The measurement of regional cerebral blood flow during glossolalia: a preliminary SPECT study

Predictability Associated With Reduction in Phonetic Signals Without Semantics-The Case of Glossolalia

Glossolalia can be regarded as an instance of speech production in which practitioners produce syllables in seemingly random sequences. However, a closer inspection of glossalalia's statistical properties reveals that sequences show a Zipfian pattern similar to natural languages, with some syllables being more probable than others. It is well established that statistical properties of sequences are implicitly learned, and that these statistical properties correlate with changes in kinematic and speech behavior. For speech, this means that more predictable items are phonetically shorter. Accordingly, we hypothesized for glossolalia that if practitioners have learned a serial pattern in glossolalia in the same manner as in natural languages, its statistical properties should correlate with its phonetic characteristics. Our hypothesis was supported. We find significantly shorter syllables associated with higher syllable probabilities in glossolalia. We discuss this finding in relation to theories about the sources of probability-related changes in the speech signal.

A neurophenomenological fMRI study of a spontaneous automatic writer and a hypnotic cohort

PURPOSE

To evaluate the neurophenomenology of automatic writing (AW) in a spontaneous automatic writer (NN) and four high hypnotizables (HH).

METHODS

During fMRI, NN and the HH were cued to perform spontaneous (NN) or induced (HH) AW, and a comparison task of copying complex symbols, and to rate their experience of control and agency.

RESULTS

Compared to copying, for all participants AW was associated with less sense of control and agency and decreased BOLD signal responses in brain regions implicated in the sense of agency (left premotor cortex and insula, right premotor cortex, and supplemental motor area), and increased BOLD signal responses in the left and right temporoparietal junctions and the occipital lobes. During AW, the HH differed from NN in widespread BOLD decreases across the brain and increases in frontal and parietal regions.

CONCLUSIONS

Spontaneous and induced AW had similar effects on agency, but only partly overlapping effects on cortical activity.

How Chanting Relates to Cognitive Function, Altered States and Quality of Life

Chanting is practiced in many religious and secular traditions and involves rhythmic vocalization or mental repetition of a sound or phrase. This study examined how chanting relates to cognitive function, altered states, and quality of life across a wide range of traditions. A global survey was used to assess experiences during chanting including flow states, mystical experiences, mindfulness, and mind wandering. Further, attributes of chanting were assessed to determine their association with altered states and cognitive benefits, and whether psychological correlates of chanting are associated with quality of life. Responses were analyzed from 456 English speaking participants who regularly chant across 32 countries and various chanting traditions. Results revealed that different aspects of chanting were associated with distinctive experiential outcomes. Stronger intentionality (devotion, intention, sound) and higher chanting engagement (experience, practice duration, regularity) were associated with altered states and cognitive benefits. Participants whose main practice was call and response chanting reported higher scores of mystical experiences. Participants whose main practice was repetitive prayer reported lower mind wandering. Lastly, intentionality and engagement were associated with quality of life indirectly through altered states and cognitive benefits. This research sheds new light on the phenomenology and psychological consequences of chanting across a range of practices and traditions.

Alterations in Functional Connectivity Measured by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and the Relationship With Heart Rate Variability in Subjects After Performing Orgasmic Meditation: An Exploratory Study

Background: We measured changes in resting brain functional connectivity, with blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), associated with a creative meditation practice that is augmented by clitoral stimulation and is designed to not only achieve a spiritual experience but to help individuals manage their most intimate personal relationships. Briefly, the meditative state is attained by both the male and female participants while the male stimulates the woman’s clitoris. The goal of this practice, called orgasmic meditation (OM), according to the practitioners is not sexual, but to use the focus on clitoral stimulation to facilitate a meditative state of connectedness and calm alertness between the two participants.

Methods: fMRI was acquired on 20 pairs of subjects shortly following one of two states that were randomized in their order – during the OM practice or during a neutral condition. The practice is performed while the female is lying down on pillows with the clitoris exposed. During the practice, the male performs digital stimulation of the clitoris for 15 min. Resting BOLD image acquisition was performed at completion of the practice to assess changes in functional connectivity associated with the performance of the practice.

Results: The results demonstrated significant changes (p < 0.05) in functional connectivity associated with the OM compared to the neutral condition. For the entire group there was altered connectivity following the OM practice involving the left superior temporal lobe, the frontal lobe, anterior cingulate, and insula. In female subjects, there was altered connectivity involving the cerebellum, thalamus, inferior frontal lobe posterior parietal lobe, angular gyrus, amygdala and middle temporal gyrus, and prefrontal cortex. In males, functional connectivity changes involved the supramarginal gyrus, cerebellum, and orbitofrontal gyrus, cerebellum, parahippocampus, inferior temporal gyrus, and anterior cingulate.

