Effects of levels of methionine supplementations in forms of L or DL-methionine on the performance, intestinal development, immune response, and antioxidant system in broilers challenged with Eimeria spp

Exploring the interplay between Eimeria spp. infection and the host: understanding the dynamics of gut barrier function

Coccidiosis is a global disease caused by protozoans, typically including Eimeria spp., which pose a significant threat to the normal growth and development of young animals. Coccidiosis affects mainly the gut, where parasite proliferation occurs. The intestinal barrier, which consists of chemical, mechanical, biological, and immune defences, plays a crucial role in protecting the host against pathogens, xenobiotics, and toxins present in the gastrointestinal tract. When animals ingest sporulated Eimeria spp. oocysts, these parasites primarily reproduce in the intestinal tract, causing damage to the structure and function of the intestine. This disruption of intestinal homeostasis adversely affects animal health. Numerous studies have also revealed that Eimeria-infected animals experience slower bone growth rates, inferior meat quality, reduced egg production and quality, as well as impaired growth and development. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to examine the underlying mechanisms through which Eimeria spp. regulate intestinal damage and disturb the balance of the internal environment. Specifically, this review will focus on their effects on the structural basis of the host intestine's chemical, mechanical, biological and immune barriers. This understanding is crucial for the development of effective drugs to prevent the invasion of Eimeria spp. into the intestine, which is of paramount importance for maintaining host health.

Effects of Amino Acid Supplementation on the Growth Performance of Broiler Chicks Challenged With Coccidiosis: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of amino acid supplementation on the growth performance of broiler chicks challenged with coccidiosis. Data were collected on authorship, publication year, study sample characteristics and outcomes of interest related to growth performance. Effect sizes were calculated for both overall effects and the individual effects of each amino acid. The effects of moderator factors, such as supplementation levels and duration, were also assessed, and bias was calculated. Works were obtained from PubMed, Elsevier, ScienceDirect, Wiley, Springer Link and Scopus databases, with the help of search engines like Google Scholar and ResearchGate, covering the period from 2013 to 2023. A random-effects model was used. Thirteen works were included in the current analysis, examining the effects of arginine (n = 4), methionine (n = 6), threonine (n = 3) and glutamine (n = 3). Amino acid supplementation [0.326, CI 95% (0.297-0.355); p = 0.000], arginine [0.430, CI 95% (0.293-0.568); p = 0.000] and threonine [0.793, CI 95% (0.193-1.38); p = 0.009] significantly increased body weight. Amino acid supplementation [0.052, CI 95% (0.022-0.081); p = 0.000] and arginine [0.317, CI 95% (0.049-0.585); p = 0.000] also significantly increased feed intake. Higher levels of amino acids (≥1.50%) and longer supplementation periods (≥15 days) significantly increased body weight and feed intake, while reducing the feed conversion ratio. Funnel plots, fail-safe N and Egger tests showed no evidence of bias. In conclusion, arginine supplementation has the potential to increase body weight and feed intake in poultry challenged with coccidiosis. Higher doses of amino acids and longer supplementation periods are recommended in such cases.

Synergistic impact of Salmonella typhimurium and Eimeria spp. coinfection on turkey poults: Growth performance, salmonella colonization, and ceca microbiota insights

Salmonella contamination in poultry products is a significant concern due to its potential to cause severe economic losses and public health problems. On the other side, coccidiosis is induced by Eimeria (E.) species. involves the destruction of host intestinal epithelial cells and subsequent invasion of pathogens, resulting in performance reduction and enhanced pathogen infection in poultry and economic losses for the poultry industry. A study was conducted to evaluate the impact of Eimeria infection and Salmonella typhimurium (ST) on growth performance, Salmonella colonization, and ceca microbiota in turkey poult. A total of 420 one-day-old male turkey poults were randomly allocated into six treatments, with five replicated cages for each treatment, over a 21-day experimental period. The study followed a 2 × 3 factorial design. Treatments consisted of NC, negative control without any challenge; T1, challenged with 8000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T2, challenged with 16,000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T3, challenged with nalidixic acid-resistant Salmonella typhimurium (ST) at d 0; T4, challenged with ST at d 0 and 8000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8; T5, challenged with ST at d 0 and 16,000 oocysts of E. meleagrimitis and E. adenoeides at d 8. The Eimeria challenge groups significantly reduced the BW compared to the non-challenge group (P < 0.001). The challenged groups decreased FI during 9-14 days of age (P < 0.01). Salmonella typhimurium did not affect BW entire trial period (P > 0.05). Gut permeability (GP) increased in the challenge groups compared to the NC group (P < 0.001). Both ST and Eimeria significantly decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the liver (P < 0.01). The challenge groups had lower villus height (VH) and higher crypt depth (CD) compared to the NC group, resulting in decreased VH:CD ratio in the duodenum and jejunum (P < 0.01). The groups T1, T2, and T4 had significantly higher fat deposition than the NC group (P < 0.05). The coinfected groups (T4 and T5) had higher salmonella colonization in the spleen compared to the ST-infected group (T3, P < 0.05). The ST challenge significantly decreased alpha diversity, including pielou evenness and Shannon entropy (P < 0.05). The Proteobacteria phylum and Enterobacteriaceae family significantly increased in T5 compared to the NC, T1, T2, and T3 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, Eimeria infection negatively impacted growth, gut health, intestine barrier integrity, and histology, while Salmonella had a milder effect on performance. Coinfection with Salmonella and Eimeria spp. led to changes in gut microbiota and increased liver Salmonella colonization and fat deposition in turkey poults.

