventions to effectively change their behavior.

Biosecurity implementation on large-scale poultry farms in Europe: A qualitative interview study with farmers

Biosecurity is an essential tool for rearing healthy animals. Biosecurity measures (BMs) are well known in poultry production, but it is difficult to assess actual implementation on farms. The aims of this qualitative study were (1) to provide an overview of biosecurity implementation according to poultry farmers in Europe; and (2) to better understand the reported reasons and potential obstacles for not implementing the measures. In seven European Union Member States, 192 farmers (118 under contract with a company and 68 independents) working in seven different categories of poultry production were interviewed on 62 BMs to determine the frequency of implementation and the reasons for non-implementation. Most of the replies (n = 7791) concerning BM implementation were reported by the farmers as "always" implemented (81%), statistically higher for breeders (87%) and layers (82%) and lower for independent farms versus farms under contract with a company (79.5% and 82.5%, respectively). Regardless the poultry production category, the most frequently implemented BMs declared by the farmers were daily surveillance of birds, rodent control and feed storage protection. Standard hygiene practices were also mentioned as high-implementation measures for most production categories, with some deficiencies, such as rendering tank disinfection after each collection and, for meat poultry, disinfection of the feed silo and bacterial control of house cleaning and disinfection between each cycle. The entry of vehicles and individuals onto poultry farms, especially during critical points of eggs collection for breeders and layers, as well as the presence of other animals, such as the "all in/all out" practice, particularly in layers and ducks, were also reported as the least commonly practiced measures. The main reasons for not implementing the measures (n = 1683 replies) were low awareness and poor knowledge of the expected benefits of biosecurity ("no known advantages" 14%, and "not useful" 12%), the lack of training ("not enough training" 5% and "advice" 7%), lack of time (19%), and financial aspects (17%). Despite the good overall biosecurity mentioned by the farmers, these findings highlight certain deficiencies, suggesting room for improvement and the need for targeted and tailored support of poultry farmers in Europe.

The application of biosecurity practices for preventing avian influenza in North-Eastern Italy turkey farms: An analysis of the point of view and perception of farmers

INTRODUCTION

Italian and international outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), particularly in densely populated poultry areas (DPPAs), have increased over the past few decades. These emerging risks, which endanger both human and animal health and the entire poultry industry, can be effectively limited by biosecurity measures implemented at human-animal food chain interfaces. Some problems, however, persist in the application of these measures on the part of poultry farmers, prompting the need to explore those aspects and causes that limit their implementation.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A qualitative approach was selected for the study and a semi-structured interview technique was applied to collect data among turkey farmers (n = 29) working in the north-east of Italy. The aim of this technique was to gather data on farms in order to understand the biosecurity practices adopted and the reasons for and impediments to farmer implementation, or lack thereof. This article presents and discusses the main data collected.

RESULTS

The study revealed that farmers were familiar with the biosecurity measures necessary to contain avian influenza (AI) and other poultry diseases; personal disinfection and animal isolation practices were particularly prominent. Based on the reported procedures, managerial, economic, and psychosocial factors were among the barriers behind the failure to implement biosecurity measures. These obstacles were variously intertwined and associated with the different action settings. In particular management factors, such as lack of time to apply the rules and difficulties contingent on the farm's structural characteristics, mediate the application of biosecurity measures. In terms of communication channels, the company, particularly its technicians, proved to be the primary source of information for farmers in case of emergencies, as well as the primary source of information on the application of biosecurity measures. However, other sources of information were indicated, such as word of mouth among farmers or other non-institutional figures (relatives and acquaintances).

CONCLUSIONS

What emerged, was the need to improve not only the biosecurity management skills, but also to implement forms of cooperation among the various key stakeholders in the poultry sector. The information presented in this pilot study needs to be discussed among competent authorities, public and company veterinarians, company technicians, and farmers. Furthermore, this information will help in participatory co-planning of risk prevention and communication strategies to implement a long-term, sustainable, effective approach to address future epidemic emergencies.