Conclusion: Overall, these findings suggest a complex pattern of functional connectivity changes occurring in both members of the couple pair that result from this unique meditation practice. The changes represent a hybrid of functional connectivity findings with some similarities to meditation based practices and some with sexual stimulation and orgasm. This study has broader implications for understanding the dynamic relationship between sexuality and spirituality.

Ninety Years of Multiple Psychotic-Like and Spiritual Experiences in a Doctor Honoris Causa: A Case Report and Literature Review

ABSTRACT

Psychotic experiences are common experiences shared by a considerable part of the world's population. Moreover, most of the individuals who report these experiences also report those called spiritual and dissociative phenomena. In specific culture and religious backgrounds, these experiences are frequently seen as a part of normal human experiences, usually called mediumship. We report a case of a famous Brazilian medium with 90 years of experiencing psychotic-like, dissociative and/or spiritual experiences, but coped well with the experiences and never sought psychiatric or psychological assistance. The medium received several honorific prizes, such as doctor honoris causa from different institutions, published more than 200 books, and ran a nonprofit organization that takes care of 5000 people daily. Finally, we review the literature on this topic and stress the urge for more research aiming to distinguish pathological and nonpathological psychotic experiences to avoid overmedicalization and iatrogenic treatments.

Efficacy of prayer in inducing immediate physiological changes: a systematic analysis of objective experiments

OBJECTIVES

To assess the immediate impact of prayer on physiological state by systematically reviewing objective, controlled experimental studies in the literature.

CONTENT

Experimental studies measuring objective physiological changes induced by prayer. Studies containing the keyword, "Prayer" anywhere in the title or abstract were curated from the following databases: Public/Publisher Medline (PubMed), Excerpta Medica Database (EMBASE) and the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) in May 2019. Titles and abstracts were screened with the remaining 30 articles analyzed for inclusion. Only experimental studies were included.

SUMMARY

Eight experimental studies were identified of which five investigated neurocognitive changes and three investigated systemic physiological changes during prayer. The five studies focusing on neuroactivity used functional MRI (fMRI), electroencephalography or SPECT imaging to obtain measurements. The remaining three studies analyzed an array of systemic physiological metrics, including blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, peripheral resistance, baroreceptor sensitivity and/or cardiovascular rhythm variability during prayer. All studies aside from one saw objective changes during prayer. Neurocognitive changes were mainly associated with improved mental functioning, control and pain tolerance. Prayer was found to slow down physiological functions in two of the three vital-based studies, with the third reporting no change in physiological status. None of the studies measured blood marker changes.

OUTLOOK

Experimental studies show prayer to induce healthy neurocognitive and physiological changes. Additional studies exploring objective measures from prayer are encouraged to provide practitioners with a more nuanced, scientific perspective when it comes to prescribing prayer as a complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) therapy.

Spiritual Fitness: A New Dimension in Alzheimer's Disease Prevention

BACKGROUND

Religious and spiritual interventions may have an effect on Alzheimer's disease prevention. Kirtan Kriya meditation has been shown to mitigate the deleterious effects of chronic stress on cognition, reverse memory loss, and create psychological and spiritual wellbeing, which may reduce multiple drivers of Alzheimer's disease risk.

OBJECTIVE

To detail a new concept in medicine called Spiritual Fitness, a merging of stress reduction, basic wellbeing, and psycho/spiritual wellbeing to prevent Alzheimer's disease.

METHODS

The literature on the topics mentioned above is described, including an in-depth discussion on why and how each are critical to advancing the future of Alzheimer's disease prevention. The many negative effects of chronic stress, and the benefits of Kirtan Kriya, are reviewed. The four pillars of basic wellbeing, six practical aspects of psychological wellbeing, and the four new non-sectarian features of spiritual fitness are then disclosed. Moreover, instructions on practicing Kirtan Kriya are offered in the Supplementary Material.

CONCLUSION

Religious and spiritual practices, including Kirtan Kriya, are crucial components in the development of enhanced cognition and well-being, which may help prevent and, in some cases, reverse cognitive decline. The key point of this review is that making a commitment to live a brain longevity lifestyle including spiritual fitness is a critically important way for aging Alzheimer's disease free. We hope that this article will inspire scientists, clinicians, and patients to embrace this new concept of spiritual fitness and make it a part of every multidomain program for the prevention of cognitive disability.