Plant-Scale Circular Economy Using Biological Reuse of Electrolyte Residues in the Amino Acid Industry

The amino acid industry generates significant amounts of electrolyte residues, such as ammonium sulfate, acetic acid, and phosphoric acid, which cause challenges to sustainability. This short article investigates the feasibility of implementing a plant-scale circular economy through the recycling and biological reuse of these electrolyte residues. Scenario analyses of L-lysine (LYS) HCl, L-methionine (MET), and L-cysteine (CYS) HCl production highlight the environmental and economic benefits of the plant-scale circular economy. Despite these advances, challenges remain, including improving reuse rates for residues and reducing sodium ion content in the salt. This analysis emphasizes the need for integrated process design to enhance the circular economy, not only in amino acid production but also in other fermentation-based industries.

Effects of graded yeast cell wall supplementation on growth performance, immunity and intestinal development of broiler chickens raised in floor pens for 42 days

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of a novel soluble yeast cell wall (YCW) on growth performance, gut health, intestinal morphology, and immune response in broiler chickens for 42 days. A total of 480 one-day-old Cobb 500 male broilers were randomly assigned to four treatments with six replicates and each replicate of twenty broiler chickens: a control group (CON) without feed additive supplementation, and three groups supplemented with YCW at 0.025 % (YCW1), 0.050 % (YCW2), and 0.100 % (YCW3). Results showed that 0.025 % and 0.100 % YCW supplementation significantly increased (P < 0.05) final body weight (BW) and overall body weight gain (BWG) while reducing overall feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to the CON group. The YCW supplementation also improved (P < 0.05) the balance of gut microbiota by increasing beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus) and decreasing Salmonella, a potential foodborne pathogen in humans in the ceca. Although intestinal morphology was not significantly affected, YCW supplementation numerically increased the villus height: crypt depth ratio (VH:CD) compared to the CON group. Furthermore, YCW reduced the mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and INF-γ) and tight junction protein claudin-1 (CLDN-1) (P < 0.05), suggesting balanced immune response and improved intestinal barrier function. In conclusion, the supplementation of soluble YCW in broiler diets positively influenced growth performance, gut microbiota composition, and immune response, demonstrating its potential as a viable alternative to antibiotics for improving broilers' health.

Dietary advanced chelate technology-based 7-mineral supplement improves growth performance and intestinal health indicators during a mixed Eimeria challenge in broiler chickens

The health and productivity of broilers may be improved by optimizing the availability and levels of trace minerals (TM) in their feed, especially in the presence of parasites. This study investigated the effects of replacing inorganic TM (ITM) with an advanced chelate technology-based 7 TM (ACTM) on performance, hematology, lesion score, oocyst shedding, gut morphology, and tight junction structure in broilers challenged with mixed Eimeria species. There were 480 1-day-old broiler chickens divided into 5 groups: uninfected negative control and recommended levels of ITM (NC); infected positive control and recommended levels of ITM (PC); or PC supplemented with salinomycin (SAL); PC diet with 50 % ACTM instead of ITM (ACTM50); or PC diet with 100 % ACTM instead of ITM (ACTM100). All groups, except NC, were orally challenged with mixed Eimeria spp. oocysts on day 14. Each group had 6 replicate cages, with 16 birds per replicate. The results showed that the NC, SAL, and ACTM100 groups had higher (P < 0.05) body weight, average daily gain (ADG), and European production efficiency index (EPEI), as well as a lower (P < 0.05) feed conversion, mortality rate, and heterophile to lymphocyte ratio compared to the PC group, with the NC group having the highest ADG and EPEI throughout the experiment. The SAL and ACTM100 groups had lower (P < 0.05) intestinal lesion scores and oocyst numbers compared to the PC group, although all coccidiosis-challenged groups had higher oocyst shedding compared to the NC group. On day 24, the challenged birds in the SAL and ACTM100 groups had higher (P < 0.05) villus height and surface area in the duodenum and ileum, as well as a higher (P < 0.05) villus height to crypt depth ratio in the jejunum. The expression levels of jejunal CLDN1 and ZO-1 were also higher (P < 0.05) in the ACTM100 and SAL groups compared to the PC and ACTM50 groups at 24 days of age. In conclusion, while using ACTM in broiler diets at 50 % of the commercial recommended levels maintained performance and physiological responses, complete replacement with ACTM improved growth performance and intestinal health characteristics, similar to salinomycin under Eimeria challenge conditions.

Effects of L-Methionine and DL-Methionine on Growth Performance, Methionine-Metabolizing Enzyme Activities, Feather Traits, and Intestinal Morphology of Medium-Growing, Yellow-Feathered Chickens between 1 and 30 Days of Age

