Aerobic vaginitis: no longer a stranger

Genome-wide analysis of Enterococcus faecalis genes that facilitate interspecies competition with Lactobacillus crispatus

Enterococci are opportunistic pathogens notorious for causing a variety of infections. While both Enterococcus faecalis and Lactobacillus crispatus are commensal residents of the vaginal tract, the molecular mechanisms that enable E. faecalis to take advantage of a vaginal biome with lower counts of lactobacilli to colonize the vaginal tract and induce aerobic vaginitis remain unknown. Here, we show that L. crispatus eradicates E. faecalis in a contact-independent manner. Using transposon sequencing to identify E. faecalis OG1RF transposon (Tn) mutants that are either under-represented or over-represented when co-cultured with L. crispatus, we found that Tn mutants with disruption in the dltABCD operon, that encodes the proteins responsible for the D-alanylation of teichoic acids, and OG1RF_11697 encoding for an uncharacterized hypothetical protein are more susceptible to killing by L. crispatus. Inversely, Tn mutants with disruption in ldh1, which encodes for L-lactate dehydrogenase, are more resistant to L. crispatus killing. Using the Galleria mellonella infection model, we show that co-injection of L. crispatus with E. faecalis OG1RF enhances larvae survival while this L. crispatus-mediated protection was lost in larvae co-infected with either L. crispatus and E. faecalisΔldh1 or Δldh1Δldh2 strains. Last, using RNA sequencing to identify E. faecalis genes that are differently expressed in the presence of L. crispatus, we found major changes in the expression of genes associated with glycerophospholipid metabolism, central metabolism, and general stress responses. The findings in this study provide insights into how E. faecalis mitigate assaults by L. crispatus.IMPORTANCEEnterococcus faecalis is an opportunistic pathogen notorious for causing a multitude of infections. As vaginal commensals, E. faecalis must interact with Lactobacillus crispatus, but how E. faecalis overcomes or mitigate assaults by L. crispatus killing remains unknown. We show that L. crispatus eradicates E. faecalis temporally in a contact-independent manner. Using high-throughput molecular approaches, we identified genetic determinants that enable E. faecalis to compete with L. crispatus. This study represents an important first step for the identification of adaptive genetic traits required for enterococci to tolerate assaults by lactobacilli.

In vitro evaluation of the immunomodulatory and antibacterial activities of calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3) as a potential application for aerobic vaginitis treatment - preliminary study results

BACKGROUND

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a state of abnormal vaginal microbiota, which is associated with increased numbers of aerobic, enteric bacteria and inflammation of the vaginal epithelium. Anti-microbial treatment combined with anti-inflammatory therapy could be useful in the treatment of this condition. It is known that calcitriol, the active form of vitamin D, plays an important role in modulating the immune response in several inflammatory diseases. The aim of this preliminary study was to evaluate in vitro the influence of calcitriol on the immune response of human vaginal epithelial cells to bacterial infection. Moreover, we assessed the anti-bacterial properties of calcitriol, as well as its synergistic activity with antibiotics that are used for the treatment of AV.

RESULTS

Human vaginal A431 epithelial cells were treated with calcitriol (100 nM) and then stimulated with thermally inactivated strains of AV-associated bacteria (Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus agalactiae), or first stimulated with heat-treated bacteria and then incubated with calcitriol (30 nM). After 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h post-infection, culture supernatants were collected, and levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). As it turned out, calcitriol treatment pre- or post-bacterial stimulation of vaginal epithelial cells significantly decreased the levels of IL-6 and IL-1β compared to cells stimulated only with bacteria. Downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines was more frequently significant when cells were pre-treated with calcitriol. Additionally, this study evaluated the anti-bacterial properties and synergistic activity of calcitriol with antibiotics by determining the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) using colorimetric, Resazurin-based microdilution method detecting the active metabolism of bacteria. As a result, calcitriol by itself did not exhibit clinically relevant anti-bacterial activity; however, when combined with antibiotics, calcitriol significantly reduced the MIC values.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this preliminary study confirm that calcitriol treatment influences cytokine-mediated immune response during infection and indicate that it can be effective in enhancing antibiotic activity. Such properties could be very useful in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. However, conclusions regarding the potential use of calcitriol in the treatment of AV require further confirmation in in vivo studies as well as in well-designed clinical trials.

