Increased IL-3 serum levels in chronic patients with schizophrenia: Associated with psychopathology

Neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio and cognitive performances in first-episode patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls

Abnormal immune and inflammatory responses are considered to contribute to schizophrenia (SZ). The neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (NLR) is an inexpensive and reproducible marker of systemic inflammatory responses. Accumulating studies have demonstrated that NLR values are increased in SZ compared to healthy controls and closely related to clinical symptoms in antipsychotic-naïve first-episode SZ (ANFES) patients. However, to our knowledge, only one study has examined NLR in relation to neurocognition in 27 first-episode psychosis patients and 27 controls. This study aimed to examine the relationship of NLR values with cognitive performances in ANFES patients with a larger sample size. Whole blood cell counts were measured in ninety-seven ANFES patients and fifty-six control subjects. The neurocognitive functions of all subjects were measured by the repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status (RBANS). ANFES patients performed worse on cognition and had increased NLR values relative to healthy controls. In addition, increased NLR was negatively associated with cognitive functions in ANFES patients. Lymphocyte count was positively correlated with cognitive functions in patients. These findings suggest that the abnormal immune and inflammation system indicated by NLR may be involved in the cognitive functions in ANFES patients.

The Interrelationships between Cytokines and Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review

Schizophrenia (SCZ) imposes a significant burden on patients and their families because of its high prevalence rate and disabling nature. Given the lack of definitive conclusions regarding its pathogenesis, physicians heavily rely on patients' subjective symptom descriptions for diagnosis because reliable diagnostic biomarkers are currently unavailable. The role of the inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of SCZ has been supported by some studies. The findings of these studies showed abnormal changes in the levels of inflammatory factors, such as cytokines (CKs), in both peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) among individuals affected by SCZ. The findings imply that inflammatory factors could potentially function as risk indicators for the onset of SCZ. Consequently, researchers have directed their attention towards investigating the potential utility of CKs as viable biomarkers for diagnosing SCZ. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing disease-specific components exhibit remarkable stability and abundance, making them promising candidates for biomarker discovery across various diseases. CKs encapsulated within EVs secreted by immune cells offer valuable insights into disease progression. This review presents a comprehensive analysis summarizing the relationship between CKs and SCZ and emphasizes the vital role of CKs encapsulated within EVs in the pathogenesis and development of SCZ.

Altered IL-3 and lipocalin-2 levels are associated with the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder: a case-control study

BACKGROUND

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common mental ailment and is the primary reason for disability. It manifests a severe impact on moods, thoughts, and physical health. At present, this disorder has become a concern in the field of public health. Alteration of neurochemicals is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of many psychiatric disorders. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate serum IL-3 and lipocalin-2 in MDD patients and healthy controls (HCs).

METHOD

We included a total of 376 participants in this study. Among them, 196 were MDD patients, and 180 were age-sex-matched HCs. MDD patients were recruited from the Psychiatry Department of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), but the controls were from different parts of Dhaka. All study participants were evaluated by a psychiatrist using the DSM-5 criteria. To assess the severity of the depression, we used the Hamilton depression (Ham-D) rating scale. Serum IL-3 and lipocalin-2 levels were measured using commercially available enzyme-linked immune-sorbent assay kits (ELISA kits).

RESULTS

According to this study, we observed elevated serum levels of IL-3 (1,024.73 ± 29.84 pg/mL) and reduced levels of serum lipocalin-2 (29.019 ± 2.073 ng/mL) in MDD patients compared to HCs (911.11 ± 20.55 pg/mL and 48.065 ± 3.583 ng/mL, respectively). No associations between serum levels of IL-3 and lipocalin-2 and depression severity were observed in patients.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the present findings, alterations of serum IL-3 and lipocalin might be associated with the pathogenesis of MDD. These results support that altered serum neurochemicals can serve as early risk assessment markers for depression. Further interventional studies are recommended for a better understanding of the role of IL-3 and lipocalin-2 in the pathophysiology of depression.