This experiment investigated the effects of L-Methionine (L-Met) on growth performance, Met-metabolizing enzyme activity, feather traits, and small intestinal morphological characteristics, and compared these with DL-Methionine (DL-Met) for medium-growing, yellow-feathered broilers during the starter phase. Furthermore, the aim was to provide recommendations for the appropriate dietary Met levels in feed. A total of 1584 1-d broilers were randomly divided into 11 treatment groups with six replicates of 24 birds each: basal diet (CON, Met 0.28%), basal diet + L-Met (0.04%, 0.08%, 0.12%, 0.16%, 0.20%), and basal diet + DL-Met (0.04%, 0.08%, 0.12%, 0.16%, 0.20%). The total trial period was 30 days. Compared with broilers fed the basal diet, those fed 0.04 to 0.20% supplemental Met had higher final body weight (FBW), average daily feed intake (ADFI), average daily gain (ADG), and lower feed-to-gain ratio (F: G) (p < 0.05). Compared with DL-Met groups, the L-Met group had higher FBW and ADG (p < 0.05). The relative bioavailability (RBV) of L-Met in ADG of 1-30 d was 142.5%. Chicks fed diets supplemented with L-Met had longer fourth primary feather lengths compared to birds fed the control and diets supplemented with DL-Met (p < 0.05). Compared to the control, birds supplemented with DL-Met or L-Met had an increased moulting score (p ≤ 0.05). Chicks fed diets supplemented with L-Met had lower activities of methionine adenosyl transferase (MAT) compared to those fed the basal diet or supplemented with DL-Met (p < 0.05). Chicks supplemented with either DL-Met or L-Met had higher activities of cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) than those fed the basal diet (p < 0.05). Compared with the control, chicks fed diets supplemented with either DL-Met or L-Met had an enhanced level of albumin in plasma (p < 0.05). There were no obvious differences in the plasma content of uric acid and total protein among the treatments (p > 0.05). Chicks fed diets supplemented with either DL-Met or L-Met had higher villus height and V/C in the duodenal than chicks fed the basal diet (p < 0.05). The jejunum morphology was not affected by either L-Met or DL-Met supplementation (p > 0.05). Therefore, dietary supplementation with DL-Met or L-Met improved the growth performance, feather traits, and intestinal morphological characteristics of medium-growing, yellow-feathered broiler chickens aged 1 to 30 d by decreasing the enzyme activities of Met methylation (MAT) and increasing the enzyme activities of the sulfur transfer pathway (CBS), and supplementation with L-Met showed a better improvement compared with DL-Met. The relative efficacy of L-Met to DL-Met was 142.5% for ADG of yellow-feathered broilers. The appropriate Met levels for medium-growing, yellow-feathered broilers are between 0.36~0.38% (supplementation with DL-Met) or 0.32~0.33% (supplementation with L-Met) when based on ADG and feed-to-gain ratio.

Effects of methionine supplementation in a reduced protein diet on growth performance, oxidative status, intestinal health, oocyst shedding, and methionine and folate metabolism in broilers under Eimeria challenge

BACKGROUND

This study investigated effects of different methionine (Met) supplementation levels in a reduced protein diet on growth performance, intestinal health, and different physiological parameters in broilers under Eimeria challenge. A total of 600 fourteen-day-old Cobb500 male broilers were challenged with E. maxima, E. tenella, and E. acervulina, and randomly allocated in a 2 × 5 factorial arrangement. Birds received normal protein diets (20% crude protein, NCP) or reduced protein diets (17% crude protein, LCP), containing 2.8, 4.4, 6.0, 7.6, and 9.2 g/kg of Met.

RESULTS

On 6 and 9 days post inoculation (DPI), increasing Met level linearly improved the growth performance (P < 0.05). Total oocyst shedding linearly increased as Met level increased (P < 0.05). Duodenal villus height (VH):crypt depth (CD) in the LCP groups were higher on 6 DPI (P < 0.01) while lower on 9 DPI (P < 0.05) compared to the NCP groups. Jejunal CD and duodenal VH:CD changed quadratically as Met level increased (P < 0.05). On 6 DPI, liver glutathione (GSH) and glutathione disulfide (GSSG) linearly increased as Met level increased (P < 0.05). On 9 DPI, GSSG quadratically increased, whereas GSH:GSSG quadratically decreased as Met levels increased (P < 0.05). The expression of amino acid transporters linearly decreased as Met level increased (P < 0.05). The expression of zonula occludens 2 and claudin-1 linearly increased on 6 DPI whereas decreased on 9 DPI as Met level increased (P < 0.05). The expressions of cytokines were lower in the LCP groups than the NCP groups (P < 0.05). Interaction effects were found for the expression of IL-10 and TNFα on 6 DPI (P < 0.05), where it only changed quadratically in the NCP group as Met level increased. The expression of Met and folate metabolism genes were lower in the LCP groups than the NCP groups on 9 DPI (P < 0.05). The expression of these genes linearly or quadratically decreased as Met level increased (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results revealed the regulatory roles of Met in different physiological parameters including oxidative status, intestinal health, and nutrient metabolism in birds fed reduced protein diet and challenged with Eimeria.

Effect of dietary methionine to crude protein ratio on performance of Ross 308 broiler chickens aged 22 to 42 days

An experiment was conducted to determine the effect of dietary methionine to crude protein (CP) ratio on the performance of male Ross 308 broiler chickens aged 22 to 42 days. The diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous but with different methionine-to-CP ratios. The diets, based on methionine to crude protein ratios, were M0.020 (0.020), M0.025 (0.025) M0.030 (0.030), M0.040 (0.040), or M0.045 (0.045). A complete randomized design was used. A quadratic type of equation was used to determine dietary methionine to CP ratios for optimal performance of the chickens. Dietary methionine to CP ratio had no effect (P > 0.05) on feed intake, live weight gain, live weight, feed efficiency, metabolizable energy intake, nitrogen retention, abdominal fat pad weight, breast meat nitrogen and methionine contents, and meat flavour and shear force values of the chickens, but it affected (P < 0.05) CP digestibility, carcass and breast weights, and breast meat tenderness and juiciness. Methionine to CP ratios of 0.039, 0.038, 0.050, and 0.050 were calculated to result in optimal CP digestibility, carcass weight, breast meat tenderness, and juiciness, respectively. These results may imply that dietary methionine to CP ratio requirements for broiler chickens will depend on the production parameter of interest.