Enhanced Verbal Statistical Learning in Glossolalia

Glossolalia ("speaking in tongues") is a rhythmic utterance of word-like strings of sounds, regularly occurring in religious mass gatherings or various forms of private religious practices (e.g., prayer and meditation). Although specific verbal learning capacities may characterize glossolalists, empirical evidence is lacking. We administered three statistical learning tasks (artificial grammar, phoneme sequence, and visual-response sequence) to 30 glossolalists and 30 matched control volunteers. In artificial grammar, participants decide whether pseudowords and sentences follow previously acquired implicit rules or not. In sequence learning, they gradually draw out rules from repeating regularities in sequences of speech sounds or motor responses. Results revealed enhanced artificial grammar and phoneme sequence learning performances in glossolalists compared to control volunteers. There were significant positive correlations between daily glossolalia activity and artificial grammar learning. These results indicate that glossolalists exhibit enhanced abilities to extract the statistical regularities of verbal information, which may be related to their unusual language abilities.

Attribution of Mental States in Glossolalia: A Direct Comparison With Schizophrenia

Glossolalia (“speaking in tongues”) is a rhythmic utterance of pseudo-words without consistent semantic meaning and syntactic regularities. Although glossolalia is a culturally embedded religious activity, its connection with psychopathology (e.g., psychotic thought disorder and altered mental state attribution/mentalization) is still a matter of debate. To elucidate this issue, we investigated 32 glossolalists, 32 matched control participants, and 32 patients with schizophrenia using the Animated Triangle Test (ATT) and the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET). The ATT can detect hypo- and hypermentalization using animations of two moving triangles. Healthy adults describe these as random movements (e.g., bouncing), willed actions (e.g., playing), or they mentalize (e.g., tricking). We found that glossolalists provided more mentalizing descriptions in the ATT random and intentional movement animations relative to the control participants. They also recognized more mental states in the RMET than the controls. None of them had a diagnosis of mental disorders. In contrast, patients with schizophrenia hypermentalized only in the ATT random movement condition, whereas they showed hypomentalization in the ATT intentional movement condition and in the RMET relative the control subjects. Hypermentalization in the ATT positively correlated with intrinsic religiosity in the glossolalia group. In conclusion, our results demonstrated a substantial difference in the mentalizing ability of glossolalists (generalized hypermentalization) and patients with schizophrenia (both hypo- and hypermentalization).

Relationship of self-transcendence traits with in vivo dopamine D2/3 receptor availability and functional connectivity: An [18 F]fallypride PET and fMRI study

Genetic research has implicated dopamine neurotransmission in the expression of the self-transcendence trait in humans. However, molecular imaging of dopaminergic markers is undocumented in relation to this personality trait. In this multimodal imaging study, we first investigated the relationship between the self-transcendence trait and in vivo dopamine D_2/3 receptor availability using [¹⁸ F]fallypride positron emission tomography (PET). We next conducted seed-based functional connectivity analyses using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data with regions derived from the PET analysis as seeds to explore the functional significance of D_2/3 receptor availability foci associated with the self-transcendence trait. Twenty-one healthy subjects underwent high-resolution PET with [¹⁸ F]fallypride and a subset of 18 subjects also completed 3-Tesla rs-fMRI. The Temperament and Character Inventory was used to measure the self-transcendence trait. A voxel-based whole brain analysis revealed that the [¹⁸ F]fallypride binding potential (BP_ND ) within the cluster of the left insula was significantly positively correlated with self-transcendence trait scores. A region-of-interest analysis also showed a significant positive correlation between self-transcendence and [¹⁸ F]fallypride BP_ND in the left insula. The exploratory [¹⁸ F]fallypride BP_ND seed-based rs-fMRI analysis showed that the functional connectivity from the left insula seed to the prefrontal cortices (including the inferior frontal region) was negatively associated with self-transcendence trait scores. The results of the present study suggest that D_2/3 receptor-mediated neurotransmission in the left insula may constitute a significant neurobiological factor in the self-transcendence trait. The negative associations between BP_ND seed-based functional connectivity and self-transcendence trait scores may suggest reduced prefrontal control in this personality trait.