Biomarkers of Postpartum Depression: A Narrative Review

Postpartum depression (PPD) is a disorder that impairs the formation of the relationship between mother and child, and reduces the quality of life for affected women to a functionally significant degree. Studying markers associated with PPD can help in early detection, prevention, or monitoring treatment. The purpose of this paper is to review biomarkers linked to PPD and to present selected theories on the pathogenesis of the disease based on data from biomarker studies. The complex etiology of the disorder reduces the specificity and sensitivity of markers, but they remain a valuable source of information to help clinicians. The biggest challenge of the future will be to translate high-tech methods for detecting markers associated with postpartum depression into more readily available and less costly ones. Population-based studies are needed to test the utility of potential PPD markers.

Interaction of S100A6 Protein with the Four-Helical Cytokines

S100 is a family of over 20 structurally homologous, but functionally diverse regulatory (calcium/zinc)-binding proteins of vertebrates. The involvement of S100 proteins in numerous vital (patho)physiological processes is mediated by their interaction with various (intra/extra)cellular protein partners, including cell surface receptors. Furthermore, recent studies have revealed the ability of specific S100 proteins to modulate cell signaling via direct interaction with cytokines. Previously, we revealed the binding of ca. 71% of the four-helical cytokines via the S100P protein, due to the presence in its molecule of a cytokine-binding site overlapping with the binding site for the S100P receptor. Here, we show that another S100 protein, S100A6 (that has a pairwise sequence identity with S100P of 35%), specifically binds numerous four-helical cytokines. We have studied the affinity of the recombinant forms of 35 human four-helical cytokines from all structural families of this fold to Ca2+-loaded recombinant human S100A6, using surface plasmon resonance spectroscopy. S100A6 recognizes 26 of the cytokines from all families of this fold, with equilibrium dissociation constants from 0.3 nM to 12 µM. Overall, S100A6 interacts with ca. 73% of the four-helical cytokines studied to date, with a selectivity equivalent to that for the S100P protein, with the differences limited to the binding of interleukin-2 and oncostatin M. The molecular docking study evidences the presence in the S100A6 molecule of a cytokine-binding site, analogous to that found in S100P. The findings argue the presence in some of the promiscuous members of the S100 family of a site specific to a wide range of four-helical cytokines. This unique feature of the S100 proteins potentially allows them to modulate the activity of the numerous four-helical cytokines in the disorders accompanied by an excessive release of the cytokines.

Depression trajectories and cytokines in schizophrenia spectrum disorders - A longitudinal observational study

Depression occurs frequently in all phases of schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Altered activity in the immune system is seen in both depression and schizophrenia. We aimed to uncover depressive trajectories in a sample of 144 adult individuals with schizophrenia spectrum disorders followed for one year, in order to identify possible cytokine profile differences. Patients were assessed longitudinally with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia (CDSS), where a score above 6 predicts depression. The serum cytokine concentrations for tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interferon (IFN)-gamma, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70 and IL-17A were measured using immunoassays. Latent growth curve models, multilevel models and latent class growth analysis (LCGA) were applied. The LCGA model supported three latent classes (trajectories) with differing CDSS profiles during the one-year follow-up: a high CDSS group (40.8 % of participants), a moderate CDSS group (43.9 %) and a low CDSS group (15.3 %). Five single PANSS items predicted affiliation to depressive trajectory: hallucinations, difficulty in abstract thinking, anxiety, guilt feelings and tension. In the high CDSS group, despite diminishing psychotic symptoms, depressive symptoms persisted throughout one year. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IFN-γ, IL-1β and TNF-α were differentially distributed between the depressive trajectories, although levels remained remarkably stable throughout 12 months. Significant changes were found for the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 at baseline with an accompanying difference in change over time. More research is required to optimize future treatment stratification and investigate the contribution of inflammation in depressed patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders.

Selected Biomarkers of Depression: What Are the Effects of Cytokines and Inflammation?