Supplementing low protein diets with methionine or threonine during mixed Eimeria challenge

We investigated the effects of supplementing low protein diets with methionine (Met) or threonine (Thr) during a mixed Eimeria (consisting of E. acervulina, E. maxima and E. tenella) challenge in broilers. All birds were fed the same starter diet (d1-9) and finisher diet (d28-35) which met Cobb 500 nutrient specifications. Birds were allocated to 1 of 4 dietary treatments from d9 to 28: a standard protein diet (19% CP); a low protein diet (16% CP); or the low protein diet supplemented with Met or Thr at 50% above recommendations. On d14, half of the birds were challenged, and half of the birds were unchallenged. From d14 to 28, feed intake was recorded daily and BW every 3 or 4 d. Oocyst excretion was measured daily from d18 to 27. On d21 and 28, 3 birds per pen were euthanized to assess nutrient digestibility, cytokine expression and intestinal histology. During the acute stage of the challenge, challenged birds reduced ADFI and ADG (P < 0.05). In the pre-patent and recovery stages, birds given the 16% CP diets increased ADFI (P < 0.05), meanwhile there were no differences in ADG in these stages (P > 0.05). Nutrient digestibility was reduced in challenged birds in the acute stage (P < 0.05) but tended to be greater than in unchallenged birds during the recovery stage. There was no significant effect of diet on oocyst excretion or intestinal histology (P > 0.05). Interactions were observed between diet and challenge on IL-10 and IL-21 expression in the cecal tonsils during the acute stage of the challenge (P < 0.05), due to reduced IL-10 expression in challenged Thr birds and greater IL-21 expression in challenged Met birds. Supplementation with Thr or Met had limited effects on the outcomes of a mixed Eimeria challenge but provides benefits to the host by enhancing their immune response.

Different methionine to cysteine supplementation ratios altered bone quality of broilers with or without Eimeria challenge assessed by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and microtomography

Despite the acknowledged significance of nutrition in bone development, effects of methionine (Met) and cysteine (Cys) on bone quality remain under-researched, particularly during Eimeria challenge. We investigated the effects of different supplemental Met to Cys ratios (MCR) on bone quality of broilers under Eimeria challenge. A total of 720 fourteen-day old Cobb500 broilers were allocated into a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement. Five diets with Met and Cys supplemented at MCR of 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75, and 0:100 were fed to the birds with or without Eimeria challenge. Body composition was measured by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, and the femur bone characteristics were assessed by microtomography. Data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA and orthogonal polynomial contrast. The results reaffirmed the detrimental effects of Eimeria challenge on bone quality. On 9 d post inoculation (DPI), significant interaction effects were found for whole body bone mineral content (BMC), lean tissue weight, and body weight (P < 0.05); in the nonchallenged group (NCG), these parameters linearly decreased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). In the challenged group (CG), body weight and lean tissue weight were unaffected by MCR, and BMC linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). For the cortical bone of femoral metaphysis on 6 DPI, bone mineral density (BMD) linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). Bone volume to tissue volume ratio (BV/TV) in the CG linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). On 9 DPI, BMC and TV linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05) in the NCG. BMD and BV/TV changed quadratically as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). For the trabecular bone of femoral metaphysis on 9 DPI, BV/TV, and trabecular number linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05) in the NCG. For the femoral diaphysis, BV, TV, BMC on 6 DPI, and BMD on 9 DPI linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). In conclusion, this study showed that both Eimeria challenge and varying supplemental MCR could influence bone quality of broilers.

A novel methionine nanoparticle in broiler chickens: Bioavailability and requirements

This bioassay evaluated the bioavailability (RBV) of a novel nanoparticle of methionine (nano-Met) relative to DL-methionine (DL-Met), and estimated methionine requirements for both sources in starting broilers. Five supplemental levels (0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, and 0.25% of diet) of DL-Met or nano-Met were added to a basal diet containing 0.35% standardized ileal digestible (SID) methionine to create 11 experimental diets, including a basal diet and 10 experimental diets containing 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.55, and 0.60% SID-Met, respectively. A total of 825 one-day-old male Ross 308 birds were randomly assigned to 11 treatments with 5 pen replicates and 15 birds each. Body weight gain (BWG), breast meat yield (BMY), and thigh meat yield (TMY) increased (P < 0.001) while feed conversion ratio (FCR) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration in meat samples decreased (P < 0.001) with increasing dietary methionine. Based on the slope-ratio method, the RBV of nano-Met relative to DL-Met for BWG, FCR, and TMY were 102 (48-155%; R2 = 0.71), 134 (68-201%; R2 = 0.77), and 110% (27-193%; R2 = 0.55), respectively. Considering the statistical accuracy of the spline models, the estimated values of DL-Met for maximum BWG and nano-Met for maximum TMY were 0.578% and 0.561%, respectively, which were statistically higher than those recommended for commercial settings. The highest effect size of supplemental methionine was on MDA (ƞ2p = 0.924), followed by FCR (ƞ2p = 0.578), BMY (ƞ2p = 0.575), BWG (ƞ2p = 0.430), and TMY (ƞ2p = 0.332), suggesting the potent antioxidant properties of methionine. Our findings suggest that reducing the particle size of DL-Met to nanoparticles could be a promising strategy to enhance the efficiency of methionine supplementation in broilers, an idea that requires further investigation in future research.

Anionic polysaccharides benefit the bioavailability of pork myofibrillar protein gels: Evidence from a perspective of protein absorption and metabolism

This study aimed to probe the bioavailability of myofibrillar protein (MP) gels in mice as affected by incorporating anionic xanthan (XMP) and sodium alginate (SMP)/cationic chitosan (CSMP)/neutral curdlan (CMP) and konjac (KMP), respectively. The results showed that the numbers of peptides absorbed were obviously higher in anionic XMP and SMP groups (88 and 126, respectively) than in the cationic CSMP (51) group. The contents of free amino acids absorbed in SMP and XMP were significantly greater than that in CSMP and CMP groups (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the antioxidant capacity of bioactive compounds absorbed in the SMP group was higher than those in the other groups (P < 0.05), and the expression of tight junction protein (Occludin and ZO-1) was up-regulated in SMP group. The low contents of free ammonia, indole and p-cresol were observed in the anionic XMP, SMP and neutral KMP groups, compared to CSMP group. This work highlights the benefits of anionic polysaccharides (sodium alginate and xanthan) in developing low-fat meat products with high MP bioavailability.