Classic Hallucinogens and Mystical Experiences: Phenomenology and Neural Correlates

This chapter begins with a brief review of descriptions and definitions of mystical-type experiences and the historical connection between classic hallucinogens and mystical experiences. The chapter then explores the empirical literature on experiences with classic hallucinogens in which claims about mystical or religious experiences have been made. A psychometrically validated questionnaire is described for the reliable measurement of mystical-type experiences occasioned by classic hallucinogens. Controlled laboratory studies show that under double-blind conditions that provide significant controls for expectancy bias, psilocybin can occasion complete mystical experiences in the majority of people studied. These effects are dose-dependent, specific to psilocybin compared to placebo or a psychoactive control substance, and have enduring impact on the moods, attitudes, and behaviors of participants as assessed by self-report of participants and ratings by community observers. Other studies suggest that enduring personal meaning in healthy volunteers and therapeutic outcomes in patients, including reduction and cessation of substance abuse behaviors and reduction of anxiety and depression in patients with a life-threatening cancer diagnosis, are related to the occurrence of mystical experiences during drug sessions. The final sections of the chapter draw parallels in human neuroscience research between the neural bases of experiences with classic hallucinogens and the neural bases of meditative practices for which claims of mystical-type experience are sometimes made. From these parallels, a functional neural model of mystical experience is proposed, based on changes in the default mode network of the brain that have been observed after the administration of classic hallucinogens and during meditation practices for which mystical-type claims have been made.

Contributions of Neuropsychology to the Study of Ancient Literature

The present work introduces the neuropsychological paradigm as a new approach to studying ancient literature. In the first part of the article, an epistemological framework for the proper use of neuropsychology in relation to ancient literature is presented. The article then discusses neuropsychological methods of studying different human experiences and dimensions already addressed by ancient literatures. The experiences of human encounters with gods among ancient cultures are first considered, through the contributions of Julian Jaynes and Eric R. Dodds. The concepts of right and left in the Bible, and that of soul are then discussed. Ecstatic experience in Paul of Tarsus is also presented, with a particular focus on glossolalia. Neuroscientific differences between mindful and unitive meditative practices are then described referring to ancient Buddhist literature, and finally a brief description of dreams in ancient Greek literature is proposed. Neuropsychology variously enables a more profound understanding of themes characterizing human experiences that ancient literature has already explored; these investigations prove that the collaboration of neuroscience and humanistic studies can return fruitful and interesting results.

Neural correlates of psychotic-like experiences during spiritual-trance state

Recent studies indicate high levels of psychotic experiences in the general population. Here, we report a functional imaging study with 8 mentally healthy spiritual mediums and 8 matched controls. The mediums entered a mediumistic-trance state using a standardized manner by closing their eyes and actively seeking to ignore external and internal stimuli to achieve a 'state of emptiness'; in a control condition, they were instructed to re-enact the same mediumistic experience that they had during the mediumistic-trance condition but in a non-trance state (imaginative-trance). Both mediums and controls took part in a resting state session. The results indicate stronger activation in the lateral occipital cortex, posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), temporal pole, middle temporal gyrus and orbitofrontal cortex during the mediumistic-trance state. We also observe increased functional connectivity within auditory and sensorimotor Resting State Networks (RSN) during mediumistic-trance compared to resting and imaginative-trance conditions. Comparing spiritual mediums and controls, no differences in RSN were found. These data show preserved engagement of prefrontal cortex and connectivity of the default-mode network that indicate maintained introspective control over non-pathological psychotic-like experiences.

Non-Neurogenic Language Disorders: A Preliminary Classification

BACKGROUND

Few publications deal with non-neurogenic language disorders (NNLDs), distinct from psychogenic speech disorders such as psychogenic dysphonia or stuttering. NNLDs are alterations in language owing to psychosomatic preoccupations, conversion disorder, psychiatric disorders, or other psychological reasons.

OBJECTIVE

To identify and classify the range of NNLDs and their characteristics.

METHODS

This review summarizes the literature on disturbances in language, broadly defined as the use of symbols for communication, which may have a psychogenic or psychiatric etiology.

RESULTS

The literature suggests a classification for NNLDs that includes psychogenic aphasia with dysgrammatism; psychogenic "lalias" including oxylalia and agitolalia, palilalia and echolalia, xenolalia, glossolalia, and coprolalia; psychologically-mediated word usage; psychotic language; and psychogenic forms of the foreign accent syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinicians and researchers have insufficiently emphasized the presence of NNLDs, their characteristics, and their identification. Yet, these disorders may be the first or predominant manifestation of a psychologically-mediated illness. There are 2 steps to recognition. The first is to know how to distinguish NNLDs from the manifestations of neurogenic language impairments after a neurological evaluation. The second step is awareness of specific associated and examination features that suggest the presence of a NNLD.