Depression is one of the leading mental illnesses worldwide and lowers the quality of life of many. According to WHO, about 5% of the worldwide population suffers from depression. Newer studies report a staggering global prevalence of 27.6%, and it is rising. Professionally, depression belonging to affective disorders is a psychiatric illness, and the category of major depressive disorder (MDD) comprises various diagnoses related to persistent and disruptive mood disorders. Due to this fact, it is imperative to find a way to assess depression quantitatively using a specific biomarker or a panel of biomarkers that would be able to reflect the patients' state and the effects of therapy. Cytokines, hormones, oxidative stress markers, and neuropeptides are studied in association with depression. The latest research into inflammatory cytokines shows that their relationship with the etiology of depression is causative. There are stronger cytokine reactions to pathogens and stressors in depression. If combined with other predisposing factors, responses lead to prolonged inflammatory processes, prolonged dysregulation of various axes, stress, pain, mood changes, anxiety, and depression. This review focuses on the most recent data on cytokines as markers of depression concerning their roles in its pathogenesis, their possible use in diagnosis and management, their different levels in bodily fluids, and their similarities in animal studies. However, cytokines are not isolated from the pathophysiologic mechanisms of depression or other psychiatric disorders. Their effects are only a part of the whole pathway.

IL-3 in the development and function of basophils

The β common chain (βc) cytokine family includes granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-3 (IL-3) and IL-5, all of which use βc as key signaling receptor subunit. GM-CSF, IL-3 and IL-5 have specific roles as hematopoietic growth factors. IL-3 binds with high affinity to the IL-3 receptor α (IL-3Rα/CD123) and then associates with the βc subunit. IL-3 is mainly synthesized by different subsets of T cells, but is also produced by several other immune [basophils, dendritic cells (DCs), mast cells, etc.] and non-immune cells (microglia and astrocytes). The IL-3Rα is also expressed by immune (basophils, eosinophils, mast cells, DCs, monocytes, and megacaryocytes) and non-immune cells (endothelial cells and neuronal cells). IL-3 is the most important growth and activating factor for human and mouse basophils, primary effector cells of allergic disorders. IL-3-activated basophils and mast cells are also involved in different chronic inflammatory disorders, infections, and several types of cancer. IL-3 induces the release of cytokines (i.e., IL-4, IL-13, CXCL8) from human basophils and preincubation of basophils with IL-3 potentiates the release of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines from IgE- and C5a-activated basophils. IL-3 synergistically potentiates IL-33-induced mediator release from human basophils. IL-3 plays a pathogenic role in several hematologic cancers and may contribute to autoimmune and cardiac disorders. Several IL-3Rα/CD123 targeting molecules have shown some efficacy in the treatment of hematologic malignancies.

High mobility group box-1 levels in schizophrenia: Potential biomarker of remission phase

Background: Schizophrenia is a chronic mental disorder, characterized byacute exacerbation and remission phases. Immune system has a role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. High mobility group box-1 (HMGB-1) is a macrophage secreted protein activating immune cells to produce cytokines. The aim of this study was to evaluate HMGB-1 levels among patients with schizophrenia both in acute exacerbation and remission phases. Methods: Consecutive schizophrenia patients in acute exacerbation and remission phases were enrolled and compared with each other and with age-sex matched healthy subjects. Patients were assessed with the Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS), Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS), Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), Clinical Global Impression Scale (CGI). Results: Mean HMGB-1 levels were not significantly different in acute exacerbation phase versus remission phase schizophrenia patients (2.139±0.564 g/L vs. 2.326± 0.471 g/L, p=0.335) and both were individually higher than the control group (1.791±0.444 g/L, p=0.05 for acute exacerbation vs control, p=0.002 for remission vs control). In remission phase schizophrenic patients, HMGB-1 levels were positively correlated with Scale For The Assessment of Positive Symptoms (r=0.447, p=0.015) and BPRS (r=0.397, p=0.033) scores and HMGB-1 levels were independently associated with BPRS. Conclusions: Serum HMGB-1 levels were shown to be increased in patients with schizophrenia patients irrespective of phase, there were no differences between patients in acute exacerbation and remission phase in terms of biomarker and HMGB-1 levels were related to symptom severity according to psychiatric scales among patients in remission phase of schizophrenia.

