Metabolic zonation of the liver: The oxygen gradient revisited

Association of Aortic Stiffness and Pressure Pulsatility With Noninvasive Estimates of Hepatic Steatosis and Fibrosis: The Framingham Heart Study

BACKGROUND

Arterial stiffening may contribute to the pathogenesis of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. We aimed to assess relations of vascular hemodynamic measures with measures of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis in the community.

METHODS

Our sample was drawn from the Framingham Offspring, New Offspring Spouse, Third Generation, Omni-1, and Omni-2 cohorts (N=3875; mean age, 56 years; 54% women). We used vibration-controlled transient elastography to assess controlled attenuation parameter and liver stiffness measurements as measures of liver steatosis and liver fibrosis, respectively. We assessed noninvasive vascular hemodynamics using arterial tonometry. We assessed cross-sectional relations of vascular hemodynamic measures with continuous and dichotomous measures of hepatic steatosis and fibrosis using multivariable linear and logistic regression.

RESULTS

In multivariable models adjusting for cardiometabolic risk factors, higher carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (estimated β per SD, 0.05 [95% CI, 0.01-0.09]; P=0.003), but not forward pressure wave amplitude and central pulse pressure, was associated with more liver steatosis (higher controlled attenuation parameter). Additionally, higher carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (β=0.11 [95% CI, 0.07-0.15]; P<0.001), forward pressure wave amplitude (β=0.05 [95% CI, 0.01-0.09]; P=0.01), and central pulse pressure (β=0.05 [95% CI, 0.01-0.09]; P=0.01) were associated with more hepatic fibrosis (higher liver stiffness measurement). Associations were more prominent among men and among participants with obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome (interaction P values, <0.001-0.04). Higher carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity, but not forward pressure wave amplitude and central pulse pressure, was associated with higher odds of hepatic steatosis (odds ratio, 1.16 [95% CI, 1.02-1.31]; P=0.02) and fibrosis (odds ratio, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.19-1.64]; P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Elevated aortic stiffness and pressure pulsatility may contribute to hepatic steatosis and fibrosis.

3D microscaffolds with triple-marker sensitive nanoprobes for studying fatty liver disease in vitro

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a heterogeneous condition that encompasses a wide range of liver diseases that progresses from simple hepatic steatosis to the life-threatening state of cirrhosis. However, due to the heterogeneity of this disease, comprehensive analysis of several physicochemical and biological factors that drive its progression is necessary. Therefore, an in vitro platform is required that would enable real-time monitoring of these changes to better understand the progression of these diseases. The earliest stage of NAFLD, i.e. hepatic steatosis, is characterised by triglyceride accumulation in the form of lipid vacuoles in the cytosol of hepatocytes. This fatty acid accumulation is usually accompanied by hepatic inflammation, leading to tissue acidification and dysregulated expression of certain proteases such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). Taking cues from the biological parameters of the disease, we report here a 3D in vitro GelMA/alginate microscaffold platform encapsulating a triple-marker (pH, MMP-3 and MMP-9) sensitive fluorescent nanoprobe for monitoring, and hence, distinguishing the fatty liver disease (hepatic steatosis) from healthy livers on the basis of pH change and MMP expression. The nanoprobe consists of a carbon nanoparticle (CNP) core, which exhibits intrinsic pH-dependent fluorescence properties, decorated either with an MMP-3 (NpMMP3) or MMP-9 (NpMMP9) sensitive peptide substrate. These peptide substrates are flanked with a fluorophore-quencher pair that separates on enzymatic cleavage, resulting in fluorescence emission. The cocktail of these nanoprobes generated multiple fluorescence signals corresponding to slightly acidic pH (blue) and overexpression of MMP-3 (green) and MMP-9 (red) enzymes in a 3D in vitro fatty liver model, whereas no/negligible fluorescence signals were observed in a healthy liver model. Moreover, this platform enabled us to mimic fatty liver disease in a more realistic manner. Therefore, this 3D in vitro platform encapsulating triple-marker sensitive fluorescent nanoprobes would facilitate the monitoring of the changes in pH and MMP expression, thereby enabling us to distinguish a healthy liver from a diseased liver and to study liver disease stages on the basis of these markers.

Cross-species variability in lobular geometry and cytochrome P450 hepatic zonation: insights into CYP1A2, CYP2D6, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4

There is a lack of systematic research exploring cross-species variation in liver lobular geometry and zonation patterns of critical drug-metabolizing enzymes, a knowledge gap essential for translational studies. This study investigated the critical interplay between lobular geometry and key cytochrome P450 (CYP) zonation in four species: mouse, rat, pig, and human. We developed an automated pipeline based on whole slide images (WSI) of hematoxylin-eosin-stained liver sections and immunohistochemistry. This pipeline allows accurate quantification of both lobular geometry and zonation patterns of essential CYP proteins. Our analysis of CYP zonal expression shows that all CYP enzymes (besides CYP2D6 with panlobular expression) were observed in the pericentral region in all species, but with distinct differences. Comparison of normalized gradient intensity shows a high similarity between mice and humans, followed by rats. Specifically, CYP1A2 was expressed throughout the pericentral region in mice and humans, whereas it was restricted to a narrow pericentral rim in rats and showed a panlobular pattern in pigs. Similarly, CYP3A4 is present in the pericentral region, but its extent varies considerably in rats and appears panlobular in pigs. CYP2D6 zonal expression consistently shows a panlobular pattern in all species, although the intensity varies. CYP2E1 zonal expression covered the entire pericentral region with extension into the midzone in all four species, suggesting its potential for further cross-species analysis. Analysis of lobular geometry revealed an increase in lobular size with increasing species size, whereas lobular compactness was similar. Based on our results, zonated CYP expression in mice is most similar to humans. Therefore, mice appear to be the most appropriate species for drug metabolism studies unless larger species are required for other purposes, e.g., surgical reasons. CYP selection should be based on species, with CYP2E1 and CYP2D6 being the most preferable to compare four species. CYP1A2 could be considered as an additional CYP for rodent versus human comparisons, and CYP3A4 for mouse/human comparisons. In conclusion, our image analysis pipeline together with suggestions for species and CYP selection can serve to improve future cross-species and translational drug metabolism studies.

Potential utility of l-carnitine for preventing liver tumors derived from metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis

BACKGROUND

Recent reports have unveiled the potential utility of l-carnitine to alleviate metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) by enhancing mitochondrial metabolic function. However, its efficacy at preventing the development of HCC has not been assessed fully.

METHODS

l-carnitine (2 g/d) was administered to 11 patients with MASH for 10 weeks, and blood liver function tests were performed. Five patients received a serial liver biopsy, and liver histology and hepatic gene expression were evaluated using this tissue. An atherogenic plus high-fat diet MASH mouse model received long-term l-carnitine administration, and liver histology and liver tumor development were evaluated.

RESULTS

Ten-week l-carnitine administration significantly improved serum alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase levels along with a histological improvement in the NAFLD activity score, while steatosis and fibrosis were not improved. Gene expression profiling revealed a significant improvement in the inflammation and profibrotic gene signature as well as the recovery of lipid metabolism. Long-term l-carnitine administration to atherogenic plus high-fat diet MASH mice substantially improved liver histology (inflammation, steatosis, and fibrosis) and significantly reduced the incidence of liver tumors. l-carnitine directly reduced the expression of the MASH-associated and stress-induced transcriptional factor early growth response 1. Early growth response 1 activated the promoter activity of neural precursor cell expressed, developmentally downregulated protein 9 (NEDD9), an oncogenic protein. Thus, l-carnitine reduced the activation of the NEDD9, focal adhesion kinase 1, and AKT oncogenic signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term l-carnitine administration ameliorated MASH through its anti-inflammatory effects. Long-term l-carnitine administration potentially improved the steatosis and fibrosis of MASH and may eventually reduce the risk of HCC.

Spatial metabolomics and its application in the liver

Hepatocytes work in highly structured, repetitive hepatic lobules. Blood flow across the radial axis of the lobule generates oxygen, nutrient, and hormone gradients, which result in zoned spatial variability and functional diversity. This large heterogeneity suggests that hepatocytes in different lobule zones may have distinct gene expression profiles, metabolic features, regenerative capacity, and susceptibility to damage. Here, we describe the principles of liver zonation, introduce metabolomic approaches to study the spatial heterogeneity of the liver, and highlight the possibility of exploring the spatial metabolic profile, leading to a deeper understanding of the tissue metabolic organization. Spatial metabolomics can also reveal intercellular heterogeneity and its contribution to liver disease. These approaches facilitate the global characterization of liver metabolic function with high spatial resolution along physiological and pathological time scales. This review summarizes the state of the art for spatially resolved metabolomic analysis and the challenges that hinder the achievement of metabolome coverage at the single-cell level. We also discuss several major contributions to the understanding of liver spatial metabolism and conclude with our opinion on the future developments and applications of these exciting new technologies.