Effects of phytase supplementation on broilers fed with calcium and phosphorus-reduced diets, challenged with Eimeria maxima and Eimeria acervulina: influence on growth performance, body composition, bone health, and intestinal integrity

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of phytase in calcium (Ca) and available phosphorous (avP)-reduced diet on growth performance, body composition, bone health, and intestinal integrity of broilers challenged with Eimeria maxima and Eimeria acervulina. A total of 672 14-day-old male broilers were allocated to a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement with 6 replicates per treatment and 14 birds per replicate. Two factors were Eimeria challenge and 4 dietary treatments: 1) a positive control (PC; 0.84% Ca and 0.42% avP); 2) a negative control (NC; 0.74% Ca and 0.27% avP); 3) NC + 500 FTU/Kg of phytase (NC + 500PHY); and 4) NC + 1,500 FTU/Kg of phytase (NC + 1500PHY). On d 14, birds in the Eimeria-challenged groups received a solution containing 15,000 sporulated oocysts of E. maxima and 75,000 sporulated oocysts of E. acervulina via oral gavage. At 5 d postinoculation (DPI), the challenged birds showed a higher (P < 0.01) FITC-d level than the unchallenged birds. While the permeability of the NC group did not differ from the PC group, the phytase supplementation groups (NC + 500PHY and NC + 1500PHY) showed lower (P < 0.05) serum FITC-d levels compared to the NC group. Interaction effects (P < 0.05) of Eimeria challenge and dietary treatments on feed intake (FI), mucin-2 (MUC2) gene expression, bone ash concentration, and mineral apposition rate (MAR) were observed. On 0 to 6 and 0 to 9 DPI, Eimeria challenge decreased (P < 0.01) body weight (BW), body weight gain (BWG), FI, bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), bone area, fat free bone weight (FFBW), bone ash weight, bone ash percentage and bone ash concentration; and it showed a higher FCR (P < 0.01) compared to the unchallenged group. The reduction Ca and avP in the diet (NC) did not exert adverse effects on all parameters in birds, and supplementing phytase at levels of 500 or 1,500 FTU/Kg improved body composition, bone mineralization, and intestinal permeability, with the higher dose of 1,500 FTU/Kg showing more pronounced enhancements. There was an observed increase in FI (P < 0.01) when phytase was supplemented at 1,500 FTU/Kg during 0 to 6 DPI. In conclusion, results from the current study suggest that dietary nutrients, such as Ca and avP, can be moderately reduced with the supplementation of phytase, particularly in birds infected with Eimeria spp., which has the potential to save feed cost without compromising growth performance, bone health, and intestinal integrity of broilers.

Coccidiosis in Egg-Laying Hens and Potential Nutritional Strategies to Modulate Performance, Gut Health, and Immune Response

Avian coccidiosis, despite advancements in management, nutrition, genetics, and immunology, still remains the most impactful disease, imposing substantial economic losses to the poultry industry. Coccidiosis may strike any avian species, and it may be mild to severe, depending on the pathogenicity of Eimeria spp. and the number of oocysts ingested by the bird. Unlike broilers, low emphasis has been given to laying hens. Coccidiosis in laying hens damages the gastrointestinal tract and causes physiological changes, including oxidative stress, immunosuppression, and inflammatory changes, leading to reduced feed intake and a drastic drop in egg production. Several countries around the world have large numbers of hens raised in cage-free/free-range facilities, and coccidiosis has already become one of the many problems that producers have to face in the future. However, limited research has been conducted on egg-laying hens, and our understanding of the physiological changes following coccidiosis in hens relies heavily on studies conducted on broilers. The aim of this review is to summarize the effect of coccidiosis in laying hens to an extent and correlate it with the physiological changes that occur in broilers following coccidiosis. Additionally, this review tries to explore the nutritional strategies successfully used in broilers to mitigate the negative effects of coccidiosis in improving the gut health and performance of broilers and if they can be used in laying hens.

Effects of dietary methionine supplementation on the growth performance, immune responses, antioxidant capacity, and subsequent development of layer chicks

Deficiencies or excesses of dietary amino acids, and especially of methionine (Met), in laying hens can lead to abnormal protein anabolism and oxidative stress, which affect methylation and cause cellular dysfunction. This study investigated the effects of dietary methionine (Met) levels on growth performance, metabolism, immune response, antioxidant capacity, and the subsequent development of laying hens. A total of 384 healthy 1-day-old Hyline Grey chicks of similar body weight were randomly allocated to be fed diets containing 0.31%, 0.38%, 0.43% (control group), or 0.54% Met for 6 wk, with 6 replicates of 16 chicks in each. The growth performance of the chicks was then followed until 20 wk old. The results showed dietary supplementation with 0.43% or 0.54% Met significantly increased their mean daily body weight gain, final weight, and Met intake. However, the feed:gain (F/G) decreased linearly with increasing Met supplementation, from 0.31 to 0.54% Met. Met supplementation increased the serum albumin, IgM, and total glutathione concentrations of 14-day-old chicks. In contrast, the serum alkaline phosphatase activity and hydroxyl radical concentration tended to decrease with increasing Met supplementation. In addition, the highest serum concentrations of IL-10, T-SOD, and GSH-PX were in the 0.54% Met-fed group. At 42 d of age, the serum ALB, IL-10, T-SOD, GSH-PX, T-AOC, and T-GSH were correlated with dietary Met levels. Finally, Met supplementation reduced the serum concentrations of ALP, IL-1β, IgA, IgG, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals. Thus, the inclusion of 0.43% or 0.54% Met in the diet helps chicks achieve superior performance during the brooding period and subsequently. In conclusion, Met doses of 0.43 to 0.54% could enhance the growth performance, protein utilization efficiency, antioxidant capacity, and immune responses of layer chicks, and to promote more desirable subsequent development during the brooding period.