Water source, latrine type, and rainfall are associated with detection of non-optimal and enteric bacteria in the vaginal microbiome: a prospective observational cohort study nested within a cluster randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Less than one-third of sub-Saharan Africans have access to improved water sources. In US, Indian, and African studies, Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is increased among women with poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH). We examined water source, sanitation (latrine type), and rainfall in relation to the vaginal microbiome (VMB).

METHODS

In a cluster randomized controlled trial of menstrual cups and cash transfer, we measured the impact of cups on VMB via 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing in a subset of 436 adolescent girls. We analyzed how self-reported water source and latrine type at home related to VMB over 18-months, examining community state type I (CST-I, L. crispatus dominant) vs. other CST; alpha diversity; targeted taxa (coliform and other water-related pathogens); and non-targeted taxa via machine learning approaches. Mixed effects multivariable longitudinal models were adjusted for intervention arm, age, socioeconomic status, sexual activity, and cluster-level school WASH and rainfall (in millimeters).

RESULTS

Adjusting for all covariates in all models: (1) the odds of CST-I were increased among participants with piped water (vs. pond), and decreased with traditional pit latrine vs. flush toilet. (2) Alpha diversity varied by water source and latrine type without consistent trends. (3) Coliform bacteria relative abundance (RA) was higher among participants with traditional pit or ventilated improved pit latrines vs. flush toilet, and higher among participants relying on stream vs. pond water. Streptococcus agalactiae RA was higher among participants with non-flush toilets, while Bacteroides fragilis RA was lower with non-flush toilets. (4) Key taxa from non-targeted analyses associated with water source and latrine type included typical vaginal bacteria, opportunistic pathogens, and urinary tract pathobionts. (6) Increased rainfall was associated with decreased odds of CST-I.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03051789, February 14, 2017.

Cell-Free Supernatant of Vaginal Viridans Streptococcus Induces Membrane Permeabilization and Transcriptional Regulation in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus

The genus Streptococcus is a heterogenous group of commensal and pathogenic bacteria that are normal inhabitants of the human body, including the female genital tract (FGT). In the FGT microbiome, streptococci represent two major groups: the pathogenic group B Streptococci (GBS) and the commensal viridans group streptococci (VGS). Though members of the VGS are frequently detected from the FGT, their role in the FGT microbiome remains underexplored. Here, we report the characterization of Streptococcus sp. K0074, isolated from the vaginal swab of an endometrial cancer patient admitted to the hospital, with no evidence of bacterial vaginosis. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the strain is a member of the commensal VGS and possibly represents a novel species in the mitis subgroup. The strain demonstrated the production of low molecular weight bacteriocin-like substance with narrow-spectrum antagonistic activity, affecting the growth, biofilm formation, and colonization of aerobic vaginitis (AV)-causing bacterium methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The putative bacteriocin exhibited cell membrane-permeabilizing activity and exerted negative regulatory effect on the accessory gene regulator and SaeRS two-component systems of MRSA. Collectively, our results suggest that the isolate may modulate the FGT microbiome by inhibiting or displacing specific pathogen. Furthermore, the results presented here highlight new perspectives regarding the existence of VGS in the FGT microbiome and in particular pinpoint the potential clinical significance of the isolated VGS strain Streptococcus sp. K0074 for the treatment of AV caused by MRSA.

Bioinspired gelated cell sheet-supported lactobacillus biofilm for aerobic vaginitis diagnosis and treatment

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a long-standing inflammatory disease that affects female patients. The use of antibiotics is a common means for AV treatment, but it will indiscriminately kill both pathogenic bacteria and beneficial strains, which easily causes vaginal dysbacteriosis and infection recurrence. Herein, we describe a bioinspired strategy for fabricating gelated cell sheet-supported lactobacillus biofilms (GCS-LBs) for AV treatment. Compared with common planktonic probiotic formulations, probiotic biofilms forming on a robust GCS exhibit enhanced stress tolerance and better colonization capacity in the mouse vagina. Moreover, DNA nanodevices are decorated on the GCS and dynamically report the microenvironment change of biofilms for timely evaluating bacterium activity, both in vitro and in vivo. Consequently, GCS-LBs are used for treating AV in an Escherichia coli-infected mouse model, which shows enhanced therapeutic efficacy compared with conventional antibiotic or lactobacillus monotherapy. Overall, the GCS-LB shows promise as a potent multifunctional tool to combat bacterial infection.