Congestive Hepatopathy: Pathophysiology, Workup, and Imaging Findings with Pathologic Correlation

Liver congestion is increasingly encountered in clinical practice and presents diagnostic pitfalls of which radiologists must be aware. The complex altered hemodynamics associated with liver congestion leads to diffuse parenchymal changes and the development of benign and malignant nodules. Distinguishing commonly encountered benign hypervascular lesions, such as focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH)-like nodules, from hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) can be challenging due to overlapping imaging features. FNH-like lesions enhance during the hepatic arterial phase and remain isoenhancing relative to the background liver parenchyma but infrequently appear to wash out at delayed phase imaging, similar to what might be seen with HCC. Heterogeneity, presence of an enhancing capsule, washout during the portal venous phase, intermediate signal intensity at T2-weighted imaging, restricted diffusion, and lack of uptake at hepatobiliary phase imaging point toward the diagnosis of HCC, although these features are not sensitive individually. It is important to emphasize that the Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) algorithm cannot be applied in congested livers since major LI-RADS features lack specificity in distinguishing HCC from benign hypervascular lesions in this population. Also, the morphologic changes and increased liver stiffness caused by congestion make the imaging diagnosis of cirrhosis difficult. The authors discuss the complex liver macro- and microhemodynamics underlying liver congestion; propose a more inclusive approach to and conceptualization of liver congestion; describe the pathophysiology of liver congestion, hepatocellular injury, and the development of benign and malignant nodules; review the imaging findings and mimics of liver congestion and hypervascular lesions; and present a diagnostic algorithm for approaching hypervascular liver lesions. ©RSNA, 2024 Test Your Knowledge questions for this article are available in the supplemental material.

Blood defense system - Proposal for a new concept of an immune system against blood borne pathogens comprising the liver, spleen and bone marrow

Blood-borne pathogen (BBP) infections can rapidly progress to life-threatening sepsis and must therefore be promptly eliminated by the host's immune system. Intravascular macrophages of the liver sinusoid, splenic marginal zone and red pulp and perisinusoidal macrophage protrusions in the bone marrow (BM) directly phagocytose BBPs in the blood as an innate immune response. The liver, spleen and BM thereby work together as the blood defence system (BDS) in response to BBPs by exerting their different immunological roles. The liver removes the vast majority of these invading organisms via innate immunity, but their complete elimination is not possible without the actions of antibodies. Splenic marginal zone B cells promptly produce IgM and IgG antibodies against BBPs. The splenic marginal zone transports antigenic information from the innate to the adaptive immune systems. The white pulp of the spleen functions as adaptive immune tissue and produces specific and high-affinity antibodies with an immune memory against BBPs. The BM works to maintain immune memory by supporting the survival of memory B cells, memory T cells and long-lived plasma cells (LLPCs), all of which have dedicated niches. Furthermore, BM perisinusoidal naïve follicular B cells promptly produce IgM antibodies against BBPs in the BM sinusoid and the IgG memory B cells residing in the BM rapidly transform to plasma cells which produce high-affinity IgG antibodies upon reinfection. This review describes the complete immune defence characteristics of the BDS against BBPs through the collaboration of the liver, spleen and BM with combined different immunological roles.

Harnessing Macromolecular Chemistry to Design Hydrogel Micro- and Macro-Environments

Cell encapsulation within three-dimensional hydrogels is a promising approach to mimic tissues. However, true biomimicry of the intricate microenvironment, biophysical and biochemical gradients, and the macroscale hierarchical spatial organizations of native tissues is an unmet challenge within tissue engineering. This review provides an overview of the macromolecular chemistries that have been applied toward the design of cell-friendly hydrogels, as well as their application toward controlling biophysical and biochemical bulk and gradient properties of the microenvironment. Furthermore, biofabrication technologies provide the opportunity to simultaneously replicate macroscale features of native tissues. Biofabrication strategies are reviewed in detail with a particular focus on the compatibility of these strategies with the current macromolecular toolkit described for hydrogel design and the challenges associated with their clinical translation. This review identifies that the convergence of the ever-expanding macromolecular toolkit and technological advancements within the field of biofabrication, along with an improved biological understanding, represents a promising strategy toward the successful tissue regeneration.

Hepatic spheroid-on-a-chip: Fabrication and characterization of a spheroid-based in vitro model of the human liver for drug screening applications

The integration of microfabrication and microfluidics techniques into cell culture technology has significantly transformed cell culture conditions, scaffold architecture, and tissue biofabrication. These tools offer precise control over cell positioning and enable high-resolution analysis and testing. Culturing cells in 3D systems, such as spheroids and organoids, enables recapitulating the interaction between cells and the extracellular matrix, thereby allowing the creation of human-based biomimetic tissue models that are well-suited for pre-clinical drug screening. Here, we demonstrate an innovative microfluidic device for the formation, culture, and testing of hepatocyte spheroids, which comprises a large array of patterned microwells for hosting hepatic spheroid culture in a reproducible and organized format in a dynamic fluidic environment. The device allows maintaining and characterizing different spheroid sizes as well as exposing to various drugs in parallel enabling high-throughput experimentation. These liver spheroids exhibit physiologically relevant hepatic functionality, as evidenced by their ability to produce albumin and urea at levels comparable to in vivo conditions and the capability to distinguish the toxic effects of selected drugs. This highlights the effectiveness of the microenvironment provided by the chip in maintaining the functionality of hepatocyte spheroids. These data support the notion that the liver-spheroid chip provides a favorable microenvironment for the maintenance of hepatocyte spheroid functionality.

Increased susceptibility to ischemia causes exacerbated response to microinjuries in the cirrhotic liver

Fractional laser ablation is a technique developed in dermatology to induce remodeling of skin scars by creating a dense pattern of microinjuries. Despite remarkable clinical results, this technique has yet to be tested for scars in other tissues. As a first step toward determining the suitability of this technique, we aimed to (1) characterize the response to microinjuries in the healthy and cirrhotic liver, and (2) determine the underlying cause for any differences in response. Healthy and cirrhotic rats were treated with a fractional laser then euthanized from 0 h up to 14 days after treatment. Differential expression was assessed using RNAseq with a difference-in-differences model. Spatial maps of tissue oxygenation were acquired with hyperspectral imaging and disruptions in blood supply were assessed with tomato lectin perfusion. Healthy rats showed little damage beyond the initial microinjury and healed completely by 7 days without scarring. In cirrhotic rats, hepatocytes surrounding microinjury sites died 4-6 h after ablation, resulting in enlarged and heterogeneous zones of cell death. Hepatocytes near blood vessels were spared, particularly near the highly vascularized septa. Gene sets related to ischemia and angiogenesis were enriched at 4 h. Laser-treated regions had reduced oxygen saturation and broadly disrupted perfusion of nodule microvasculature, which matched the zones of cell death. Our results demonstrate that the cirrhotic liver has an exacerbated response to microinjuries and increased susceptibility to ischemia from microvascular damage, likely related to the vascular derangements that occur during cirrhosis development. Modifications to the fractional laser tool, such as using a femtosecond laser or reducing the spot size, may be able to prevent large disruptions of perfusion and enable further development of a laser-induced microinjury treatment for cirrhosis.

Multimodal mass spectrometry imaging identifies cell-type-specific metabolic and lipidomic variation in the mammalian liver

Spatial single-cell omics provides a readout of biochemical processes. It is challenging to capture the transient lipidome/metabolome from cells in a native tissue environment. We employed water gas cluster ion beam secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging ([H2O]n>28K-GCIB-SIMS) at ≤3 μm resolution using a cryogenic imaging workflow. This allowed multiple biomolecular imaging modes on the near-native-state liver at single-cell resolution. Our workflow utilizes desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) to build a reference map of metabolic heterogeneity and zonation across liver functional units at tissue level. Cryogenic dual-SIMS integrated metabolomics, lipidomics, and proteomics in the same liver lobules at single-cell level, characterizing the cellular landscape and metabolic states in different cell types. Lipids and metabolites classified liver metabolic zones, cell types and subtypes, highlighting the power of spatial multi-omics at high spatial resolution for understanding celluar and biomolecular organizations in the mammalian liver.