Monitoring biosecurity in poultry production: an overview of databases reporting biosecurity compliance from seven European countries

Compliance with required on-farm biosecurity practices reduces the risk of contamination and spread of zoonotic and economically important diseases. With repeating avian influenza epidemics in the poultry industry, the need to monitor and improve the overall level of biosecurity is increasing. In practice, biosecurity compliance is assessed by various actors (e.g., academic, private and public institutions), and the results of such assessments may be recorded and gathered in databases which are seldom shared or thoroughly analyzed. This study aimed to provide an inventory of databases related to the assessment of biosecurity in poultry farms in seven major poultry-producing European countries to highlight challenges and opportunities associated with biosecurity data collection, sharing, and use. The institutions in charge of these databases were contacted and interviewed using a structured questionnaire to gather information on the main characteristics of the databases and the context of their implementation. A total of 20 databases were identified, covering the gamut of poultry species and production types. Most databases were linked to veterinary health authorities or academia, and to a lesser extent interbranch organizations. Depending on the institutions in charge, the databases serve various purposes, from providing advice to enforcing regulations. The quality of the biosecurity data collected is believed to be quite reliable, as biosecurity is mostly assessed by trained farm advisors or official veterinarians and during a farm visit. Some of the databases are difficult to analyze and/or do not offer information concerning which biosecurity measures are most or least respected. Moreover, some key biosecurity practices are sometimes absent from certain databases. Although the databases serve a variety of purposes and cover different production types, each with specific biosecurity features, their analysis should help to improve the surveillance of biosecurity in the poultry sector and provide evidence on the benefits of biosecurity.

A cross-sectional survey for the assessment of biosecurity measures in small-scale duck farms in Qalyoubia, Egypt: Comprehensive evaluation and procedural recommendations

Background and Aim: Biosecurity implementation is fundamental to combating diseases and antibiotic resistance. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the correlation between the implementation of biosecurity measures in small-scale duck farms and the incidence of infectious diseases that threaten the duck industry. Materials and Methods: Twenty small-scale duck farms of different breeds and production stages were collected as representative samples, focused on two districts in the Qalyoubia governorate, which possesses high-density small-scale farms. A 30-point structured questionnaire was designed to assess the level of biosecurity measures implemented in the sampled farms. These farms were examined for bacterial infection by cultivation, typing, and antibiotic sensitivity tests, in addition to molecular techniques for detecting suspected viral diseases. Results: The results showed that the farms had high or low levels of biosecurity; only 25% possessed high-level biosecurity. Bacteria, including Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Pasteurella, were isolated from all sampled farms. High rates of antimicrobial resistance-reaching up to 100% were observed against some drugs. However, viral causative agents, including HPAI-H5N8, duck viral hepatitis, and goose parvovirus, were isolated from only five farms. Conclusion: The lack of commitment to biosecurity implementation, particularly personal hygiene, was observed in most sampled farms. Increasing the level of biosecurity reduced the incidence of mixed infections. Keywords: antibiotic resistance, bacterial agents, biosecurity, co-infections, small-scale duck farms, viral diseases.

Quantification and characterisation of commensal wild birds and their interactions with domestic ducks on a free-range farm in southwest France

The role of commensal birds in the epidemiology of pathogens in poultry farms remains unclear. Our study aimed to identify potential key species for interactions with domestic ducks on one free-range duck farm in southwest France. Methods combined direct individual observations on duck outdoor foraging areas, network analysis, and general linear mixed models of abundances. Results showed a wide diversity of wild bird species visiting foraging areas, heavily dominated in frequency by White wagtails (Motacilla alba) and Sparrows (Passer domesticus and Passer montanus). These also were the only species seen entering duck premises or perching on drinkers in the presence of ducks. Moreover, White wagtails were the species most frequently observed on the ground and in close proximity to ducks. Network analysis suggested the role of White wagtails and Sparrows in linking ducks to other wild birds on the farm. The abundance of White wagtails was positively associated with open vegetation, with the presence of ducks and particularly in the afternoon, while the abundance of Sparrows was positively associated only with the fall-winter season. By precisely characterising interactions, the study was able to identify few wild bird species which should be prioritized in infectious investigations at the interface with poultry.