Cross-Sectional Study on the Correlation Between Vaginal Microecology and High-Risk Human Papillomavirus Infection: Establishment of a Clinical Prediction Model

Purpose

High-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) is a significant risk factor for cervical precancerous lesions and cancer. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between vaginal microecology and HR-HPV infection and to evaluate the clinical applicability of vaginal microecology in predicting HR-HPV infection.

Patients and Methods

Overall, 2000 women with simultaneously detected vaginal discharge and cervical HPV were selected between March 2022 and March 2023, including 241 and 1759 cases in the HR-HPV positive and HPV negative groups, respectively.

Results

No significant differences were found in age, vulvovaginal candidiasis, trichomonas vaginitis, and β-N-acetylglucosaminosidase between the two groups (P>0.05). Significant differences were observed in Lactobacillus deficiency, bacterial vaginitis (BV), aerobic vaginitis (AV), glucuronidase (GUS), sialidase (SNA), and leukocyte esterase (LE) between the two groups (P<0.05). In the multivariate logistic regression equation, Lactobacillus deficiency, BV, AV, SNA, LE, and GUS were risk factors for HR-HPV infection (P<0.05). Three prediction models, namely, logistic regression, decision tree, and random forest, were established to rank the importance of the predictors. BV ranked first among the three prediction models. The logistic regression model demonstrated the highest accuracy in predicting the risk of HR-HPV infection. The calibration curve of the logistic regression model showed a strong correlation between the predicted and actual probabilities, and decision curve analysis revealed that the prediction model had good clinical applicability.

Conclusion

Overall, vaginal microecology imbalance was closely associated with cervical HR-HPV infection, particularly BV and AV. The logistic regression model for the risk of HR-HPV infection based on six predictive factors (BV, AV, LE, SNA, Lactobacillus deficiency, and GUS) had good accuracy and clinical applicability.

A Controlled, Retrospective, Single-Center Study to Evaluate the Role of a Probiotic Mixture Administered during Pregnancy in Reducing Streptococcus Agalactiae Swab Positivity and the Frequency of Premature Rupture of Amniochorionic Membranes

Intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis, considered able to prevent streptococcal transmission from mother to newborn and its severe negative consequences, leads to microbiota dysbiosis, described as having a negative impact on well-being in both elements of the dyad. Enterococcus faecium L3 is a probiotic strain capable of exerting strong antagonistic activity against most streptococci, including S. agalactiae, due to the production of bacteriocins (known as enterocins A and B). A proprietary probiotic mixture containing the strain L3 demonstrated, in 2016, a significant reduction in episodes of PROM in pregnant women, with a less-than-expected effect on the vaginal-rectal presence of the pathogen S. agalactiae. With the aim of confirming the role exerted by the probiotic mixture in PROM episodes and to better understand the value of its impact on the clinical detection of S. agalactiae, we have retrospectively analyzed the results obtained in 125 L3-treated (over 12 weeks) women versus 125 untreated controls. Despite some limitations, our analysis has confirmed the role exerted by the probiotic in significantly reducing the following: (1) episodes of PROM, (2) vaginal-rectal positivity for S. agalactiae, and (3) the need to administer intrapartum antibiotics for prophylaxis. It likely also suggests operating using a cultural method very specific to S. agalactiae when testing women who were administered an Enterococcus-based probiotic.

Enterococcal-host interactions in the gastrointestinal tract and beyond

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is typically considered the natural niche of enterococci. However, these bacteria also inhabit extraintestinal tissues, where they can disrupt organ physiology and cause life-threatening infections. Here, we discuss how enterococci, primarily Enterococcus faecalis, interact with the intestine and other host anatomical locations such as the oral cavity, heart, liver, kidney, and vaginal tract. The metabolic flexibility of these bacteria allows them to quickly adapt to new environments, promoting their persistence in diverse tissues. In transitioning from commensals to pathogens, enterococci must overcome harsh conditions such as nutrient competition, exposure to antimicrobials, and immune pressure. Therefore, enterococci have evolved multiple mechanisms to adhere, colonize, persist, and endure these challenges in the host. This review provides a comprehensive overview of how enterococci interact with diverse host cells and tissues across multiple organ systems, highlighting the key molecular pathways that mediate enterococcal adaptation, persistence, and pathogenic behavior.

Vaginal dysbiosis - the association with reproductive outcomes in IVF patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To examine impact of vaginal dysbiosis (VD), including bacterial vaginosis (BV) and aerobic vaginitis (AV) on reproductive outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF) patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

BV-bacteria (e.g. Gardnerella ) and AV-bacteria (e.g. Streptococci and Enterococci ) have been identified in the endometrium. However, there is inconclusive evidence whether IVF patients with VD have lower success rates.