Impacts of varying methionine to cysteine supplementation ratios on growth performance, oxidative status, intestinal health, and gene expression of immune response and methionine metabolism in broilers under Eimeria spp. challenge

A study was conducted to investigate effects of different methionine (Met) to cysteine (Cys) supplementation ratios (MCR) on growth performance, oxidative status, intestinal health, immune responses, and methionine metabolism in broilers under Eimeria challenge. A total of 720 male Cobb500 broilers (14-day-old) were allocated in a 2 × 5 factorial arrangement (5 diets, with or without challenge) with 6 replicates per treatment. The total sulfur amino acid concentrations were consistent across treatments meeting the breeder's recommendation, only MCR varied. The diets were labeled as MET100; MET75; MET50; MET25; and MET0, representing MCR of 100:0; 75:25; 50:50; 25:75; and 0:100, respectively. Data were analyzed by 2-way ANOVA and orthogonal polynomial contrast. Growth performance declined linearly or quadratically as MCR decreased (P < 0.01). On 6-day postinoculation (DPI), interaction effects (P < 0.01) were found; BW and body weight gain were lower in MET0 compared to the other treatments in the nonchallenged groups, whereas not in the challenged groups. On 6 and 9 DPI, serum total antioxidant capacity linearly decreased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). Hepatic activities of glutathione peroxidase on 6 DPI and superoxide dismutase on 9 DPI changed quadratically as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). The digestibility of Met linearly decreased whereas the digestibility of Cys linearly increased as MCR decreased. The ileal crypt depth linearly decreased as MCR decreased (P < 0.01) on 6 DPI. The expression of transforming growth factor beta on 6 and 9 DPI, tumor necrotic factor alpha and interleukin 10 on 9 DPI changed quadratically as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). Eimeria challenge increased expression of Met adenosyltransferase and cystathionine gamma-lyase, whereas decreasing the expression of other Met metabolism genes (P < 0.01) on 6 DPI. Expression of Met metabolism genes linearly increased as MCR decreased (P < 0.05). In conclusion, different Met to Cys supplementation ratios exerted linearly or quadratically effects on the growth performance, oxidative status, intestinal health, and metabolism of Met in broiler chickens under Eimeria infection.

Effects of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol on performance, gut health, and bone quality of broilers fed with reduced calcium and phosphorus diet during Eimeria challenge

This study evaluated the effects of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (25-OHD) on performance, gut health, and bone quality of broilers fed with reduced calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) diet during Eimeria spp. challenge. A total of 576 fourteen-day-old Cobb 500 male chicks were randomly distributed in a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement, with 6 replicates of 12 birds each. The main factors were 25-OHD level (0 or 3,000 IU/kg of feed), mineral level (0.84% of Ca/0.42% of P, the levels recommended for the grower phase (NOR) or 0.64% of Ca/0.22% of P (RED), and mid-high mixed Eimeria challenge or nonchallenge. 25-OHD improved phosphorus retention (P = 0.019), bone ash weight (P = 0.04), cortical bone trabecular connectivity (P = 0.043) during coccidiosis. For birds fed with reduced mineral levels, 25-OHD supplementation increased bone ash weight (P = 0.04). However, 25-OHD did not improve bone ash weight when birds were challenged and fed with reduced mineral levels. The dietary 3,000 IU of 25-OHD supplementation did not improve performance or gut morphology but support bone health during coccidiosis. Future investigations are needed for better understand 25-OHD role on bone microarchitecture and oxidative metabolism during coccidiosis.

Assessing the nutritional equivalency of DL-methionine and L-methionine in broiler chickens: a meta-analytical study

The purpose of this study was to perform a meta-analysis comparing the biological efficiency of DL-methionine and L-methionine (DL-Met and L-Met) in broiler nutrition. This analysis was based on a dataset comprising experiment results published in peer-reviewed papers since 2007. All experiments investigated the response of broilers (aged 0-21 d) to different dietary concentrations of DL- and L-Met, achieved by supplementing crystalline Met. A graphical analysis was conducted on the database using ellipses coverage and nonparametric density techniques. Two methods of linear and nonlinear exponential meta-regression analysis were used to determine relative bioavailability based on average daily gain (ADG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) responses to dietary Met sources. The analyses of ADG and FCR obtained from both linear and exponential models showed a relative difference between the tested methionine sources. The results showed that both ADG and FCR were improved in L-Met compared to DL-Met supplemented diets. Linear regression analysis revealed that DL-Met was 94.97% (for ADG) and 95.63% (for FCR) as efficacious as L-Met (P < 0.01). In contrast, the analysis of the fitted nonlinear exponential model showed that the biological efficiencies of DL-Met were 91.33% and 76.57% of the values for L-Met for ADG (P = 0.01) and FCR (P = 0.09), respectively. Based on the meta-analytical results, an equivalence of relative biological efficiency of DL-Met in comparison with L-Met for young broilers could not be confirmed.