Mechanobiological stimulation in organ-on-a-chip systems reduces hepatic drug metabolic capacity in favor of regenerative specialization

Hepatic physiology depends on the liver's complex structural composition which among others, provides high oxygen supply rates, locally differential oxygen tension, endothelial paracrine signaling, as well as residual hemodynamic shear stress to resident hepatocytes. While functional improvements were shown by implementing these factors into hepatic culture systems, direct cause-effect relationships are often not well characterized-obfuscating their individual contribution in more complex microphysiological systems. By comparing increasingly complex hepatic in vitro culture systems that gradually implement these parameters, we investigate the influence of the cellular microenvironment to overall hepatic functionality in pharmacological applications. Here, hepatocytes were modulated in terms of oxygen tension and supplementation, endothelial coculture, and exposure to fluid shear stress delineated from oxygen influx. Results from transcriptomic and metabolomic evaluation indicate that particularly oxygen supply rates are critical to enhance cellular functionality-with cellular drug metabolism remaining comparable to physiological conditions after prolonged static culture. Endothelial signaling was found to be a major contributor to differential phenotype formation known as metabolic zonation, indicated by WNT pathway activity. Lastly, oxygen-delineated shear stress was identified to direct cellular fate towards increased hepatic plasticity and regenerative phenotypes at the cost of drug metabolic functionality - in line with regenerative effects observed in vivo. With these results, we provide a systematic evaluation of critical parameters and their impact in hepatic systems. Given their adherence to physiological effects in vivo, this highlights the importance of their implementation in biomimetic devices, such as organ-on-a-chip systems. Considering recent advances in basic liver biology, direct translation of physiological structures into in vitro models is a promising strategy to expand the capabilities of pharmacological models.

Quantifying fat zonation in liver lobules: an integrated multiscale in silico model combining disturbed microperfusion and fat metabolism via a continuum biomechanical bi-scale, tri-phasic approach

Metabolic zonation refers to the spatial separation of metabolic functions along the sinusoidal axes of the liver. This phenomenon forms the foundation for adjusting hepatic metabolism to physiological requirements in health and disease (e.g., metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease/MASLD). Zonated metabolic functions are influenced by zonal morphological abnormalities in the liver, such as periportal fibrosis and pericentral steatosis. We aim to analyze the interplay between microperfusion, oxygen gradient, fat metabolism and resulting zonated fat accumulation in a liver lobule. Therefore we developed a continuum biomechanical, tri-phasic, bi-scale, and multicomponent in silico model, which allows to numerically simulate coupled perfusion-function-growth interactions two-dimensionally in liver lobules. The developed homogenized model has the following specifications: (i) thermodynamically consistent, (ii) tri-phase model (tissue, fat, blood), (iii) penta-substances (glycogen, glucose, lactate, FFA, and oxygen), and (iv) bi-scale approach (lobule, cell). Our presented in silico model accounts for the mutual coupling between spatial and time-dependent liver perfusion, metabolic pathways and fat accumulation. The model thus allows the prediction of fat development in the liver lobule, depending on perfusion, oxygen and plasma concentration of free fatty acids (FFA), oxidative processes, the synthesis and the secretion of triglycerides (TGs). The use of a bi-scale approach allows in addition to focus on scale bridging processes. Thus, we will investigate how changes at the cellular scale affect perfusion at the lobular scale and vice versa. This allows to predict the zonation of fat distribution (periportal or pericentral) depending on initial conditions, as well as external and internal boundary value conditions.

GSK3β/NF-κB -dependent transcriptional regulation of homeostatic hepatocyte Tnf production

Maintenance of hepatocyte homeostasis plays an important role in mediating the pathogenesis of many diseases. A growing body of literature has established a critical role played by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) in maintaining hepatocyte homeostasis; however, the transcriptional mechanisms underlying constitutive Tnf expression are unknown. Whole liver fractions and primary hepatocytes from adult control C57BL/6 mice and the murine hepatocyte cell line AML12 were assessed for constitutive Tnf expression. Impacts of glycogen synthase kinase-3 β (GSK3β) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) inhibition on constitutive Tnf expression were assessed in AML12 cells. Finally, AML12 cell proliferation following GSK3β and NF-κB inhibition was evaluated. Constitutive Tnf gene expression is present in whole liver, primary hepatocytes, and cultured AML12 hepatocytes. Cytokine-induced Tnf gene expression is regulated by NF-κB activation. Pharmacological inhibition of GSK3β resulted in a time- and dose-dependent inhibition of Tnf gene expression. GSK3β inhibition decreased nuclear levels of the NF-κB subunits p65 and p50. We determined that NF-κB transcription factor subunit p65 binds to consensus sequence elements present in the murine TNFα promoter and inhibition of GSK3β decreases binding and subsequent Tnf expression. Finally, AML12 cell growth was significantly reduced following GSK3β and NF-κB inhibition. These results demonstrate that GSK3β and NF-κB are essential for mediating Tnf expression and constitutive hepatocyte cell growth. These findings add to a growing body of literature on TNFα mediated hepatocyte homeostasis and identify novel molecular mechanisms involved in mediating response to various disease states in the liver.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Maintenance of hepatocyte homeostasis plays an important role in controlling the pathogenesis of many diseases. Our findings add to a growing body of literature on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-mediated hepatocyte homeostasis and identify novel molecular mechanisms involved in regulating this response.

Bioengineering scalable and drug-responsive in vitro human multicellular non-alcoholic fatty liver disease microtissues encapsulated in the liver extracellular matrix-derived hydrogel

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a high-prevalence and progressive disorder. Due to lack of reliable in vitro models to recapitulate the consecutive phases, the exact pathogenesis mechanism of this disease and approved therapeutic medications have not been revealed yet. It has been proven that the interplay between multiple hepatic cell types and liver extracellular matrix (ECM) are critical in NAFLD initiation and progression. Herein, a liver microtissue (LMT) consisting of Huh-7, THP-1, and LX-2 cell lines and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), which could be substituted for the main hepatic cells (hepatocyte, Kupffer, stellate, and sinusoidal endothelium, respectively), encapsulated in liver derived ECM-Alginate composite, was bioengineered. When the microtissues were treated with free fatty acids (FFAs) including Oleic acid (6.6×10-4M) and Palmitic acid (3.3×10-4M), they displayed the key features of NAFLD, including similar pattern of transcripts for genes involved in lipid metabolism, inflammation, insulin-resistance, and fibrosis, as well as pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic cytokines' secretions and intracellular lipid accumulation. Continuing FFAs supplementation, we demonstrated that the NAFLD phenomenon was established on day 3 and progressed to the initial fibrosis stage by day 8. Furthermore, this model was stable until day 12 post FFAs withdrawal on day 3. Moreover, administration of an anti-steatotic drug candidate, Liraglutide (15 μM), on the NAFLD microtissues significantly ameliorated the NAFLD phenomenon. Overall, we bioengineered a drug-responsive, cost-benefit liver microtissues which can simulate the initiation and progression of NAFLD. It is expected that this platform could potentially be used for studying molecular pathogenesis of NAFLD and high-throughput drug screening. See also the graphical abstract(Fig. 1).

Dynamic, IPSC-derived hepatic tissue tri-culture system for the evaluation of liver physiologyin vitro

Availability of hepatic tissue for the investigation of metabolic processes is severely limited. While primary hepatocytes or animal models are widely used in pharmacological applications, a change in methodology towards more sustainable and ethical assays is highly desirable. Stem cell derived hepatic cells are generally regarded as a viable alternative for the above model systems, if current limitations in functionality and maturation can be overcome. By combining microfluidic organ-on-a-chip technology with individually differentiated, multicellular hepatic tissue fractions, we aim to improve overall functionality of hepatocyte-like cells, as well as evaluate cellular composition and interactions with non-parenchymal cell populations towards the formation of mature liver tissue. Utilizing a multi-omic approach, we show the improved maturation profiles of hepatocyte-like cells maintained in a dynamic microenvironment compared to standard tissue culture setups without continuous perfusion. In order to evaluate the resulting tissue, we employ single cell sequencing to distinguish formed subpopulations and spatial localization. While cellular input was strictly defined based on established differentiation protocols of parenchyma, endothelial and stellate cell fractions, resulting hepatic tissue was shown to comprise a complex mixture of epithelial and non-parenchymal fractions with specific local enrichment of phenotypes along the microchannel. Following this approach, we show the importance of passive, paracrine developmental processes in tissue formation. Using such complex tissue models is a crucial first step to develop stem cell-derivedin vitrosystems that can compare functionally with currently used pharmacological and toxicological applications.