Biosecurity and the ornamental fish trade: A stakeholder perspective in England

The freshwater and marine ornamental fish industry is a primary route of hazard introduction and emergence, including aquatic animal diseases and non-native species. Prevention measures are key to reducing the risk of hazard incursion and establishment, but there is currently little understanding of the biosecurity practices and hazard responses implemented at post-border stages of the ornamental fish supply chain. This study addresses this knowledge gap, using questionnaires to collate information on actual biosecurity behaviours and hazard responses practised by ornamental fish retailers and hobbyist communities in England. Actual behaviours varied considerably within retailers and hobbyists, suggesting that reliance on preventative practices by individuals in the post-border stages of the ornamental fish supply chain is likely to be ineffective in minimizing the risk of hazard incursion and establishment. Resources should be allocated towards improving and enforcing robust pre- and at-border control measures, such as risk-based surveillance of ornamental fish imports at border controls. In addition, these findings should be used to implement targeted awareness-raising campaigns and help create directed training on biosecurity practices for individuals involved in the post-border stages of the ornamental supply chain.

Backyard poultry flocks in France: A diversity of owners and biosecurity practices

Over the past few years, the number of backyard poultry flocks has been increasing in France. A mandatory step to improve backyard poultry management is to assess health risks by characterizing the flocks and understanding the owners' motivations for keeping poultry and their husbandry practices. A survey of backyard poultry owners was conducted in France to gather information about their motivations for owning poultry, flock characteristics, and breeding and biosecurity practices. The survey was completed by 1,160 owners. The major motivations for owning poultry flocks were egg consumption (93.3 %), recycling (72.4 %) and having pet animals (53.2 %). Most owners had already heard about avian influenza (96.7 %), but were less aware about other diseases such as Newcastle Disease (41.6 %), salmonellosis (79.1 %), or campylobacteriosis (18.6 %). Owners mainly kept only egg-layers (78.4 %), and the median size flock was five egg-layers. Owners gave eggs to their relatives, occasionally or regularly, in 86.6 % of the cases. Contacts with other family poultry owners were frequent (68.9 %) and biosecurity practices were poorly implemented: 50 % of owners did not wash their hands systematically after visiting the flock and more than 60 % of owners did not wear specific shoes. Drawing from the survey data, five profiles of family poultry flocks were identified with multiple correspondence analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. The profiles, based on flock characteristics and owners' practices and motivations, illustrate the heterogeneity of the backyard poultry sector: 1) urban poultry, 2) traditional poultry, 3) student poultry, 4) pet poultry and 5) hobby poultry. Urban poultry consisted of recently constituted (< 2 years old), small (< 3 birds) flocks of layers, and traditional poultry of older, medium-sized flocks belonging to retired and older people. These two profiles were characterized by limited contacts (direct or indirect) with other flocks and owners. Student poultry consisted of younger owners (<30 years old) with flocks over 5 years old. Pet poultry consisted of recently established, medium-size flocks of layers located in both rural or urban environments. Hobby poultry consisted of dedicated owners who breed and sell poultry and participate in exhibitions and poultry shows. Pet and hobby poultry profiles were characterized by greater knowledge of diseases and biosecurity practices, more bird movements, and reported more frequent clinical signs. The observation of different profiles can help target veterinary and public health education messages to prevent disease transmission in backyard poultry flocks in France.