Reward, salience, and attentional networks are activated by religious experience in devout Mormons

High-level cognitive and emotional experience arises from brain activity, but the specific brain substrates for religious and spiritual euphoria remain unclear. We demonstrate using functional magnetic resonance imaging scans in 19 devout Mormons that a recognizable feeling central to their devotional practice was reproducibly associated with activation in nucleus accumbens, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and frontal attentional regions. Nucleus accumbens activation preceded peak spiritual feelings by 1–3 s and was replicated in four separate tasks. Attentional activation in the anterior cingulate and frontal eye fields was greater in the right hemisphere. The association of abstract ideas and brain reward circuitry may interact with frontal attentional and emotive salience processing, suggesting a mechanism whereby doctrinal concepts may come to be intrinsically rewarding and motivate behavior in religious individuals.

Nonspeech Oral Movements and Oral Motor Disorders: A Narrative Review

PURPOSE

Speech and other oral functions such as swallowing have been compared and contrasted with oral behaviors variously labeled quasispeech, paraspeech, speechlike, and nonspeech, all of which overlap to some degree in neural control, muscles deployed, and movements performed. Efforts to understand the relationships among these behaviors are hindered by the lack of explicit and widely accepted definitions. This review article offers definitions and taxonomies for nonspeech oral movements and for diverse speaking tasks, both overt and covert.

METHOD

Review of the literature included searches of Medline, Google Scholar, HighWire Press, and various online sources. Search terms pertained to speech, quasispeech, paraspeech, speechlike, and nonspeech oral movements. Searches also were carried out for associated terms in oral biology, craniofacial physiology, and motor control.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Nonspeech movements have a broad spectrum of clinical applications, including developmental speech and language disorders, motor speech disorders, feeding and swallowing difficulties, obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, trismus, and tardive stereotypies. The role and benefit of nonspeech oral movements are controversial in many oral motor disorders. It is argued that the clinical value of these movements can be elucidated through careful definitions and task descriptions such as those proposed in this review article.

A case series study of the neurophysiological effects of altered states of mind during intense Islamic prayer

This paper presents a case series with preliminary data regarding the neurophysiological effects of specific prayer practices associated with the Islamic religion. Such practices, like other prayer practices, are likely associated with several coordinated cognitive activities and a complex pattern of brain physiology. However, there may also be changes specific to the goals of Islamic prayer which has, as its most fundamental concept, the surrendering of one's self to God. To evaluate Islamic prayer practices, we measured changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in three Islamic individuals while practicing two different types of Islamic prayer. In this case series, intense Islamic prayer practices generally showed decreased CBF in the prefrontal cortex and related frontal lobe structures, and the parietal lobes. However, there were also several regions that differed between the two types of prayer practices including increased CBF in the caudate nucleus, insula, thalamus, and globus pallidus. These patterns also appear distinct from concentrative techniques in which an individual focuses on a particular idea or object. It is hypothesized that the changes in brain activity may be associated with feelings of "surrender" and "connectedness with God" described to be experienced during these intense Islamic prayer practices. Overall, these results suggest that several coordinated cognitive processes occur during intense Islamic prayer. Methodological issues and implications of the results are also discussed.

The Appeal of the Brain in the Popular Press

Since the advent of human neuroimaging, and of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in particular, the popular press has shown an increasing interest in brain-related findings. In this article, I explore possible reasons behind this interest, including recent data suggesting that people find brain images and neuroscience language more convincing than results that make no reference to the brain (McCabe & Castel, 2008; Weisberg, Keil, Goodstein, Rawson, & Gray, 2008). I suggest that part of the allure of these data are the deceptively simply messages they afford, as well as general, but sometimes misguided, confidence in biological data. In addition to cataloging some misunderstandings by the press and public, I highlight the responsibilities of the research scientist in carefully conveying their work to the general public.

Temporal lobe discharges and glossolalia

Glossolalia (speaking in tongues) is a religious phenomenon of which there has been only limited scientific investigation. Described here is the case of a 44-year-old woman who had clonic jerking of the left forearm while speaking in tongues. Waking EEG while she was thinking of nothing in particular was normal. After several minutes of silently praying in tongues she manifested right temporal sharp wave discharges and may have been in a state resembling light sleep. Possible relationships between glossolalia, ecstatic religious phenomena, and temporal lobe electrical discharges are discussed.