SUMMARY

The present systematic review and meta-analysis of PubMed/Medline, until December 2023 included 25 studies, involving 6835 IVF patients. Overall VD was defined as an approximation of community state type IV, including BV and AV-type dysbiosis based on either molecular or microscopy methods. Outcomes were live birth rate (LBR), early pregnancy loss (EPL), clinical pregnancy rate (CPR), and biochemical pregnancy rate (BPR).Vaginal dysbiosis prevalence was 19% [1271/6835, 95% confidence interval (CI) 18-20%]. Six studies examined AV-type dysbiosis with a prevalence of 4% (26/628, 95% CI 3-6%). Vaginal dysbiosis correlates with a higher EPL [relative risk (RR) = 1.49, 95% CI 1.15-1.94] and lower CPR (RR = 0.82, 95% CI 0.70-0.95). No statistically significant impact of VD, BV, or AV was found on LBR and BPR.Thus, the association between VD and reproductive outcome remains puzzling as it is difficult to explain how VD impacts CPR and EPL but not LBR and BPR.

Non-invasive prediction model of histologic chorioamnionitis with preterm prelabour rupture of membranes

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study is to identify risk factors associated with histological chorioamnionitis (HCA) and develop a predictive model for antepartum assessment of the risk of PPROM with HCA.

METHODS

This study retrospectively analyzed pregnant women who experienced PPROM between 25 + 0 and 35 + 0 weeks of gestational age. The women were divided into two groups based on the presence or absence of HCA. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify maternal risk factors and develop a clinical prediction model for HCA. The model's discrimination and consistency were evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and calibration curves.

RESULTS

Seventeen thousand one hundred forty-six (17,146) pregnant women were screened, and 726 (4.23 %) had PPROM. Out of the 286 subjects with PPROM, 160 developed HCA. The maternal age of these subjects ranged from 18 to 43 years (30.0 ± 5.4), while their gestational age (GA) ranged from 25 + 0 to 35 + 0 weeks (31.6 ± 2.0). The average GA at delivery was 32.2 ± 2.0 (weeks).Compared with the non-HCA group, the expectant time > 48 h, GA at delivery > 32 weeks, twin pregnancy, HGB (<110 g/Lg/L), degree of LGB (IIb-III), and WBC (>9.5 × 109 /L) were significantly more than in the PPROM with HCA group. The results show that the best model was obtained by leave-one-out logistic regression (AUC = 0.785, CA = 0.741, F1 = 0.739, Precision = 0.740, Recall = 0.741). In the validation set, logistic regression also achieved good results (AUC = 0.710, CA = 0.671, F1 = 0.654, Precision = 0.683, Recall = 0.671). Combining the previous analysis, we found that the prognostic model constructed using the core six features had the best predictive effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Six features were associated with the occurrence of chorioamnionitis. These features were used to construct a diagnostic model that can accurately predict the probability of chorioamnionitis occurrence and provide a beneficial tool for the prevention and management of PPROM with HCA.

In vitro biofilm formation of Gardnerella vaginalis and Escherichia coli associated with bacterial vaginosis and aerobic vaginitis

Objective

To determine the optimum biofilm formation ratio of Gardnerella vaginalis (G. vaginalis) in a mixed culture with Escherichia coli (E. coli).

Methods

G. vaginalis ATCC14018, E. coli ATCC25922, as well as five strains of G. vaginalis were selected from the vaginal sources of patients whose biofilm forming capacity was determined by the Crystal Violet method. The biofilm forming capacity of E. coli in anaerobic and non-anaerobic environments were compared using the identical assay. The Crystal Violet method was also used to determine the biofilm forming capacity of a co-culture of G. vaginalis and E. coli in different ratios. After Live/Dead staining, biofilm thickness was measured using confocal laser scanning microscopy, and biofilm morphology was observed by scanning electron microscopy.

Results

The biofilm forming capacity of E. coli under anaerobic environment was similar to that in a 5% CO2 environment. The biofilm forming capacity of G. vaginalis and E. coli was stronger at 106:105 CFU/mL than at other ratios (P<0.05). Their thicknesses were greater at 106:105 CFU/mL than at the other ratios, with the exception of 106:102 CFU/mL (P<0.05), under laser scanning microscopy. Scanning electron microscopy revealed increased biofilm formation at 106:105 CFU/mL and 106:102 CFU/mL, but no discernible E. coli was observed at 106:102 CFU/mL.