Peripheral immune markers and antipsychotic non-response in psychosis

BACKGROUND

Peripheral immune markers have previously been linked to a poor response to antipsychotic medication and more severe negative symptoms at the onset of psychosis. The present study investigated the association of blood cytokines and complement markers with the presence of antipsychotic non-response and symptom severity in patients with psychosis.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited 94 patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses, of whom 47 were defined as antipsychotic responders and 47 as antipsychotic non-responders. In all subjects we measured plasma levels of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, TNF-α, and IFN-γ), complement markers (C1-inhibitor, C3, C4, C3a, C3b, Bb, factor D, C5a, terminal complement complex) and high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP). Symptom severity was recorded using the Positive and Negative Syndrome scale for Schizophrenia (PANSS). Binary logistic regression tested each immune marker as predictor of response status while covarying for relevant socio-demographic variables. Correlation analyses tested the association between immune markers and the severity of symptoms.

RESULTS

Interleukin (IL)-8 significantly predicted antipsychotic non-response (OR=24.70, 95% CI, 1.35-453.23, p = 0.03). Other immune markers were not associated with antipsychotic response. IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 and TNF-α significantly positively correlated with negative psychotic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher levels of IL-8 are associated with a poor response to antipsychotic treatment. Increased cytokines levels are specifically associated with more severe negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia and other psychoses.

Cytokine Imbalance in Schizophrenia. From Research to Clinic: Potential Implications for Treatment

Cytokines are one of the most important components of the immune system. They orchestrate the brain's response to infectious and other exogenous insults and are crucial mediators of the cross-talk between the nervous and immune systems. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that severe infections and autoimmune disorders, in addition to genetic predisposition, are risk factors for schizophrenia. Furthermore, maternal infection during pregnancy appears to increase the risk of schizophrenia, and proinflammatory cytokines may be negatively involved in the neurodevelopmental process. A cytokine imbalance has been described in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid of schizophrenia patients, particularly in the T helper type 1 [Th1] and type 2 [Th2] cytokines, albeit the results of such studies appear to be contradictory. Chronic stress, likewise, appears to contribute to a lasting proinflammatory state and likely also promotes the disorder. The aim of this mini-review is to investigate the roles of different cytokines in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and define how cytokines may represent key molecular targets to regulate for the prevention and treatment of schizophrenia. How current antipsychotic drugs impact cytokine networks is also evaluated. In this context, we propose to change the focus of schizophrenia from a traditionally defined brain disorder, to one that is substantially impacted by the periphery and immune system.

Cytokines dysregulation in schizophrenia: A systematic review of psychoneuroimmune relationship

INTRODUCTION

Schizophrenia is a multifactorial psychiatric disease with complex interactions among the brain and the immune system. A psycho-immune relationship underling schizophrenia is supported by several studies and integrates a specific area of knowledge - psychoneuroimmunology.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed by 2009 Preferred Reporting Items (PRISMA) recommendations. Based on the inclusion/exclusion criteria, publications with relevant information (evaluated by the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisals tools to quality assessment) were included.

RESULTS

In this review, we considered the inflammatory activity promoted by cytokine alterations in schizophrenia aetiology, which reflects the systemic comprehension of this disease in opposition to the traditional approach focused solely on the brain. We focus on the analysis of several specific outcomes, such as proinflammatory cytokines, sample sort, laboratory techniques, diagnosis scales and results of each publication.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review confirms the existence of cytokines abnormalities in schizophrenia disease. Immune imbalances such as increased levels of some cytokines (either at protein level or at mRNA expression), cytokine mRNAs, as well as cytokine gene polymorphisms have been reported with a large support in schizophrenia. These findings provide a strong evidence of a concomitant process of inflammatory activity in schizophrenia illness course.

Role of the β Common (βc) Family of Cytokines in Health and Disease

The β common ([βc]/CD131) family of cytokines comprises granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin (IL)-3, and IL-5, all of which use βc as their key signaling receptor subunit. This is a prototypic signaling subunit-sharing cytokine family that has unveiled many biological paradigms and structural principles applicable to the IL-2, IL-4, and IL-6 receptor families, all of which also share one or more signaling subunits. Originally identified for their functions in the hematopoietic system, the βc cytokines are now known to be truly pleiotropic, impacting on multiple cell types, organs, and biological systems, and thereby controlling the balance between health and disease. This review will focus on the emerging biological roles for the βc cytokines, our progress toward understanding the mechanisms of receptor assembly and signaling, and the application of this knowledge to develop exciting new therapeutic approaches against human disease.