Biosecurity measures in French poultry farms are associated with farm type and location

The severe impact of recently reported Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) outbreaks have emphasized the need to better monitor biosecurity practices among the different French poultry production systems. Between October 2016 and September 2018, a large national cross-sectional study was carried out in France to assess biosecurity levels in high-risk poultry farms and identify farm biosecurity profiles, using Multiple Correspondence and Hierarchical Cluster Analyses. Results indicate that there is substantial room for improvement in cleaning and disinfection, anteroom management and delimitation of farm and production units for more than 50 % of the 1,004 analyzed farms. The farm biosecurity profile showing the highest level of biosecurity included commercial intensive poultry farms (gallinaceous poultry farms, in North-Western France), and those with a recent history of HPAI outbreak (duck farms, in South-Western France). The farms biosecurity profiles showing the lowest level of biosecurity included farms with multiple species (duck and gallinaceous poultry) or multiple production types (broilers and egg-layers), located in regions with a lower poultry density and without a recent history of HPAI outbreak. Outcomes provide support to adapt biosecurity improvement and inspection plans.

Role of Live-Duck Movement Networks in Transmission of Avian Influenza, France, 2016-2017

The relative roles that movement and proximity networks play in the spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses are often unknown during an epidemic, preventing effective control. We used network analysis to explore the devastating epidemic of HPAI A(H5N8) among poultry, in particular ducks, in France during 2016–2017 and to estimate the likely contribution of live-duck movements. Approximately 0.2% of live-duck movements could have been responsible for between-farm transmission events, mostly early during the epidemic. Results also suggest a transmission risk of 35.5% when an infected holding moves flocks to another holding within 14 days before detection. Finally, we found that densely connected groups of holdings with sparse connections between groups overlapped farmer organizations, which represents important knowledge for surveillance design. This study highlights the importance of movement bans in zones affected by HPAI and of understanding transmission routes to develop appropriate HPAI control strategies.

Capacities and resources for management of avian influenza outbreaks in Bulgaria

The study investigated the necessity of improvement of the technical, financial and human resources in the veterinary sector, the need for strengthening the control on the prevention and eradication measures on avian influenza and the update in the legislation. A sociological survey was carried out through an anonymous written questionnaire with open and closed questions. More than one-third (36.67%) of the respondents in the study assessed the activities of the competent authorities in Bulgaria for eradication of the avian flu outbreaks as “Very good”. For 43.33% one of the main reasons for spreading the disease appeared to be the misinformation and non-declaration of the infection by the farmers, the illegal import and low biosecurity level. For more effective management of the future avian flu outbreaks, more than half of the respondents (56.67%) recommended improvement of the control measures. Of them, 20% proposed stricter control on the eradication at the farms; another 13.33% of the respondents stated the necessity of legislative amendments regarding the zoonotic character of the disease.

Characterization of commercial poultry farms in Mexico: Towards a better understanding of biosecurity practices and antibiotic usage patterns

Mexico is one of the world’s major poultry producing countries. Two significant challenges currently facing the poultry industry are the responsible and judicious use of antimicrobials, and the potential occurrence of infectious disease outbreaks. For example, repeated outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H7N3 have occurred in poultry since its first detection in Mexico in 2012. Both of these challenges can be addressed through good husbandry practices and the application of on-farm biosecurity measures. The aims of this study were: (i) to assess the biosecurity measures practiced across different types of poultry farms in Mexico, and (ii) to collect information regarding antimicrobial usage. A cross-sectional study was carried out through on-farm interviews on 43 poultry farms. A multiple correspondence analysis was performed to characterize the farms based on their pattern of biosecurity practices and antimicrobial usage. Three clusters of farms were identified using an agglomerative hierarchical cluster analysis. In each cluster, a specific farm type was predominant. The biosecurity measures that significantly differentiated the visited farms, thus allowing their clusterization, were: the use of personal protective equipment (e.g. face masks, hair caps, and eye protection), the requirement for a hygiene protocol before and after entering the farm, the use of exclusive working clothes by staff and visitors, footbath presence at the barn entrance, and the mortality disposal strategy. The more stringent the biosecurity measures on farms within a cluster, the fewer the farms that used antimicrobials. Farms with more biosecurity breaches used antimicrobials considered critically important for public health. These findings could be helpful to understand how to guide strategies to reinforce compliance with biosecurity practices identified as critical according to the farm type. We conclude by providing certain recommendations to improve on-farm biosecurity measures.