Conclusion

G. vaginalis and E. coli showed the greatest biofilm forming capacity at a concentration of 106:105 CFU/mL at 48 hours and could be used to simulate a mixed infection of bacterial vaginosis and aerobic vaginitis in vitro.

Aerobic vaginitis, bacterial vaginosis, and vaginal candidiasis among women of reproductive age in Arba Minch, southern Ethiopia

Reproductive tract infections (RTIs) are a persistent public health threat worldwide, particularly among women in low-income countries of Africa, including Ethiopia, where drug resistance is also a growing problem. It is crucial to address this problem to ensure women's health and well-being. A cross-sectional study was carried out among a cohort of 398 women of reproductive age who sought medical attention at the Gynecology Department of the Arba Minch General Hospital, southern Ethiopia, from January to June 2020. They were chosen through systematic random sampling, and a pre-tested structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. The collection of vaginal and/or cervical swabs were done to diagnose bacterial vaginosis (BV) and aerobic vaginitis (AV) using Nugent and AV score analyses, respectively. The swabs were subjected to standard microbiological culture techniques to detect the isolates causing AV and vaginal candidiasis (VC). The susceptibility profiles of the causative agents of AV were checked by the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion technique. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were also done. Aerobic vaginitis was the predominantly diagnosed RTI (n = 122, 30.7%), followed by BV (n = 117, 29.4%) and VC (n = 111, 27.9%). The prominent bacteria of AV were Escherichia coli (n = 36, 34.2%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (n = 30, 28.5%). The overall rate of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria was 65.71% (n = 69). History of abortion (p = 0.01; AOR = 4.0, 95% CI = 2.1, 7.7) and the habit of using vaginal pH-altering contraceptives (p = 0.01; AOR = 4.7, 95% CI = 2.5, 8.8) have the greatest odds of RTI. The high prevalence of RTIs in our study warrants an urgent intervention to minimize the associated morbidities and complications. The overall rate of MDR bacterial isolates necessitates the implementation of an effective surveillance program in the study setting.

Cracking the Code: Investigating the Correlation between Aerobic Vaginitis and Preterm Labor

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a distinct clinical entity characterized by inflammation and abnormal vaginal microflora. Often mistaken for bacterial vaginosis, AV remains relatively unknown and underdiagnosed. AV's understanding is evolving, with some experts suggesting it may primarily be an immunological disorder, the prevalence of which has a range of 7-13% in non-pregnant women and 4.1-8.3% during pregnancy. Pregnancy can affect susceptibility to vaginal infections, leading to adverse outcomes for the woman and the newborn. This review summarizes the correlation between AV and adverse pregnancy outcomes, particularly preterm birth, the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among neonates. An improved understanding of AV's impact on pregnancy outcomes can lead to early recognition, proper management, and effective interventions. While some studies support an association between AV and preterm labor, the existing knowledge of this relationship remains limited. The evidence suggests that AV may contribute to adverse pregnancy outcomes, mainly preterm birth, but further research is needed to establish a definitive link. Further studies are needed to investigate the underlying mechanisms and clarify AV's role in premature labor. A comprehensive understanding of AV's impact on pregnancy outcomes is crucial for early recognition, appropriate management, and effective interventions.

[Preliminary Study on the Identification of Aerobic Vaginitis by Artificial Intelligence Analysis System]

Objective

To develop an artificial intelligence vaginal secretion analysis system based on deep learning and to evaluate the accuracy of automated microscopy in the clinical diagnosis of aerobic vaginitis (AV).

Methods

In this study, the vaginal secretion samples of 3769 patients receiving treatment at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University between January 2020 and December 2021 were selected. Using the results of manual microscopy as the control, we developed the linear kernel SVM algorithm, an artificial intelligence (AI) automated analysis software, with Python Scikit-learn script. The AI automated analysis software could identify leucocytes with toxic appearance and parabasal epitheliocytes (PBC). The bacterial grading parameters were reset using standard strains of lactobacillus and AV common isolates. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was used to determine the cut-off value of AV evaluation results for different scoring items were obtained by using the results of manual microscopy as the control. Then, the parameters of automatic AV identification were determined and the automatic AV analysis scoring method was initially established.