A single-nucleus transcriptomic atlas of primate liver aging uncovers the pro-senescence role of SREBP2 in hepatocytes

Aging increases the risk of liver diseases and systemic susceptibility to aging-related diseases. However, cell type-specific changes and the underlying mechanism of liver aging in higher vertebrates remain incompletely characterized. Here, we constructed the first single-nucleus transcriptomic landscape of primate liver aging, in which we resolved cell type-specific gene expression fluctuation in hepatocytes across three liver zonations and detected aberrant cell-cell interactions between hepatocytes and niche cells. Upon in-depth dissection of this rich dataset, we identified impaired lipid metabolism and upregulation of chronic inflammation-related genes prominently associated with declined liver functions during aging. In particular, hyperactivated sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) signaling was a hallmark of the aged liver, and consequently, forced activation of SREBP2 in human primary hepatocytes recapitulated in vivo aging phenotypes, manifesting as impaired detoxification and accelerated cellular senescence. This study expands our knowledge of primate liver aging and informs the development of diagnostics and therapeutic interventions for liver aging and associated diseases.

Exploration of a hypoxia-immune-related microenvironment gene signature and prediction model for hepatitis C-induced early-stage fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis contributes to significant morbidity and mortality in Western nations, primarily attributed to chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Hypoxia and immune status have been reported to be significantly correlated with the progression of liver fibrosis. The current research aimed to investigate the gene signature related to the hypoxia-immune-related microenvironment and identify potential targets for liver fibrosis.

METHOD

Sequencing data obtained from GEO were employed to assess the hypoxia and immune status of the discovery set utilizing UMAP and ESTIMATE methods. The prognostic genes were screened utilizing the LASSO model. The infiltration level of 22 types of immune cells was quantified utilizing CIBERSORT, and a prognosis-predictive model was established based on the selected genes. The model was also verified using qRT-PCR with surgical resection samples and liver failure samples RNA-sequencing data.

RESULTS

Elevated hypoxia and immune status were linked to an unfavorable prognosis in HCV-induced early-stage liver fibrosis. Increased plasma and resting NK cell infiltration were identified as a risk factor for liver fibrosis progression. Additionally, CYP1A2, CBS, GSTZ1, FOXA1, WDR72 and UHMK1 were determined as hypoxia-immune-related protective genes. The combined model effectively predicted patient prognosis. Furthermore, the preliminary validation of clinical samples supported most of the conclusions drawn from this study.

CONCLUSION

The prognosis-predictive model developed using six hypoxia-immune-related genes effectively predicts the prognosis and progression of liver fibrosis. The current study opens new avenues for the future prediction and treatment of liver fibrosis.

Microfluidic design for in-vitro liver zonation-a numerical analysis using COMSOL Multiphysics

The liver is one of the most important organs, with a complex physiology. Current in-vitro approaches are not accurate for disease modeling and drug toxicity research. One of those features is liver zonation, where cells display different physiological states due to different levels of oxygen and nutrient supplements. Organ-on-a-chip technology employs microfluidic platforms that enable a controlled environment for in-vitro cell culture. In this study, we propose a microfluidic design embedding a gas channel (of ambient air), creating an oxygen gradient. We numerically simulate different flow rates and cell densities with the COMSOL Multiphysics package considering cell-specific consumption rates of oxygen and glucose. We establish the cell density and flow rate for optimum oxygen and glucose distribution in the cell culture chamber. Furthermore, we show that a physiologically relevant concentration of oxygen and glucose in the chip is reached after 24 h and 30 min, respectively. The proposed microfluidic design and optimal parameters we identify in this paper provide a tool for in-vitro liver zonation studies. However, the microfluidic design is not exclusively for liver cell experiments but is foreseen to be applicable in cell studies where different gas concentration gradients are critical, e.g., studying hypoxia or toxic gas impact.

[Imaging of In Vivo Oxygen Tension Based on Phosphorescence Lifetime Microscopy]

Molecular oxygen plays essential roles in aerobic organisms as a terminal electron acceptor in the electron transport chain in mitochondria. The intracellular oxygen concentration of the entire body is strictly regulated by a balance between the supply of oxygen from blood vessels and the consumption of oxygen in mitochondria. The disruption of oxygen homeostasis in the body often results in serious pathologies such as cancer, cerebral infarction, and chronic kidney disease, and thus considerable effort has been devoted to the development of suitable techniques allowing the qualitative and quantitative detection of tissue oxygen levels. This review focuses on recent advances in the visualization of oxygen levels in tissue based on phosphorescence lifetime measurements using exogenously small molecular oxygen probes. Specially, I introduce the principle of oxygen sensing by means of phosphorescence quenching, recent advances in intracellular and intravascular oxygen probes based on iridium(III) complexes, a system for measuring phosphorescence lifetime combined with confocal scanning microscopy, and the applications of these technologies to in vivo oxygen measurements, emphasizing the usefulness of iridium(III) complexes as biological oxygen probes.

The Material World of 3D-Bioprinted and Microfluidic-Chip Models of Human Liver Fibrosis

Biomaterials are extensively used to mimic cell-matrix interactions, which are essential for cell growth, function, and differentiation. This is particularly relevant when developing in vitro disease models of organs rich in extracellular matrix, like the liver. Liver disease involves a chronic wound-healing response with formation of scar tissue known as fibrosis. At early stages, liver disease can be reverted, but as disease progresses, reversion is no longer possible, and there is no cure. Research for new therapies is hampered by the lack of adequate models that replicate the mechanical properties and biochemical stimuli present in the fibrotic liver. Fibrosis is associated with changes in the composition of the extracellular matrix that directly influence cell behavior. Biomaterials could play an essential role in better emulating the disease microenvironment. In this paper, the recent and cutting-edge biomaterials used for creating in vitro models of human liver fibrosis are revised, in combination with cells, bioprinting, and/or microfluidics. These technologies have been instrumental to replicate the intricate structure of the unhealthy tissue and promote medium perfusion that improves cell growth and function, respectively. A comprehensive analysis of the impact of material hints and cell-material interactions in a tridimensional context is provided.

Lobular distribution of enhanced expression levels of heat shock proteins using in-situ hybridization in the mouse liver treated with a single administration of CCl4

This study was conducted to visualize the lobular distribution of enhanced mRNA expression levels of heat shock proteins (HSPs) in liver samples from carbon tetra chloride (CCl4)-treated mice using in-situ hybridization (ISH). Male BALB/c mice given a single oral administration of CCl4 were euthanized 6 hours or 1 day after the administration (6 h or 1 day). Paraffin-embedded liver samples were obtained, ISH for HSPs was conducted, as well as hematoxylin-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry (IHC). At 6 h, centrilobular hepatocellular vacuolization was observed, and increased signals for Hspa1a, Hspa1b, and Grp78, which are HSPs, were noted in the centrilobular area using ISH. At 1 day, zonal hepatocellular necrosis was observed in the centrilobular area, but mRNA signal increases for HSPs were no longer observed there. Some discrepancies between ISH and IHC for HSPs were observed, and they might be partly caused by post-transcriptional gene regulation, including the ribosome quality control mechanisms. It is known that CCl4 damages centrilobular hepatocytes through metabolization by cytochrome P450, mainly located in the centrilobular region, and HSPs are induced under cellular stress. Therefore, our ISH results visualized increased mRNA expression levels of HSPs in the centrilobular hepatocytes of mice 6 hours after a single administration of CCl4 as a response to cellular stress, and it disappeared 1 day after the treatment when remarkable necrosis was observed there.

Biochemical Markers for Liver Injury in Zebrafish Larvae

Liver plays a crucial role in detoxification processes and metabolism of xenobiotics, and therefore, it is a target organ of toxicity of different classes of chemicals. In this context, some key enzymes present in liver are considered to be good biochemical markers of hepatic damage and can have their activities determined via spectrophotometry. Aspartate and alanine aminotransferases, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, and glutathione peroxidase are enzymes that have activities often changed in response to hepatotoxic compounds and can be accessed through the larval period of zebrafish (Danio rerio). In this chapter, we described methodologies for analyses of these five biomarkers in pooled zebrafish larvae through spectrophotometry.

Redox Biology and Liver Fibrosis

Hepatic fibrosis is a complex process that develops in chronic liver diseases. Even though the initiation and progression of fibrosis rely on the underlying etiology, mutual mechanisms can be recognized and targeted for therapeutic purposes. Irrespective of the primary cause of liver disease, persistent damage to parenchymal cells triggers the overproduction of reactive species, with the consequent disruption of redox balance. Reactive species are important mediators for the homeostasis of both hepatocytes and non-parenchymal liver cells. Indeed, other than acting as cytotoxic agents, reactive species are able to modulate specific signaling pathways that may be relevant to hepatic fibrogenesis. After a brief introduction to redox biology and the mechanisms of fibrogenesis, this review aims to summarize the current evidence of the involvement of redox-dependent pathways in liver fibrosis and focuses on possible therapeutic targets.