Supplementing broiler diets with bacterial selenium nanoparticles enhancing performance, carcass traits, blood indices, antioxidant status, and caecal microbiota of Eimeria tenella-infected broiler chickens

Nanomedicine is a critical therapeutic approach for treating most poultry illnesses, particularly parasitic infections. Coccidiosis is a severe protozoan infection affecting poultry; the emergence of drug-resistant Eimeria strains demands the development of new, safe therapies. Consequently, the objective of this work was to investigate the efficacy of the biosynthesized selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) by Paenibacillus polymyxa (P. polymyxa) against Eimeria tenella (E. tenella) experimental infection in broiler chickens. The prepared SeNPs absorbed the UV at 270 nm were spherical with a size of 26 nm, and had a surface negative charge of -25 mV. One hundred and fifty, 1-day-old male broiler chicks were randomly allocated into 5 groups (30 birds/group with triplicates each) as follows: T1: negative control (noninfected and nontreated with SeNPs); T2: delivered SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) for 35 successive days, T3: E. tenella-infected (positive control birds), T4: E. tenella-infected and treated with SeNPs (500 µg/kg diet) and T5: E. tenella-infected chicks and treated with anticoccidial agent (sulfadimidine, 16% solution 8 mL/L of drinking water) for 5 successive days. At 14 d of age, each bird in infected groups was orally treated with 3 × 103 sporulated oocyst of E. tenella. SeNPs considerably decreased the number of oocysts in broiler feces compared to positive control and anticoccidial drug, followed by a substantial reduction of parasite phase count in the cecum (15, 10, and 8 for meronts, gamonts, and developing oocysts) when compared with positive control birds. The Eimeria experimental infection lowered the activity of antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and reduced glutathione (GSH) while increasing the stress parameters nitric oxide (NO) and malonaldehyde (MDA). Moreover, the production of proinflammatory (TNF-α and IL-6) and apoptotic genes (BcL2 and Cas-3) were significantly elevated. Administrating SeNPs to chicks significantly decreased oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptotic markers in the cecum tissue. Therefore, growth performance, carcass weights, antioxidant enzymes, and blood properties of infected chicks were enhanced. The findings compared the protecting role of Se-nanoparticles against cecum damages in E. tenella-infected broilers.

Applications of Enteroendocrine Cells (EECs) Hormone: Applicability on Feed Intake and Nutrient Absorption in Chickens

This review focuses on the role of hormones derived from enteroendocrine cells (EECs) on appetite and nutrient absorption in chickens. In response to nutrient intake, EECs release hormones that act on many organs and body systems, including the brain, gallbladder, and pancreas. Gut hormones released from EECs play a critical role in the regulation of feed intake and the absorption of nutrients such as glucose, protein, and fat following feed ingestion. We could hypothesize that EECs are essential for the regulation of appetite and nutrient absorption because the malfunction of EECs causes severe diarrhea and digestion problems. The importance of EEC hormones has been recognized, and many studies have been carried out to elucidate their mechanisms for many years in other species. However, there is a lack of research on the regulation of appetite and nutrient absorption by EEC hormones in chickens. This review suggests the potential significance of EEC hormones on growth and health in chickens under stress conditions induced by diseases and high temperature, etc., by providing in-depth knowledge of EEC hormones and mechanisms on how these hormones regulate appetite and nutrient absorption in other species.

The Functional Roles of Methionine and Arginine in Intestinal and Bone Health of Poultry: Review

This review explores the roles of methionine and arginine in promoting the well-being of poultry, with a specific focus on their impacts on intestinal and bone health. The metabolic pathways of methionine and arginine are elucidated, highlighting their distinct routes within the avian system. Beyond their fundamental importance in protein synthesis, methionine and arginine also exert their functional roles through their antioxidant capacities, immunomodulating effects, and involvement in the synthesis of metabolically important molecules such as S-adenosylmethionine, nitric oxide, and polyamines. These multifaceted actions enable methionine and arginine to influence various aspects of intestinal health such as maintaining the integrity of the intestinal barrier, regulating immune responses, and even influencing the composition of the gut microbiota. Additionally, they could play a pivotal role in promoting bone development and regulating bone remodeling, ultimately fostering optimal bone health. In conclusion, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the potential roles of methionine and arginine in intestinal and bone health in poultry, thereby contributing to advancing the nutrition, overall health, and productivity of poultry in a sustainable manner.

Assessing the effects of a mixed Eimeria spp. challenge on performance, intestinal integrity, and the gut microbiome of broiler chickens

A mixed Eimeria spp. challenge model was designed to assess the effects of challenge on broiler chicken performance, intestinal integrity, and the gut microbiome for future use to evaluate alternative strategies for controlling coccidiosis in broiler chickens. The experimental design involved broiler chickens divided into two groups: a control group (uninfected) and a positive control group, infected with Eimeria acervulina (EA), Eimeria maxima (EM), and Eimeria tenella (ET). At day-of-hatch, 240 off-sex male broiler chicks were randomized and allocated to one of two treatment groups. The treatment groups included: (1) Non-challenged (NC, n = 5 replicate pens); and (2) challenged control (PC, n = 7 replicate pens) with 20 chickens/pen. Pen weights were recorded at d0, d16, d31, d42, and d52 to determine average body weight (BW) and (BWG). Feed intake was measured at d16, d31, d42, and d52 to calculate feed conversion ratio (FCR). Four diet phases included a starter d0-16, grower d16-31, finisher d31-42, and withdrawal d42-52 diet. At d18, chickens were orally challenged with 200 EA, 3,000 EM, and 500 ET sporulated oocysts/chicken. At d24 (6-day post-challenge) and d37 (19-day post-challenge), intestinal lesion scores were recorded. Additionally, at d24, FITC-d was used as a biomarker to evaluate intestinal permeability and ileal tissue sections were collected for histopathology and gene expression of tight junction proteins. Ileal and cecal contents were also collected to assess the impact of challenge on the microbiome. BWG and FCR from d16-31 was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in PC compared to NC. At d24, intestinal lesion scores were markedly higher in the PC compared to the NC. Intestinal permeability was significantly increased in the PC group based on serum FITC-d levels. Cadherin 1 (CDH1), calprotectin (CALPR), and connexin 45 (Cx45) expression was also upregulated in the ileum of the PC group at d24 (6-day post-challenge) while villin 1 (VIL1) was downregulated in the ileum of the PC group. Additionally, Clostridium perfringens (ASV1) was enriched in the cecal content of the PC group. This model could be used to assess the effect of alternative coccidiosis control methods during the post-challenge with EA, EM, and ET.