Results

A total of 3769 vaginal secretion samples were collected. The AI automated analysis system incorporated five parameters and each parameter incorporated three severity scoring levels. We selected 1.5 μm as the cut-off value for the diameter between Lactobacillus and common AV bacterial isolates. The automated identification parameter of Lactobacillus was the ratio of bacteria ≥1.5 μm to those <1.5 μm. The cut-off scores were 2.5 and 0.5, In the parameter of white blood cells (WBC), the cut-off value of the absolute number of WBC was 103 μL－1 and the cut-off value of WBC-to-epithelial cell ratio was 10. The automated identification parameter of toxic WBC was the ratio of toxic WBC toWBC and the cut-off values were 1% and 15%. The parameter of background flora was bacteria<1.5 μm and the cut-off values were 5×103 μL－1 and 3×104 μL－1. The parameter of the parabasal epitheliocytes was the ratio of PBC to epithelial cells and the cut-off values were 1% and 10%. The agreement rate between the results of automated microscopy and those of manual microscopy was 92.5%. Out of 200 samples, automated microscopy and manual microscopy produced consistent scores for 185 samples, while the results for 15 samples were inconsistent.

Conclusion

We developed an AI recognition software for AV and established an automated vaginal secretion microscopy scoring system for AV. There was good overall concordance between automated microscopy and manual microscopy. The AI identification software for AV can complete clinical lab examination with rather high objectivity, sensitivity, and efficiency, markedly reducing the workload of manual microscopy.

Real‑world performance and safety of vaginal ovules in reducing the vaginal symptoms associated with vulvovaginal atrophy and postmenopausal sexual dysfunction

Decreasing estrogen levels during the postmenopausal period results in tissue atrophy and physiological changes, such as thinning of the vaginal epithelium, prolapse and decreased pelvic floor strength and control. Sexual dysfunction associated with vaginal dryness occurs in postmenopausal patients. The present study (trial no. NCT05654610) was designed as an observational, multicenter, real-world clinical investigation to evaluate the performance and safety of the medical device Halova® ovules in decreasing vaginal symptoms associated with vulvovaginal atrophy and sexual dysfunction. A total of 249 female participants were treated with Halova ovules, both in monotherapy and in combination with vaginal lubricants. The primary objective was to evaluate the tolerability of Halova ovules in the management of symptoms associated with perimenopause or genitourinary syndrome of menopause. The evolution of clinical manifestations such as vaginal dryness, dysuria, dyspareunia and endometrial thickness was defined a secondary objective. Halova ovules were rated with 'excellent' clinical performance by 92.74% of participants as a standalone treatment and 95.71% of the study participants when used in association with vaginal lubricants. Sexual dysfunction-associated parameters, such as vaginal dryness and dyspareunia, were reduced by similar percentages in each arm, 82% (monotherapy) and 80% (polytherapy) for vaginal dryness and 72% in monotherapy vs. 48% polytherapy reducing dyspareunia. No adverse reactions associated with treatment with Halova were reported. The medical device demonstrated anti-atrophic activity in the genitourinary tract, resulting in significantly improved symptoms associated with normal sexual functioning.

Influence of connatural factors in shaping vaginal microflora and ensuring its health

Vaginal canal (VC) is exposed to the external environment affected by habitual factors like hygiene and sexual behaviour as well as physiological factors like puberty, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, child birth and menopause. Healthy VC harbours beneficial microflora supported by vaginal epithelium and cervical fluid. Connatural antimicrobial peptide (AMPs) of female reproductive tract (FRT) conjunctly with these beneficial microbes provide protection from a large number of infectious diseases. Such infections may either be caused by native microbes of the VC or transitory microbes like bacteria or virus which are not a part of VC microflora. This review highlight's the role of hormones, enzymes, innate immunological factors, epithelial cells and vaginal mucus that support beneficial microbes over infectious ones thus, helping to maintain homeostasis in VC and further protect the FRT. We also discuss the prospective use of vaginal probiotics and AMPs against pathogens which can serve as a potential cure for vaginal infections.

Interplay between Staphylococcus aureus and the vaginal microbiota

Staphylococcus aureus is a proficient colonizer and opportunistic pathogen which can lead to vaginal dysbiosis, aerobic vaginitis, or life-threatening menstrual toxic shock syndrome. Here we explore the complex but underappreciated interactions that S. aureus may impose on the vaginal environment leading to additional disease outcomes.