Strategic Replication of the Hepatic Zonation In Vitro Employing a Biomimetic Approach

The varied functions of the liver are dependent on the metabolic heterogeneity exhibited by the hepatocytes within the liver lobule spanning the porto-central axis. This complex phenomenon plays an important role in maintaining the physiological homeostasis of the liver. Standard in vitro culture models fail to mimic this spatial heterogeneity of hepatocytes, assuming a homogeneous population of cells, which leads to inaccurate translation of results. Here, we demonstrate the development of an in vitro model of hepatic zonation by mimicking the microarchitecture of the liver using a 3D printed mini bioreactor and decellularized liver matrix to provide the native microenvironmental cues. There was a differential expression of hypoxic and metabolic markers across the developed mini bioreactor, showing the establishment of gradients of oxygen, Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and other metabolic pathways. The model also showed the establishment of zone-dependent toxicity on treatment with acetaminophen. The developed model would thus be a promising avenue in the field of tissue engineering for understanding the liver physiology and pathophysiology and for drug screening to evaluate the potential of new pharmaceutical interventions.

Characterisation of forkhead box protein A3 as a key transcription factor for hepatocyte regeneration

Background & Aims

Liver regeneration is vital for the recovery of liver function after injury, yet the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. Forkhead box protein A3 (FOXA3), a member of the forkhead box family, plays important roles in endoplasmic reticulum stress sensing, and lipid and glucose homoeostasis, yet its functions in liver regeneration are unknown.

Methods

Here, we explored whether Foxa3 regulates liver regeneration via acute and chronic liver injury mice models. We further characterised the molecular mechanism by chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing and rescue experiments in vivo and in vitro. Then, we assessed the impact of Foxa3 pharmacological activation on progression and termination of liver regeneration. Finally, we confirmed the Foxa3-Cebpb axis in human liver samples.

Results

Foxa3 is dominantly expressed in hepatocytes and cholangiocytes and is induced upon partial hepatectomy (PH) or carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) administration. Foxa3 deficiency in mice decreased cyclin gene levels and delayed liver regeneration after PH, or acute or chronic i.p. CCl4 injection. Conversely, hepatocyte-specific Foxa3 overexpression accelerated hepatocytes proliferation and attenuated liver damage in an CCl4-induced acute model. Mechanistically, Foxa3 directly regulates Cebpb transcription, which is involved in hepatocyte division and apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro. Of note, Cebpb overexpression in livers of Foxa3-deficient mice rescued their defects in cell proliferation and regeneration upon CCl4 treatment. In addition, pharmacological induction of Foxa3 via cardamonin speeded up hepatocyte proliferation after PH, without interfering with liver regeneration termination. Finally, Cebpb and Ki67 levels had a positive correlation with Foxa3 expression in human chronic disease livers.

Conclusions

These data characterise Foxa3 as a vital regulator of liver regeneration, which may represent an essential factor to maintain liver mass after liver injury by governing Cebpb transcription.

Impact and Implications

Liver regeneration is vital for the recovery of liver function after chemical insults or hepatectomy, yet the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. Herein, via in vitro and in vivo models and analysis, we demonstrated that Forkhead box protein A3 (FOXA3), a Forkhead box family member, maintained normal liver regeneration progression by governing Cebpb transcription and proposed cardamonin as a lead compound to induce Foxa3 and accelerate liver repair, which signified that FOXA3 may be a potential therapeutic target for further preclinical study on treating liver injury.

Wnt-β-catenin in hepatobiliary homeostasis, injury, and repair

Wnt-β-catenin signaling has emerged as an important regulatory pathway in the liver, playing key roles in zonation and mediating contextual hepatobiliary repair after injuries. In this review, we will address the major advances in understanding the role of Wnt signaling in hepatic zonation, regeneration, and cholestasis-induced injury. We will also touch on some important unanswered questions and discuss the relevance of modulating the pathway to provide therapies for complex liver pathologies that remain a continued unmet clinical need.

A rat liver cell atlas reveals intrahepatic myeloid heterogeneity

The large size and vascular accessibility of the laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus) make it an ideal hepatic animal model for diseases that require surgical manipulation. Often, the disease susceptibility and outcomes of inflammatory pathologies vary significantly between strains. This study uses single-cell transcriptomics to better understand the complex cellular network of the rat liver, as well as to unravel the cellular and molecular sources of inter-strain hepatic variation. We generated single-cell and single-nucleus transcriptomic maps of the livers of healthy Dark Agouti and Lewis rat strains and developed a factor analysis-based bioinformatics analysis pipeline to study data covariates, such as strain and batch. Using this approach, we discovered transcriptomic variation within the hepatocyte and myeloid populations that underlie distinct cell states between rat strains. This finding will help provide a reference for future investigations on strain-dependent outcomes of surgical experiment models.

3D microperfusion of mesoscale human microphysiological liver models improves functionality and recapitulates hepatic zonation

Hepatic in vitro models that accurately replicate phenotypes and functionality of the human liver are needed for applications in toxicology, pharmacology and biomedicine. Notably, it has become clear that liver function can only be sustained in 3D culture systems at physiologically relevant cell densities. Additionally, drug metabolism and drug-induced cellular toxicity often follow distinct spatial micropatterns of the metabolic zones in the liver acinus, calling for models that capture this zonation. We demonstrate the manufacture of accurate liver microphysiological systems (MPS) via engineering of 3D stereolithography printed hydrogel chips with arrays of diffusion open synthetic vasculature channels at spacings approaching in vivo capillary distances. Chip designs are compatible with seeding of cell suspensions or preformed liver cell spheroids. Importantly, primary human hepatocytes (PHH) and hiPSC-derived hepatocyte-like cells remain viable, exhibit improved molecular phenotypes compared to isogenic monolayer and static spheroid cultures and form interconnected tissue structures over the course of multiple weeks in perfused culture. 3D optical oxygen mapping of embedded sensor beads shows that the liver MPS recapitulates oxygen gradients found in the acini, which translates into zone-specific acet-ami-no-phen toxicity patterns. Zonation, here naturally generated by high cell densities and associated oxygen and nutrient utilization along the flow path, is also documented by spatial proteomics showing increased concentration of periportal- versus perivenous-associated proteins at the inlet region and vice versa at the outlet region. The presented microperfused liver MPS provides a promising platform for the mesoscale culture of human liver cells at phenotypically relevant densities and oxygen exposures. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: A full 3D tissue culture platform is presented, enabled by massively parallel arrays of high-resolution 3D printed microperfusion hydrogel channels that functionally mimics tissue vasculature. The platform supports long-term culture of liver models with dimensions of several millimeters at physiologically relevant cell densities, which is difficult to achieve with other methods. Human liver models are generated from seeded primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) cultured for two weeks, and from seeded spheroids of hiPSC-derived human liver-like cells cultured for two months. Both model types show improved functionality over state-of-the-art 3D spheroid suspensions cultured in parallel. The platform can generate physiologically relevant oxygen gradients driven by consumption rather than supply, which was validated by visualization of embedded oxygen-sensitive microbeads, which is exploited to demonstrate zonation-specific toxicity in PHH liver models.

Defining spatiotemporal gene modules in liver regeneration using Analytical Dynamic Visual Spatial Omics Representation (ADViSOR)

BACKGROUND

The liver is the only organ with the ability to regenerate following surgical or toxicant insults, and partial hepatectomy serves as an experimental model of liver regeneration (LR). Dynamic changes in gene expression occur from the periportal to pericentral regions of the liver following partial hepatectomy; thus, spatial transcriptomics, combined with a novel computational pipeline (ADViSOR [Analytic Dynamic Visual Spatial Omics Representation]), was employed to gain insights into the spatiotemporal molecular underpinnings of LR.

METHODS

ADViSOR, comprising Time-Interval Principal Component Analysis and sliding dynamic hypergraphs, was applied to spatial transcriptomics data on 100 genes assayed serially through LR, including key components of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway at critical timepoints after partial hepatectomy.