The neuroscientific study of spiritual practices

The purpose of this paper will be to provide a perspective on the current state of the research evaluating the neurobiological correlates of spiritual practices and review the methodological issues that confront this research field. There are many types of spiritual practices that might be studied including prayer and meditation, as well as unusual practices such as mediumistic trance states, speaking in tongues, and also drug-induced experiences. Current studies have utilized neuroimaging techniques including functional magnetic resonance imaging, single photon emission computed tomography, and positron emission tomography. These studies have helped elucidate the neurobiological mechanisms associated with spiritual practices. Such studies confront unique challenges for scientific methodology including determining the most appropriate objective measures such as neuroimaging studies and physiological parameters, and correlating them with subjective measures that help capture states of spiritual significance. Overall, a neuroscientific study of spiritual practices and experiences has the potential to provide fascinating data to further our understanding of the relationship between the brain and such phenomena.

Neurotheology-Matters of the Mind or Matters that Mind?

Understanding the true nature of an individual, be it a child or an adult, a male or a female, is almost an impossible task. The vast abyss like behaviour of a human mind is virtually unfathomable. Yet, with the advent of neurosciences, it can be said that we, as the medical fraternity, have been in a position to decipher a considerable part of the human mind. This review accepts the fact that religion and theology have extreme reverence and respect. Yet, when it comes to extraordinary beliefs, phenomena, unimaginable feats and emotional deviations of the human mind, especially those which involve deep faiths and beliefs, comprehensive neuroscientific explanations from the emerging data, with the aid of elaborate neuroimaging, have proved to be extremely rational and logical. This review did make an attempt to untangle some facets of spirituality and to make rational explanations of the same. It was an attempt to understand the function of the mind (as an abstract) and the brain, on the spiritual experiences and sudden enlightments, the experience of togetherness with the universe, and to understand the phenomena of trance and an altered state of consciousness, which is better referred as the emerging science of neurotheology.

Neuroimaging during trance state: a contribution to the study of dissociation

Despite increasing interest in pathological and non-pathological dissociation, few researchers have focused on the spiritual experiences involving dissociative states such as mediumship, in which an individual (the medium) claims to be in communication with, or under the control of, the mind of a deceased person. Our preliminary study investigated psychography – in which allegedly “the spirit writes through the medium's hand” – for potential associations with specific alterations in cerebral activity. We examined ten healthy psychographers – five less expert mediums and five with substantial experience, ranging from 15 to 47 years of automatic writing and 2 to 18 psychographies per month – using single photon emission computed tomography to scan activity as subjects were writing, in both dissociative trance and non-trance states. The complexity of the original written content they produced was analyzed for each individual and for the sample as a whole. The experienced psychographers showed lower levels of activity in the left culmen, left hippocampus, left inferior occipital gyrus, left anterior cingulate, right superior temporal gyrus and right precentral gyrus during psychography compared to their normal (non-trance) writing. The average complexity scores for psychographed content were higher than those for control writing, for both the whole sample and for experienced mediums. The fact that subjects produced complex content in a trance dissociative state suggests they were not merely relaxed, and relaxation seems an unlikely explanation for the underactivation of brain areas specifically related to the cognitive processing being carried out. This finding deserves further investigation both in terms of replication and explanatory hypotheses.

Dissociative disorders in DSM-5

BACKGROUND

We present recommendations for revision of the diagnostic criteria for the Dissociative Disorders (DDs) for DSM-5. The periodic revision of the DSM provides an opportunity to revisit the assumptions underlying specific diagnoses and the empirical support, or lack of it, for the defining diagnostic criteria.

METHODS

This paper reviews clinical, phenomenological, epidemiological, cultural, and neurobiological data related to the DDs in order to generate an up-to-date, evidence-based set of DD diagnoses and diagnostic criteria for DSM-5. First, we review the definitions of dissociation and the differences between the definitions of dissociation and conceptualization of DDs in the DSM-IV-TR and the ICD-10, respectively. Also, we review more general conceptual issues in defining dissociation and dissociative disorders. Based on this review, we propose a revised definition of dissociation for DSM-5 and discuss the implications of this definition for understanding dissociative symptoms and disorders.

RESULTS

We make the following recommendations for DSM-5: 1. Depersonalization Disorder (DPD) should include derealization symptoms as well. 2. Dissociative Fugue should become a subtype of Dissociative Amnesia (DA). 3. The diagnostic criteria for DID should be changed to emphasize the disruptive nature of the dissociation and amnesia for everyday as well as traumatic events. The experience of possession should be included in the definition of identity disruption. 4. Dissociative Trance Disorder should be included in the Unspecified Dissociative Disorder (UDD) category.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a growing body of evidence linking the dissociative disorders to a trauma history, and to specific neural mechanisms.