Evaluation of vaccination strategies to control an avian influenza outbreak in French poultry production networks using EVACS tool

France recently faced two epizootic waves of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in poultry (H5N6 in 2015-2016 and H5N8 in 2016-2017), mainly in the fattening duck production sector. Vaccination against avian influenza (AI) is currently not authorised in France even though its potential benefits were discussed during these epizootic events. The objective of this work was to evaluate the potential efficiency of different vaccination strategies that could be applied against AI in France. The EVACS tool, which is a decision support tool developed to evaluate vaccination strategies, was applied in several French poultry production sectors: broiler, layer, turkey, duck and guinea fowl. EVACS was used to simulate the performance of vaccination strategies in terms of vaccination coverage, immunity levels and spatial distribution of the immunity level. A cost-benefit analysis was then applied based on EVACS results to identify the most efficient strategy. For each sector, vaccination protocols were tested according to the production type (breeders/production, indoor/outdoor), the integration level (integrated/independent) and the type of vaccine (hatchery vaccination using a recombinant vaccine/farm vaccination using an inactivated vaccine). The most efficient protocols for each sector were then combined to test different overall vaccination strategies at the national level. Even if it was not possible to compare vaccination protocols with the two vaccines types in "foie gras" duck, meat duck and guinea fowl production sectors as no hatchery vaccine currently exist for these species, these production sectors were also described and included in this simulation. Both types of vaccination (at hatchery and farm level) enabled protective immunity levels for the control of AI, but higher poultry population immunity level was reached (including independent farms) using hatchery vaccination. We also showed that hatchery vaccination was more efficient (higher benefit-cost ratio) than farm vaccination. Sufficient and homogeneously spatially distributed protective levels were reached in the overall poultry population with vaccination strategies targeting breeders, chicken layers and broilers and turkeys, without the need to include ducks and guinea fowls. However, vaccination strategies involving the highest number of species and production types were the most efficient in terms of cost-benefit. This study provides critical information on the efficiency of different vaccination strategies to support future decision making in case vaccination was applied to prevent and control HPAI in France.

Biosecurity risk factors for highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N8) virus infection in duck farms, France

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) subtype H5N8 outbreaks occurred in poultry farms in France in 2016-2017, resulting in significant economic losses and disruption to the poultry industry. Current evidence on associations between actual on-farm biosecurity risk factors and H5N8 occurrence is limited. Therefore, a retrospective matched case-control study was undertaken to investigate the inter-relationships between on-farm biosecurity practices and H5N8 infection status to provide new insights regarding promising targets for intervention. Data were collected on 133 case and 133 control duck farms (i.e. the most affected species) located in one area of the country that was mostly affected by the disease. Data were analysed using Additive Bayesian Networks which offer a rich modelling framework by graphically illustrating the dependencies between variables. Factors indirectly and directly positively associated with farm infection were inadequate management of vehicle movements (odds ratio [OR] 9.3, 95% credible interval [CI] 4.0-22.8) and inadequate delimitation of farm and units (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.6-5.8), respectively. Inadequate disposal of dead birds was instead negatively associated with the outcome (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.0-0.3). The findings highlight that reinforcing farm access control systems and reducing the number of visitors are key biosecurity measures to control farm vulnerability to H5N8 infection and could help setting priorities in biosecurity practices to prevent outbreaks' re-occurrence.