The effects of arginine and branched-chain amino acid supplementation to reduced-protein diet on intestinal health, cecal short-chain fatty acid profiles, and immune response in broiler chickens challenged with Eimeria spp

We investigated the effects of supplementing arginine (Arg) and branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) in broilers fed reduced-protein diets and challenged with Eimeria spp. All birds were fed the same starter diet meeting Cobb 500 nutrient specifications from d 1 to 9. Four grower diets: positive control (PC) with 20.0% crude protein (CP); reduced-protein negative control (NC) with 17.5% CP; or NC supplemented with Arg or BCAA at 50% above recommendations (ARG or BCAA) were fed to the birds from d 9 to 28. Birds were allocated in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement (4 diets, each with or without challenge), with 8 replicates per treatment. On d 14, the challenge groups were orally gavaged with mixed Eimeria spp. Intestinal permeability was higher (P < 0.05) in NC than PC, whereas the permeability of ARG and BCAA groups did not differ significantly from PC. On d 28, a significant interaction (P < 0.01) was observed in CD8⁺: CD4⁺ ratios in cecal tonsils (CT), Eimeria challenge increased the ratios in all groups except for the ARG group. On d 21, a significant interaction was found for CD4⁺CD25⁺ percentages in CT (P < 0.01) that Eimeria challenge increased the percentages only in PC and NC groups. On d 21 and 28, significant interactions (P < 0.01) were found for macrophage nitric oxide (NO) production. In nonchallenged birds, NO was higher in the ARG group than other groups, but in challenged birds, NO was higher in both ARG and BCAA groups. On d 21, a significant interaction was found for bile anticoccidial IgA concentrations (P < 0.05) that Eimeria challenge increased IgA only in NC and ARG groups. The results suggest that a reduced-protein diet exacerbates the impact of the Eimeria challenge on intestinal integrity, but this could be mitigated by Arg and BCAA supplementations. Arginine and BCAA supplementations in reduced-protein diets could be beneficial for broilers against Eimeria infection by enhancing the immune responses. The beneficial effects of Arg supplementation tended to be more pronounced compared to BCAA supplementation.

Nutritional Strategies to Improve Meat Quality and Composition in the Challenging Conditions of Broiler Production: A Review

Poultry meat is becoming one of the most important animal protein sources for human beings in terms of health benefits, cost, and production efficiency. Effective genetic selection and nutritional programs have dramatically increased meat yield and broiler production efficiency. However, modern practices in broiler production result in unfavorable meat quality and body composition due to a diverse range of challenging conditions, including bacterial and parasitic infection, heat stress, and the consumption of mycotoxin and oxidized oils. Numerous studies have demonstrated that appropriate nutritional interventions have improved the meat quality and body composition of broiler chickens. Modulating nutritional composition [e.g., energy and crude protein (CP) levels] and amino acids (AA) levels has altered the meat quality and body composition of broiler chickens. The supplementation of bioactive compounds, such as vitamins, probiotics, prebiotics, exogenous enzymes, plant polyphenol compounds, and organic acids, has improved meat quality and changed the body composition of broiler chickens.

Evaluation of a dacitic (rhyolitic) tuff breccia use on performance, inflammatory, and antioxidant responses in broilers mildly challenged with Eimeria spp

The objective of the study was to investigate the effects of a dacitic tuff breccia (DTB) on Eimeria-infected broilers. A total of 600 one-day-old Cobb 500 male chickens were randomly assigned to 5 treatments with 10 replicates of 12 birds. Treatments were: an unchallenged control (UC), a challenged (CC) control (0% DTB), and 3 challenged groups with 0.125, 0.25, or 0.5% DTB. At d 14, birds in the CC and DTB groups were orally gavaged with mixed Eimeria spp., while the UC received water. Growth performance was evaluated during prechallenge, challenge, and postchallenge periods (0-14 d; 14-20 d; and 20-26 d, respectively). Gastrointestinal permeability was measured at 5 days postinfection (dpi). Intestinal histology and nutrient digestibility of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), and ileal digestible energy (IDE) were measured at 6 dpi. Liver activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) was determined at 6 dpi, and concentrations of reduced (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were analyzed at 6 and 12 dpi. Data were analyzed using a linear mixed model analysis and Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). From 0 to 14 d, similar average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI, P > 0.05) were observed. Gain:feed ratio (GF) was higher in 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5% of DTB than the CC and UC (P < 0.001). From 14 to 20 d, the UC had the highest ADG, ADFI, and GF (P < 0.001). At 5 dpi, intestinal permeability was higher in the challenged groups than the UC. Additionally, the UC showed the highest apparent ileal digestibility of CP, whereas 0.125% DTB had higher CP digestibility than the CC and 0.5% DTB (P < 0.001). At 6 dpi, 0.125% DTB increased GSH-Px activity compared to the CC, 0.5% DTB, and UC (P < 0.001). At 12 dpi, 0.125% DTB showed increased GSH concentration compared to the CC, 0.25% DTB, and 0.5% DTB (P < 0.01). The mild coccidia infection negatively impacted growth performance, apparent ileal nutrient digestibility, intestinal histology, and gastrointestinal integrity in broilers. The use of 0.125% DTB exhibited potential in improving antioxidant responses, apparent ileal digestibility of CP, and growth performance.