RESULTS

This computational pipeline identified key functional modules demonstrating cell signaling and cell-cell interactions, inferring shared regulatory mechanisms. Specifically, ADViSOR analysis suggested that macrophage-mediated inflammation is a critical component of early LR and confirmed prior studies showing that Ccnd1, a hepatocyte proliferative gene, is regulated by the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. These findings were subsequently validated through protein localization, which provided further confirmation and novel insights into the spatiotemporal changes in the Wnt/β-catenin pathway during LR.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, ADViSOR may yield novel insights in other complex, spatiotemporal contexts.

Extracellular matrix modulates the spatial hepatic features in hepatocyte-like cells derived from human embryonic stem cells

BACKGROUND

Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) can provide a valuable in vitro model for disease modelling and drug development. However, generating HLCs with characteristics comparable to hepatocytes in vivo is challenging. Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in supporting liver development and hepatocyte functions, but their impact on hepatocyte differentiation and maturation during hPSC differentiation remains unclear. Here, we investigate the effects of two ECM components-Matrigel and type I collagen on hepatic differentiation of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs).

METHODS

hESC-derived HLCs were generated through multistage differentiation in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) cultures, incorporating either type I collagen or Matrigel during hepatic specification and maturation. The resulting HLCs was characterized for their gene expression and functionality using various molecular and cellular techniques.

RESULTS

Our results showed that HLCs cultured with collagen exhibited a significant increase in albumin and alpha-1 anti-trypsin expression with reduced AFP compared to HLCs cultured with Matrigel. They also secreted more urea than Matrigel cultures. However, these HLCs exhibited lower CYP3A4 activity and glycogen storage than those cultured with Matrigel. These functional differences in HLCs between collagen and Matrigel cultures closely resembled the hepatocytes of periportal and pericentral zones, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates that Matrigel and collagen have differential effects on the differentiation and functionality of HLCs, which resemble, to an extent, hepatic zonation in the liver lobules. Our finding has an important impact on the generation of hPSC-HLCs for biomedical and medical applications.

A Novel Milli-fluidic Liver Tissue Chip with Continuous Recirculation for Predictive Pharmacokinetics Applications

A crucial step in lead selection during drug development is accurate estimation and optimization of hepatic clearance using in vitro methods. However, current methods are limited by factors such as lack of physiological relevance, short culture/incubation times that are not consistent with drug exposure patterns in patients, use of drug absorbing materials, and evaporation during long-term incubation. To address these technological needs, we developed a novel milli-fluidic human liver tissue chip (LTC) that was designed with continuous media recirculation and optimized for hepatic cultures using human primary hepatocytes. Here, we characterized the LTC using a series of physiologically relevant metrics and test compounds to demonstrate that we could accurately predict the PK of both low- and high-clearance compounds. The non-biological characterization indicated that the cyclic olefin copolymer (COC)-based LTC exhibited negligible evaporation and minimal non-specific binding of drugs of varying ionic states and lipophilicity. Biologically, the LTC exhibited functional and polarized hepatic culture with sustained metabolic CYP activity for at least 15 days. This long-term culture was then used for drug clearance studies for low- and high-clearance compounds for at least 12 days, and clearance was estimated for a range of compounds with high in vitro-in vivo correlation (IVIVC). We also demonstrated that LTC can be induced by rifampicin, and the culture age had insignificant effect on depletion kinetic and predicted clearance value. Thus, we used advances in bioengineering to develop a novel purpose-built platform with high reproducibility and minimal variability to address unmet needs for PK applications.

Lipid droplet deposition in the regenerating liver: A promoter, inhibitor, or bystander?

Liver regeneration (LR) is a complex process involving intricate networks of cellular connections, cytokines, and growth factors. During the early stages of LR, hepatocytes accumulate lipids, primarily triacylglycerol, and cholesterol esters, in the lipid droplets. Although it is widely accepted that this phenomenon contributes to LR, the impact of lipid droplet deposition on LR remains a matter of debate. Some studies have suggested that lipid droplet deposition has no effect or may even be detrimental to LR. This review article focuses on transient regeneration-associated steatosis and its relationship with the liver regenerative response.

Harnessing computational spatial omics to explore the spatial biology intricacies

Spatially resolved transcriptomics (SRT) has unlocked new dimensions in our understanding of intricate tissue architectures. However, this rapidly expanding field produces a wealth of diverse and voluminous data, necessitating the evolution of sophisticated computational strategies to unravel inherent patterns. Two distinct methodologies, gene spatial pattern recognition (GSPR) and tissue spatial pattern recognition (TSPR), have emerged as vital tools in this process. GSPR methodologies are designed to identify and classify genes exhibiting noteworthy spatial patterns, while TSPR strategies aim to understand intercellular interactions and recognize tissue domains with molecular and spatial coherence. In this review, we provide a comprehensive exploration of SRT, highlighting crucial data modalities and resources that are instrumental for the development of methods and biological insights. We address the complexities and challenges posed by the use of heterogeneous data in developing GSPR and TSPR methodologies and propose an optimal workflow for both. We delve into the latest advancements in GSPR and TSPR, examining their interrelationships. Lastly, we peer into the future, envisaging the potential directions and perspectives in this dynamic field.

Comparison of hyperoxia or normoxia resolution of intermittent hypoxia and intermittent hyperoxia episodes on liver histopathology, IGF-1, IGFBP-3, and GHBP in neonatal rats

OBJECTIVE

Extremely low gestational age neonates requiring oxygen therapy for chronic lung disease experience repeated fluctuations in arterial oxygen saturation, or intermittent hypoxia (IH), during the first few weeks of life. These events are associated with a high risk for reduced growth, hypertension, and insulin resistance in later life. This study tested the hypothesis that IH, or intermittent hyperoxia have similar negative effects on the liver; somatic growth; and liver insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF binding protein (BP)-3, and growth hormone binding protein (GHBP), regardless of resolution in normoxia or hyperoxia between episodes.

DESIGN

Newborn rats on the first day of life (P0) were exposed to two IH paradigms: 1) hyperoxia (50% O2) with brief hypoxia (12% O2); or 2) normoxia (21% O2) with hypoxia (12% O2); intermittent hypoxia (50% O2/21% O2); hyperoxia only (50% O2); or room air (RA, 21% O2). Pups were euthanized on P14 or placed in RA until P21. Controls remained in RA from P0-P21. Growth, liver histopathology, apoptosis, IGFI, IGFBP-3, and GHBP were assessed.

RESULTS

Pathological findings of the liver hepatocytes, including cellular swelling, steatosis, apoptosis, necrosis and focal sinusoid congestion were seen in the IH and intermittent hyperoxia groups, and were particularly severe in the 21-12% O2 group during exposure (P14) with no significant improvements during recovery/reoxygenation (P21). These effects were associated with induction of HIF1α, and reductions in liver IGFI, IGFBP-3, and GHBP.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to IH or intermittent hyperoxia during the first few weeks of life regardless of resolution in RA or hyperoxia is detrimental to the immature liver. These findings may suggest that interventions to prevent frequent fluctuations in oxygen saturation during early neonatal life remain a high priority.

The multifaceted role of macrophages during acute liver injury

The liver is situated at the interface of the gut and circulation where it acts as a filter for blood-borne and gut-derived microbes and biological molecules, promoting tolerance of non-invasive antigens while driving immune responses against pathogenic ones. Liver resident immune cells such as Kupffer cells (KCs), a subset of macrophages, maintain homeostasis under physiological conditions. However, upon liver injury, these cells and others recruited from circulation participate in the response to injury and the repair of tissue damage. Such response is thus spatially and temporally regulated and implicates interconnected cells of immune and non-immune nature. This review will describe the hepatic immune environment during acute liver injury and the subsequent wound healing process. In its early stages, the wound healing immune response involves a necroinflammatory process characterized by partial depletion of resident KCs and lymphocytes and a significant infiltration of myeloid cells including monocyte-derived macrophages (MoMFs) complemented by a wave of pro-inflammatory mediators. The subsequent repair stage includes restoring KCs, initiating angiogenesis, renewing extracellular matrix and enhancing proliferation/activation of resident parenchymal and mesenchymal cells. This review will focus on the multifaceted role of hepatic macrophages, including KCs and MoMFs, and their spatial distribution and roles during acute liver injury.

Intracellular spatiotemporal metabolism in connection to target engagement

The metabolism in eukaryotic cells is a highly ordered system involving various cellular compartments, which fluctuates based on physiological rhythms. Organelles, as the smallest independent sub-cell unit, are important contributors to cell metabolism and drug metabolism, collectively designated intracellular metabolism. However, disruption of intracellular spatiotemporal metabolism can lead to disease development and progression, as well as drug treatment interference. In this review, we systematically discuss spatiotemporal metabolism in cells and cell subpopulations. In particular, we focused on metabolism compartmentalization and physiological rhythms, including the variation and regulation of metabolic enzymes, metabolic pathways, and metabolites. Additionally, the intricate relationship among intracellular spatiotemporal metabolism, metabolism-related diseases, and drug therapy/toxicity has been discussed. Finally, approaches and strategies for intracellular spatiotemporal metabolism analysis and potential target identification are introduced, along with examples of potential new drug design based on this.