Determinants of biosecurity practices in French duck farms after a H5N8 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza epidemic: The effect of farmer knowledge, attitudes and personality traits

Biosecurity is crucial for infectious disease prevention, more importantly in the absence of vaccination. The need for improving the implementation of biosecurity practices was highlighted in French duck farms following the 2016-2017 H5N8 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) epidemic. Farmers have multiple reasons for not implementing biosecurity practices: external (time, money) and internal (socio-psychological). The purpose of this study was to determine how sets of socio-psychological factors (i.e. knowledge on biosecurity and avian influenza transmission, attitudes, personality traits, social background) affect the adoption of on-farm biosecurity practices. Biosecurity practices and socio-psychological determinants were assessed during 127 duck farm visits, in South West France, using both questionnaires and on-farm observations. Factorial analysis of mixed data (FAMD) and hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) identified three groups of farmers with different socio-psychological profiles: the first group was characterized by minimal knowledge, negative attitudes towards biosecurity, little social pressure and a low level of conscientiousness. The second group was characterized by more extensive experience in poultry production, higher stress and social pressure. The third group was characterized by less experience in poultry production, better knowledge and positive attitudes towards biosecurity, increased self-confidence and orientation towards action. The first group had a significantly lower adoption of biosecurity measures than the two other groups. A better understanding of the factors involved in farmers' decision-making could improve the efficiency of interventions aiming at improving and maintaining the level of on-farm biosecurity in the duck industry.

Animal Hygiene Indexes in Relation to Big-Five Personality Traits of German Pig Farmers Evaluated by Self- and Other-Rating

Improving biosecurity in intensive livestock production has become an increasingly challenging task. Often, animal hygiene measures are implemented at lower levels than recommended. Therefore, veterinarians and farm advisors look for new approaches to improve their advisory process with farmers. In the current study it has been hypothesized that German pig farmers' big-five measured personality traits might correlate with farms' biosecurity level expressed by a “continuous animal hygiene index” and a “technical animal hygiene index.” Hence, comprehensive data on the implementation of more than 100 hygiene measures were collected at farm level from a specific pilot sample of 42 pig farmers from a livestock intensive region in north-western Germany. In addition, big-five personality traits (BFI-S) were measured by self- and other-rating. Inter-rater reliabilities for personality traits indicated expected positive correlations apart from agreeableness (r_S = −0.101). Regarding the self-rating, neuroticism was valued lowest (x¯ = 3.88 ± 1.18) and conscientiousness highest (x¯ = 5.68 ± 0.70). The animal hygiene indexes revealed medium biosecurity levels on the participating farms. Piglet breeders had a significantly higher value for the “continuous animal hygiene index” (x¯ = 63.00 ± 9.91%). Personality traits conscientiousness and openness showed correlations with the continuous and the technical animal hygiene index. Depending on the production systems as well as the rating perspectives, correlations varied. For one of the personality traits playing a direct role in social interaction—extraversion—the advisory process might function as a mediating factor. The current results show that clustering of single hygiene measures into indexes in the evaluation of pig farms' biosecurity level might have advantages. The preliminary results from this study should be validated in larger, more representative samples. Furthermore, structured and systematic consideration of personality traits of farmers adds an additional aspect to include individuality of farmers more systematically in complex advisory processes. Interaction of personality traits with characteristics of the advisory process should be further researched and should be included in a much broader socio-political understanding of what is involved in changing practices.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N8 in south-west France 2016-2017: A modeling study of control strategies

In the winter 2016-2017 the largest epidemic of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) ever recorded in the European Union spread to all 28 member states. France was hit particularly hard and reported a total of 484 infected premises (IPs) by March 2017. We developed a mathematical model to analyze the spatiotemporal evolution of the epidemic and evaluate the impact of control strategies. We estimated that farms rearing ducks were on average 2.5 times more infectious and 5.0 times more susceptible to HPAI than farms rearing other avian species. The implementation of surveillance zones around IPs reduced transmission by a factor of 1.8 on average. Compared to the strengthening of pre-emptive culling measures enforced by French authorities in February 2017, we found that a faster depopulation of diagnosed IPs would have had a larger impact on the total number of infections. For example, halving the time delay from detection to slaughter of infected animals would have reduced the total number of IPs by 52% and total cull numbers by 50% on average. This study showcases the possible contribution of modeling to inform and optimize control strategies during an outbreak.