Pharmacological Treatment for Long-Term Patients with Schizophrenia and Its Effects on Sleep in Daily Clinical Practice: A Pilot Study

Background: Pharmacological treatment is still the key intervention in the disease management of long-term patients with schizophrenia; however, how it affects sleep and whether gender differences exist remains unclear. Methods: Forty-six long-term outpatients with schizophrenia entered the study. The numbers of antipsychotics, sleep medications, antidepressants, and anxiolytics were analyzed. Moreover, all patients were tested using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). Correlation analyses were conducted between the medication used and the scores on the two subjective sleep inventories. Results: A large variability, ranging from 0 to 8, in the total number of psychiatric drugs per person was found between the patients. Despite ongoing pharmacological treatment, the patients scored high on the PSQI, but not on the ESS; this indicates that they report problems with sleep, but not with daytime sleepiness. A significant positive correlation between the use of antipsychotics and the ESS score, but not the PSQI score, was found; moreover, no gender differences were found. Conclusions: A large variability exists in the pharmacological treatment of long-term patients with schizophrenia. To date, patients’ sleep problems have been insufficiently treated, and gender differences have not been adequately accounted for in the pharmacological treatment of schizophrenia. More and larger international clinical studies are warranted to verify the findings of the present preliminary pilot study before any firm conclusions can be drawn and before any changes to the drug treatment of male and female patients with schizophrenia can be recommended.

Interleukin-3, symptoms and cognitive deficits in first-episode drug-naïve and chronic medicated schizophrenia

Previous studies consistently showed that IL-3 signaling may be involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. However, investigations of associations between IL-3 and the neurocognitive impairments are lacking, including the study of how this may vary with stage of illness. We recruited 45 first-episode drug-naïve (FE-Sz), 35 chronic medicated schizophrenia (Ch-Sz) and 40 healthy controls (HC) and examined the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) and serum IL-3. Altered serum IL-3 levels were found in both patient groups compared with HC group (both p < 0.001). There were significantly lower neurocognitive scores on the RBANS and nearly all of its five subscales, except for Visuospatial/Constructional index in both FE-Sz and Ch-Sz patients vs healthy controls. Moreover, a significant reduction in Immediate memory index (p = 0.021) and a trend-level reduction in RBANS total score (p = 0.094) in Ch-Sz than FE-Sz patients. Interestingly, there was a significant negative correlation between IL-3 and the Immediate memory index only in Ch-Sz patients (p = 0.03). Our findings showed that neurocognitive impairments present in schizophrenia emerge during the first episode with further diminished functioning with disease progression, and IL-3 may be involved in the immediate memory deficits in the chronic phase of schizophrenia.

Attacking Heterogeneity in Schizophrenia by Deriving Clinical Subgroups From Widely Available Symptom Data

Previous research has identified (1) a "deficit" subtype of schizophrenia characterized by enduring negative symptoms and diminished emotionality and (2) a "distress" subtype associated with high emotionality-including anxiety, depression, and stress sensitivity. Individuals in deficit and distress categories differ sharply in development, clinical course and behavior, and show distinct biological markers, perhaps signaling different etiologies. We tested whether deficit and distress subtypes would emerge from a simple but novel data-driven subgrouping analysis, based on Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) negative and distress symptom dimensions, and whether subgrouping was informative regarding other facets of behavior and brain function. PANSS data, and other assessments, were available for 549 people with schizophrenia diagnoses. Negative and distress symptom composite scores were used as indicators in 2-step cluster analyses, which divided the sample into low symptom (n = 301), distress (n = 121), and deficit (n = 127) subgroups. Relative to the low-symptom group, the deficit and distress subgroups had comparably higher total PANSS symptoms (Ps < .001) and were similarly functionally impaired (eg, global functioning [GAF] Ps < .001), but showed markedly different patterns on symptom, cognitive and personality variables, among others. Initial analyses of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data from a 182-participant subset of the full sample also suggested distinct patterns of neural recruitment during working memory. The field seeks more neuroscience-based systems for classifying psychiatric conditions, but these are inescapably behavioral disorders. More effective parsing of clinical and behavioral traits could identify homogeneous target groups for further neural system and molecular studies, helping to integrate clinical and neuroscience approaches.

Serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein: A delicate sentinel elevated in drug-free acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia

Increased levels of high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP) have been reported in schizophrenia, but to date, no study is designed to examine serum hsCRP in acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia, an extreme state that requires immediate diagnosis and medical treatment. Serum hsCRP levels were assessed in 32 clinically acutely agitated patients and 42 healthy control subjects matched for demographic properties. Further, serum hsCRP levels in acutely agitated patients were compared with control subjects and with the levels after the patients were treated with anti-psychiatric medications. Meanwhile, the influence of clinical subtypes, family history, and gender, as well as the levels of white blood cell (WBC) counts were also considered. In results, serum hsCRP levels were significantly higher in acutely agitated patients with schizophrenia than in healthy subjects. The elevation of serum hsCRP in patients was not affected by gender, family history (P>0.05), and clinical classification of schizophrenia (P>0.05). However, the elevation of hsCRP was suppressed by the medical treatment for schizophrenia with acute agitation (P<0.05). In addition, WBC counts, another inflammation-related indicator, were also increased significantly in acutely agitated patients compared with healthy subjects, consistent with the elevation of serum hsCRP. In conclusion, hsCRP is an important indicator of immune alterations in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and has potential to be developed into a sensitive marker for the acute agitation in schizophrenia.

Altered serum levels of interleukin-3 in first-episode drug-naive and chronic medicated schizophrenia

Elevated serum levels of Interleukin-3 (IL-3), a major component of the cytokines, have been observed in chronic and medicated patients with schizophrenia, but this elevation may reflect either or both medication and illness chronicity effects. Thus, we compared serum IL-3 levels in first-episode drug-naive (FEDN) to chronic medicated patients with schizophrenia and examined the association of IL-3 with their psychopathological symptoms. Serum IL-3 levels were assessed in 55 FEDN patients, 52 chronic medicated patients and 43 healthy controls. Schizophrenia symptomatology was assessed with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). Serum IL-3 levels were measured by sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We found significantly lower IL-3 levels in FEDN patients than both chronic patients and healthy controls (both p<0.001), while IL-3 levels in chronic patients were markedly higher than in healthy controls. No significant association was observed between IL-3 and any clinical psychopathology in FEDN patients; however, we found a significant correlation between serum IL-3 levels and the PANSS general psychopathology subscore in chronic medicated patients (p<0.05). Decreased IL-3 levels in FEDN patients suggest that suppressed immune function may be associated with developing schizophrenia, but as the disease progresses IL-3 levels increase perhaps related to medication treatment or other factors that occur during chronic illness.

Sleep and inflammatory markers in different psychiatric disorders

Many psychiatric disorders, like schizophrenia, affective disorders, addictions and different forms of dementia are associated with sleep disturbances. In the etiology and course of those diseases inflammatory processes are regarded to be an increasingly important factor. They are also a frequently discussed element of the pathology of sleep. In this literature review reports on correlations between poor sleep and inflammatory responses in various psychiatric conditions are discussed. The link between schizophrenia, affective disorders and inflammatory cytokines is a complex phenomenon, which has been already confirmed in a number of studies. However, the presence of sleep deficits in those conditions, being a common symptom of depression and psychoses, can be an additional factor having a considerable impact on the immunological processes in mental illnesses. In the analyzed data, a number of studies are presented describing the role of inflammatory markers in sleep disturbances and psychopathological symptoms of affective, psychotic, neurogenerative and other disorders. Also attention is drawn to possible implications for their treatment. Efforts to use, e.g., anti-inflammatory agents in psychiatry in the context of their impact on sleep are reported. The aspect of inflammatory markers in the role of sleep deprivation as the treatment method in major depressive disorder is also discussed. A general conclusion is drawn that the improvement of sleep quality plays a crucial role in the care for psychiatric patients.