Associations of religious behavior and experiences with extent of regional atrophy in the orbitofrontal cortex during older adulthood

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is a region of the brain that has been empirically linked with religious or spiritual activity, and atrophy in this region has been shown to contribute to serious mental illness in late life. This study used structural magnetic resonance imaging to examine the association between religious or spiritual factors and volume of the orbitalfrontal cortex (OFC). Change in the volume of participants' left and right OFC was measured longitudinally over a period of two to eight years. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that religious or spiritual factors were related to extent of atrophy in the left OFC. Significantly less atrophy of the left OFC was observed in participants who reported a life-changing religious or spiritual experience during the course of the study, and in members of Protestant religious groups who reported being born-again when entering the study. Significantly greater atrophy of the left OFC was also associated with more frequent participation in public religious worship. No significant relationship was observed between religious or spiritual factors and extent of atrophy in the right OFC. These results support the presence of a long-term relationship between religious or spiritual experience and brain structure, which may have clinical implications.

Dissociative disorders in DSM-5

BACKGROUND

We present recommendations for revision of the diagnostic criteria for the Dissociative Disorders (DDs) for DSM-5. The periodic revision of the DSM provides an opportunity to revisit the assumptions underlying specific diagnoses and the empirical support, or lack of it, for the defining diagnostic criteria.

METHODS

This paper reviews clinical, phenomenological, epidemiological, cultural, and neurobiological data related to the DDs in order to generate an up-to-date, evidence-based set of DD diagnoses and diagnostic criteria for DSM-5. First, we review the definitions of dissociation and the differences between the definitions of dissociation and conceptualization of DDs in the DSM-IV-TR and the ICD-10, respectively. Also, we review more general conceptual issues in defining dissociation and dissociative disorders. Based on this review, we propose a revised definition of dissociation for DSM-5 and discuss the implications of this definition for understanding dissociative symptoms and disorders.

RESULTS

We make the following recommendations for DSM-5: 1. Depersonalization Disorder (DPD) should derealization symptoms as well. 2. Dissociative Fugue should become a subtype of Dissociative Amnesia (DA). 3. The diagnostic criteria for DID should be changed to emphasize the disruptive nature of the dissociation and amnesia for everyday as well as traumatic events. The experience of possession should be included in the definition of identity disruption. 4. Should Dissociative Trance Disorder should be included in the Unspecified Dissociative Disorder (UDD) category.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a growing body of evidence linking the dissociative disorders to a trauma history, and to specific neural mechanisms.

Religious factors and hippocampal atrophy in late life

Despite a growing interest in the ways spiritual beliefs and practices are reflected in brain activity, there have been relatively few studies using neuroimaging data to assess potential relationships between religious factors and structural neuroanatomy. This study examined prospective relationships between religious factors and hippocampal volume change using high-resolution MRI data of a sample of 268 older adults. Religious factors assessed included life-changing religious experiences, spiritual practices, and religious group membership. Hippocampal volumes were analyzed using the GRID program, which is based on a manual point-counting method and allows for semi-automated determination of region of interest volumes. Significantly greater hippocampal atrophy was observed for participants reporting a life-changing religious experience. Significantly greater hippocampal atrophy was also observed from baseline to final assessment among born-again Protestants, Catholics, and those with no religious affiliation, compared with Protestants not identifying as born-again. These associations were not explained by psychosocial or demographic factors, or baseline cerebral volume. Hippocampal volume has been linked to clinical outcomes, such as depression, dementia, and Alzheimer's Disease. The findings of this study indicate that hippocampal atrophy in late life may be uniquely influenced by certain types of religious factors.

A neuropastoral care and counseling assessment of glossolalia: a theosocial cognitive study

This paper provides an example of the application of neuropastoral care and counseling using neuroscience research on glossolalia, that is, speaking in tongues as practiced in Pentecostal Christianity. The paper is based in part on a 2006 article by Andrew Newberg and assesses glossolalia's biogenic, psychogenic, and theogenic dimensions. The assessment concludes glossolalia is an implicitly learned sacred behavior. Unconsciously learned fears may interfere with the practice of glossolalia. A person, from a Pentecostal Christian background, might see this inability as an act of disobedience or a lack of faith. In such cases, verbal counseling would be of limited assistance. Neuropastoral care and counseling responses begin with reassurance followed by cognitive behavioral interventions such as passive extinction, cognitive emotion regulation strategies, and guided imagery.