Hypoxia-inducible factor affects hepatitis B virus transcripts and genome levels as well as the expression and subcellular location of the hepatitis B virus core protein

Globally, a chronic-hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the leading cause of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF1) is often elevated in HCC, including HBV-associated HCC. Previous studies have suggested that the expression of the HIF1 subunit, HIF1α, is elevated in HBV-infected hepatocytes; however, whether HIF1 activity affects the HBV lifecycle has not been fully explored. We used a liver-derived cell line and ex vivo cultured primary hepatocytes as models to determine how HIF1 affects the HBV lifecycle. We observed that HIF1 elevates HBV RNA transcript levels, core protein levels, core protein localization to the cytoplasm, and HBV genome replication. Attenuating the transcription activity of HIF1 blocked HIF1-mediated effects on the HBV lifecycle. Our studies show that HIF1 regulates various stages of the HBV lifecycle in hepatocytes and could be a therapeutic target for blocking HBV replication and the development of HBV-associated diseases.

Vine tea extract ameliorated acute liver injury by inhibiting hepatic autophagy and reversing abnormal bile acid metabolism

Gut microbiota disturbance, autophagy dysregulation, and accumulation of hepatic bile acids (BAs) are essential features of liver injury. Therefore, regulating autophagy and BA metabolism are potential strategies for treating liver diseases. Vine tea has been seen beyond a pleasant tea in food science. Our previous study found that vine tea extract (VTE) intervention alleviated acute liver injury (ALI) by restoring gut microbiota dysbiosis. In this study, we aim to investigate the effect of VTE on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced hepatic autophagy and BA metabolism disorder in mice. The results showed that VTE effectively suppressed CCl4-induced liver fibrosis and hepatic autophagy. LC-MS/MS assay suggested that VTE affected fecal BA production by reducing the fecal BA levels and improving cholestasis in ALI mice. Besides, VTE inhibited BA synthesis, promoted BA transport in the liver, and enhanced BA reabsorption in the ileum through the farnesoid X receptor (FXR)-related signaling pathway. The hepatic expressions of Fxr and Abca1 were elevated by VTE. Finally, the depletion of gut microbiota in ALI mice had a negative impact on abnormal autophagy and BA metabolism. It was also noted that the administration of VTE did not provide any additional improvement in this regard. Overall, VTE ameliorated ALI by reversing hepatic autophagy and abnormal BA metabolism, and the beneficial effects of VTE on liver injury depended on the existence of gut microbiota.

Humanized mouse liver reveals endothelial control of essential hepatic metabolic functions

Hepatocytes, the major metabolic hub of the body, execute functions that are human-specific, altered in human disease, and currently thought to be regulated through endocrine and cell-autonomous mechanisms. Here, we show that key metabolic functions of human hepatocytes are controlled by non-parenchymal cells (NPCs) in their microenvironment. We developed mice bearing human hepatic tissue composed of human hepatocytes and NPCs, including human immune, endothelial, and stellate cells. Humanized livers reproduce human liver architecture, perform vital human-specific metabolic/homeostatic processes, and model human pathologies, including fibrosis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Leveraging species mismatch and lipidomics, we demonstrate that human NPCs control metabolic functions of human hepatocytes in a paracrine manner. Mechanistically, we uncover a species-specific interaction whereby WNT2 secreted by sinusoidal endothelial cells controls cholesterol uptake and bile acid conjugation in hepatocytes through receptor FZD5. These results reveal the essential microenvironmental regulation of hepatic metabolism and its human-specific aspects.

Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) in disease diagnosis: an overview

Tissue analysis, which is essential to histology and is considered the benchmark for the diagnosis and prognosis of many illnesses, including cancer, is significant. During surgery, the surgical margin of the tumor is assessed using the labor-intensive, challenging, and commonly subjective technique known as frozen section histopathology. In the biopsy section, large numbers of molecules can now be visualized at once (ion images) following recent developments in [MSI] mass spectrometry imaging under atmospheric conditions. This is vastly superior to and different from the single optical tissue image processing used in traditional histopathology. This review article will focus on the advancement of desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging [DESI-MSI] technique, which is label-free and requires little to no sample preparation. Since the proportion of molecular species in normal and abnormal tissues is different, DESI-MSI can capture ion images of the distributions of lipids and metabolites on biopsy sections, which can provide rich diagnostic information. This is not a systematic review but a summary of well-known, cutting-edge and recent DESI-MSI applications in cancer research between 2018 and 2023.

The Effect of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes and miR17-5p Inhibitor on Multicellular Liver Fibrosis Microtissues

Background

Although several studies have been conducted on modeling human liver disease, it is still challenging to mimic nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in vitro. Here, we aimed to develop a fibrotic liver microtissue composed of hepatocytes, hepatic stellate, and endothelial cells. In addition, the therapeutic effects of umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (UC-MSC-EXO) and anti-miR17-5p as new antifibrotic drugs were investigated.

Methods

To create an effective preclinical fibrosis model, multicellular liver microtissues (MLMs) consisting of HepG2, LX2, and HUVECs were cultured and supplemented with a mixture of palmitic acid and oleic acid for 96 hr. Then, MLMs were exposed to UC-MSC-EXO and anti-miR17-5p in different groups. The results of cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, liver enzyme levels, inflammation, and histopathology were analyzed to assess the treatment efficacy. Furthermore, the expression of collagen I (COL I) and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) as critical matrix components, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and miR-17-5p were measured.

Results

Free fatty acid supplementation causes fibrosis in MLMs. Our results demonstrated that UC-MSC-EXO and anti-miR17-5p attenuated TGF-β1, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6 in all experimental groups. According to the suppression of the TGF-β1 pathway, LX2 activation was inhibited, reducing extracellular matrix proteins, including COL I and α-SMA. Also, miR-17-5p expression was elevated in fibrosis conditions. Furthermore, we showed that our treatments decreased alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, and increased albumin levels in the culture supernatant. We also found that both MSC-EXO and MSC-EXO + anti-miR17-5p treatments could reduce ROS production.

Conclusion

Our findings indicated that anti-miR17-5p and MSC-EXO might be promising therapeutic options for treating liver fibrosis. Furthermore, EXO + anti-miR had the best effects on boosting the fibrotic markers. Therefore, we propose this novel MLM model to understand fibrosis mechanisms better and develop new drugs.

Toward Transplantation of Liver Organoids: From Biology and Ethics to Cost-effective Therapy

Liver disease is a common cause of morbidity and mortality, and many patients would benefit from liver transplantation. However, because of a shortage of suitable donor livers, even of those patients who are placed on the donor liver waiting list, many do not survive the waiting time for transplantation. Therefore, alternative treatments for end-stage liver disease need to be explored. Recent advances in organoid technology might serve as a solution to overcome the donor liver shortage in the future. In this overview, we highlight the potential of organoid technology for cell therapy and tissue engineering approaches. Both organoid-based approaches could be used as treatment for end-stage liver disease patients. Additionally, organoid-based cell therapy can also be used to repair liver grafts ex vivo to increase the supply of transplantable liver tissue. The potential of both approaches to become clinically available is carefully assessed, including their clinical, ethical, and economic implications. We provide insight into what aspects should be considered further to allow alternatives to donor liver transplantation to be successfully clinically implemented.

Image-based quantification of histological features as a function of spatial location using the Tissue Positioning System

BACKGROUND

Tissues such as the liver lobule, kidney nephron, and intestinal gland exhibit intricate patterns of zonated gene expression corresponding to distinct cell types and functions. To quantitatively understand zonation, it is important to measure cellular or genetic features as a function of position along a zonal axis. While it is possible to manually count, characterize, and locate features in relation to the zonal axis, it is labor-intensive and difficult to do manually while maintaining precision and accuracy.

METHODS

We addressed this challenge by developing a deep-learning-based quantification method called the "Tissue Positioning System" (TPS), which can automatically analyze zonation in the liver lobule as a model system.

FINDINGS

By using algorithms that identified vessels, classified vessels, and segmented zones based on the relative position along the portal vein to central vein axis, TPS was able to spatially quantify gene expression in mice with zone specific reporters.