The neural correlates of religious and nonreligious belief

Background

While religious faith remains one of the most significant features of human life, little is known about its relationship to ordinary belief at the level of the brain. Nor is it known whether religious believers and nonbelievers differ in how they evaluate statements of fact. Our lab previously has used functional neuroimaging to study belief as a general mode of cognition [1], and others have looked specifically at religious belief [2]. However, no research has compared these two states of mind directly.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to measure signal changes in the brains of thirty subjects—fifteen committed Christians and fifteen nonbelievers—as they evaluated the truth and falsity of religious and nonreligious propositions. For both groups, and in both categories of stimuli, belief (judgments of “true” vs judgments of “false”) was associated with greater signal in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, an area important for self-representation [3], [4], [5], [6], emotional associations [7], reward [8], [9], [10], and goal-driven behavior [11]. This region showed greater signal whether subjects believed statements about God, the Virgin Birth, etc. or statements about ordinary facts. A comparison of both stimulus categories suggests that religious thinking is more associated with brain regions that govern emotion, self-representation, and cognitive conflict, while thinking about ordinary facts is more reliant upon memory retrieval networks.

Conclusions/Significance

While religious and nonreligious thinking differentially engage broad regions of the frontal, parietal, and medial temporal lobes, the difference between belief and disbelief appears to be content-independent. Our study compares religious thinking with ordinary cognition and, as such, constitutes a step toward developing a neuropsychology of religion. However, these findings may also further our understanding of how the brain accepts statements of all kinds to be valid descriptions of the world.

Cognitive and neural foundations of religious belief

We propose an integrative cognitive neuroscience framework for understanding the cognitive and neural foundations of religious belief. Our analysis reveals 3 psychological dimensions of religious belief (God's perceived level of involvement, God's perceived emotion, and doctrinal/experiential religious knowledge), which functional MRI localizes within networks processing Theory of Mind regarding intent and emotion, abstract semantics, and imagery. Our results are unique in demonstrating that specific components of religious belief are mediated by well-known brain networks, and support contemporary psychological theories that ground religious belief within evolutionary adaptive cognitive functions.

Is schizophrenia the price of human central nervous system complexity?

The purpose of the present study was to determine if there is evidence to support the hypothesis that schizophrenia is a human-specific disorder associated with the need for highly complex central nervous system (CNS) development. A review was therefore undertaken of published literature relevant to the identification of human-specific CNS development. There was no clear evidence found at the macroscopic, microscopic or molecular level that suggests unique changes have occurred in the evolution of the human CNS. Rather, highly significant changes in the size of the frontal lobe, increases in numbers of specific cell types, changes in gene expression and changes in genome sequence all seem to be involved in the evolution of the human CNS. Human-specific changes in CNS development are wide ranging. The modification in CNS structure and function that has resulted from these changes affects many pathways and behaviours that appear to be also affected in subjects with schizophrenia. Therefore there is evidence to support the hypothesis that schizophrenia is a disease that develops because of derangements to human-specific CNS functions that have emerged since our species diverged from non-human primates.

Measurement of regional cerebral blood flow associated with the M technique-light massage therapy: a case series and longitudinal study using SPECT

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this 2-study research project was to measure the physiologic effect of the M technique (see Appendix for description) on the brain using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and compare it to conventional massage therapy.

METHODS

In the first study, 4 participants received 1 M technique session. Each participant was injected through the intravenous cannula (IV) with 7 mCi (99m)Tc and scanned using SPECT before the M technique session, and then was injected with 25 mCi (99m)Tc through the IV and scanned using SPECT after the M technique session. In the second study, 1 participant received 10 conventional (Swedish) massages and one participant received 10 M technique sessions. Both participants were injected and scanned (using the identical scanning parameters as in Study 1) before, and immediately after, their 1st and 10th sessions. Baseline and 1st, and baseline and 10th sessions were compared using paired t tests.

RESULTS

Although the activation changes were positively correlated for the M technique and massage participants (r = 27, p < 0.05), when activation changes around the 1st and around the 10th sessions were compared (using paired t tests), significant differences emerged. There were significant activation changes for the M technique participant [t(64) = 2.32, p < 0.05): In particular, there was a 40% activation change and directional change in regional cerebral blood flow in the right caudate, which was not seen in the massage participant. The precuneus showed an approximate 15% reduction in activation changes around the M technique session for both the 1st and 10th treatment, but not for the massage participant.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the M technique and conventional massage may both elicit blood flow brain activation changes; however, the participants' responses did differ. The M technique revealed greater changes (particular in the right caudate), and these responses increased when the M technique was repeated over time (unlike massage). These findings have implications for future research into the potential mechanism of the M technique in the treatment and care of patients.