INTERPRETATION

TPS could discern expression differences between zonal reporter strains, ages, and disease states. TPS could also reveal the zonal distribution of cells previously thought to be positioned randomly. The design principles of TPS could be generalized to other tissues to explore the biology of zonation.

FUNDING

CPRIT (RP190208, RP220614, RP230330) and NIH (P30CA142543, R01AA028791, R01CA251928, R01DK1253961, R01GM140012, 1R01GM141519, 1R01DE030656, 1U01CA249245). The Pollack Foundation, Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center Cancer & Obesity Translational Pilot Award, and the Emerging Leader Award from the Mark Foundation For Cancer Research (#21-003-ELA).

Distinct hepatocyte identities in liver homeostasis and regeneration

The process of metabolic liver zonation is spontaneously established by assigning distributed tasks to hepatocytes along the porto-central blood flow. Hepatocytes fulfil critical metabolic functions, while also maintaining hepatocyte mass by replication when needed. Recent technological advances have enabled us to fine-tune our understanding of hepatocyte identity during homeostasis and regeneration. Subsets of hepatocytes have been identified to be more regenerative and some have even been proposed to function like stem cells, challenging the long-standing view that all hepatocytes are similarly capable of regeneration. The latest data show that hepatocyte renewal during homeostasis and regeneration after liver injury is not limited to rare hepatocytes; however, hepatocytes are not exactly the same. Herein, we review the known differences that give individual hepatocytes distinct identities, recent findings demonstrating how these distinct identities correspond to differences in hepatocyte regenerative capacity, and how the plasticity of hepatocyte identity allows for division of labour among hepatocytes. We further discuss how these distinct hepatocyte identities may play a role during liver disease.

Zonal expression of StARD1 and oxidative stress in alcoholic-related liver disease

Alcoholic-related liver disease (ALD) is one of the leading causes of chronic liver disease and morbidity. Unfortunately, the pathogenesis of ALD is still incompletely understood. StARD1 has emerged as a key player in other etiologies of chronic liver disease, and alcohol-induced liver injury exhibits zonal distribution. Here, we report that StARD1 is predominantly expressed in perivenous (PV) zone of liver sections from mice-fed chronic and acute-on-chronic ALD models compared to periportal (PP) area and is observed as early as 10 days of alcohol feeding. Ethanol and chemical hypoxia induced the expression of StARD1 in isolated primary mouse hepatocytes. The zonal-dependent expression of StARD1 resulted in the accumulation of cholesterol in mitochondria and increased lipid peroxidation in PV hepatocytes compared to PP hepatocytes, effects that were abrogated in PV hepatocytes upon hepatocyte-specific Stard1 KO mice. Transmission electron microscopy indicated differential glycogen and lipid droplets content between PP and PV areas, and alcohol feeding decreased glycogen content in both areas while increased lipid droplets content preferentially in PV zone. Moreover, transmission electron microscopy revealed that mitochondria from PV zone exhibited reduced length with respect to PP area, and alcohol feeding increased mitochondrial number, particularly, in PV zone. Extracellular flux analysis indicated lower maximal respiration and spared respiratory capacity in control PV hepatocytes that were reversed upon alcohol feeding. These findings reveal a differential morphology and functional activity of mitochondria between PP and PV hepatocytes following alcohol feeding and that StARD1 may play a key role in the zonal-dependent liver injury characteristic of ALD.

Genome-wide mapping of cancer dependency genes and genetic modifiers of chemotherapy in high-risk hepatoblastoma

A lack of relevant genetic models and cell lines hampers our understanding of hepatoblastoma pathogenesis and the development of new therapies for this neoplasm. Here, we report an improved MYC-driven hepatoblastoma-like murine model that recapitulates the pathological features of embryonal type of hepatoblastoma, with transcriptomics resembling the high-risk gene signatures of the human disease. Single-cell RNA-sequencing and spatial transcriptomics identify distinct subpopulations of hepatoblastoma cells. After deriving cell lines from the mouse model, we map cancer dependency genes using CRISPR-Cas9 screening and identify druggable targets shared with human hepatoblastoma (e.g., CDK7, CDK9, PRMT1, PRMT5). Our screen also reveals oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in hepatoblastoma that engage multiple, druggable cancer signaling pathways. Chemotherapy is critical for human hepatoblastoma treatment. A genetic mapping of doxorubicin response by CRISPR-Cas9 screening identifies modifiers whose loss-of-function synergizes with (e.g., PRKDC) or antagonizes (e.g., apoptosis genes) the effect of chemotherapy. The combination of PRKDC inhibition and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy greatly enhances therapeutic efficacy. These studies provide a set of resources including disease models suitable for identifying and validating potential therapeutic targets in human high-risk hepatoblastoma.

Dysregulation of murine long noncoding single-cell transcriptome in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis

LncRNAs comprise a heterogeneous class of RNA-encoding genes typified by low expression, nuclear enrichment, high tissue-specificity, and functional diversity, but the vast majority remain uncharacterized. Here, we assembled the mouse liver noncoding transcriptome from >2000 bulk RNA-seq samples and discovered 48,261 liver-expressed lncRNAs, a majority novel. Using these lncRNAs as a single-cell transcriptomic reference set, we elucidated lncRNA dysregulation in mouse models of high fat diet-induced nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis. Trajectory inference analysis revealed lncRNA zonation patterns across the liver lobule in each major liver cell population. Perturbations in lncRNA expression and zonation were common in several disease-associated liver cell types, including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-associated macrophages, a hallmark of fatty liver disease progression, and collagen-producing myofibroblasts, a central feature of liver fibrosis. Single-cell-based gene regulatory network analysis using bigSCale2 linked individual lncRNAs to specific biological pathways, and network-essential regulatory lncRNAs with disease-associated functions were identified by their high network centrality metrics. For a subset of these lncRNAs, promoter sequences of the network-defined lncRNA target genes were significantly enriched for lncRNA triplex formation, providing independent mechanistic support for the lncRNA-target gene linkages predicted by the gene regulatory networks. These findings elucidate liver lncRNA cell-type specificities, spatial zonation patterns, associated regulatory networks, and temporal patterns of dysregulation during hepatic disease progression. A subset of the liver disease-associated regulatory lncRNAs identified have human orthologs and are promising candidates for biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Opportunities and considerations for studying liver disease with microphysiological systems on a chip

Advances in microsystem engineering have enabled the development of highly controlled models of the liver that better recapitulate the unique in vivo biological conditions. In just a few short years, substantial progress has been made in creating complex mono- and multi-cellular models that mimic key metabolic, structural, and oxygen gradients crucial for liver function. Here we review: 1) the state-of-the-art in liver-centric microphysiological systems and 2) the array of liver diseases and pressing biological and therapeutic challenges which could be investigated with these systems. The engineering community has unique opportunities to innovate with new liver-on-a-chip devices and partner with biomedical researchers to usher in a new era of understanding of the molecular and cellular contributors to liver diseases and identify and test rational therapeutic modalities.

Electroacupuncture treatment ameliorates metabolic disorders in obese ZDF rats by regulating liver energy metabolism and gut microbiota

Metabolic disorders represent a major therapeutic challenge to public health worldwide due to their dramatically increasing prevalence. Acupuncture is widely used as adjuvant therapy for multiple metabolic diseases. However, detailed biological interpretation of the acupuncture stimulations is still limited. The gut and the liver are intrinsically connected and related to metabolic function. Microbial metabolites might affect the gut-liver axis through multiple mechanisms. Liver metabolomics and 16S rRNA sequencing were used to explore the specific mechanism of electroacupuncture in treating ZDF rats in this study. Electroacupuncture effectively improved glycolipid metabolism disorders of the ZDF rats. Histopathology confirmed that electroacupuncture improved diffuse hepatic steatosis and hepatocyte vacuolation, and promoted glycogen accumulation in the liver. The treatment significantly improved microbial diversity and richness and upregulated beneficial bacteria that maintain intestinal epithelial homeostasis and decreased bacteria with detrimental metabolic features on host metabolism. Liver metabolomics showed that the main effects of electroacupuncture include reducing the carbon flow and intermediate products in the TCA cycle, regulating the metabolism of various amino acids, and inhibiting hepatic glucose output and de novo lipogenesis. The gut-liver axis correlation analysis showed a strong correlation between the liver metabolites and the gut microbiota, especially allantoin and Adlercreutzia. Electroacupuncture treatment can improve abnormal energy metabolism by reducing oxidative stress, ectopic fat deposition, and altering metabolic fluxes. Our results will help us to further understand the specific mechanism of electroacupuncture in the treatment of metabolic diseases.