Prophylactic application of vaginal lactic acid bacteria against urogenital pathogens and its prospective use in sanitary suppositories

Beneficial and pathogenic microbes coexist in the vaginal canal, where a diminishing population of lactic acid bacteria may cause recurring urogenital infections. Probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus gasseri, Lactobacillus vaginalis, and pathogenic microbes Enterococcus faecalis, Enterobacter cloacae, Shigella sp., Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Escherichia fergusonii were isolated from vaginal swabs. Lactobacillus sp. and their probiotic culture free supernatant (PCFS) inhibited the growth of the above-mentioned urogenital pathogens. L. crispatus produced both lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide, exhibiting the best antimicrobial potential against the studied pathogens. Lyophilized L. crispatus had a shelf life of 12 months and the lyophilized PCFS also retained its antibacterial property with a minimum inhibition concentration of 1 μg/μL. Carboxy-methyl cellulose-alginate, a green alternative to super-absorbent polymers, was encapsulated with L. crispatus cells. The probiotic in its encapsulated state retained its viability for 21 days, and the bead showed 30% solvent absorptive capacity. PCFS-laced non-woven fabric displayed antibacterial property with no change in its physicochemical properties. These probiotic and postbiotic formulations have excellent prophylactic potential for urogenital infections. Such formulations can be exploited as additives in sanitary suppositories to enhance vaginal health.

Longitudinal analysis of vaginal microbiota during IVF fresh embryo transfer and in early pregnancy

IMPORTANCE

Infertility is a global public health issue which leads many couples to seek fertility treatments, of which in vitro fertilization (IVF) is considered to be the most effective. Still, only about one-third of the women achieve live birth after the first IVF embryo transfer (IVF-ET). Factors affecting embryo implantation are poorly known, but the female reproductive tract microbiota may play a key role. Our study confirms the beneficial role of vaginal lactobacilli, especially Lactobacillus crispatus, in the probability of achieving clinical pregnancy and live birth following IVF-ET. Our findings regarding the intra-individual shift of vaginal microbiota between non-pregnancy and pregnancy states are novel and provide new information about the dynamics of microbiota in the early steps of human reproduction. These findings may help clinicians in their attempts to optimize the conditions for ET by microbiota screening or modulation and timing the ET when the microbiota is the most favorable.

Relationship between vaginal microecological changes and oncogene E6/E7 and high-risk human papillomavirus infection

High-risk (HR)-human papillomavirus (HPV) is the leading cause of precancerous cervical lesions in patients with chronic untreated infection. We investigated the relationships among several vaginal microbiological alterations, oncogene E6/E7 expression, and HR-HPV. A total of 1327 women who underwent HPV screening, vaginal microecology determination, and fluid-based thin-layer cytological test were enrolled and classified into the HPV-negative group, the low-risk (LR)-HPV-positive group, and the HR-HPV-positive group. The status of cervical HPV infection, vaginal microecology, and E6/E7 mRNA expression were examined sequentially. The effect of HR-HPV infection on cervical cancer (CC) was meticulously assessed, and associations between HR-HPV infection and vaginal microecology and E6/E7 mRNA were identified. In total 548/1327 patients were HPV positive, including LR-HPV infection (N = 132) and HR-HPV infection (N = 416). Patients in the HR-HPV positive group revealed higher detection rates of bacterial vaginosis (BV), trichomonal vaginitis (TV), and vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) relative to the HPV negative group. A higher E6/E7 mRNA expression was identified in HR-HPV patients compared to LR-HPV patients. BV and E6/E7 mRNA were classified as independent risk factors for HR-HPV infection. Patients with HR-HPV infection were more susceptible to CC development. Overall, BV and E6/E7 mRNA expression were identified as independent risk factors for HR-HPV infection.IMPACT STATEMENTWhat is already known on this subject? Through literature review, we found that vaginal ecological changes increase the risk of HPV infection, and HPV persistent infection is an important risk factor for cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer. In addition, HPV gene E6/E7 is expressed in HPV-positive cervical cancer cells, which is related to cell malignant transformation and even tumorigenesis.What do the results of this study add? This study further revealed that bacterial vaginosis (BV) and E6/E7 mRNA were independently correlated with HR-HPV infection, and HR-HPV infection increased the risk of cervical cancer.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? E6/E7 mRNA detection may be used as a new auxiliary diagnostic index for HR-HPV infection. In addition, this study provides a reference for whether the restoration of vaginal microecological balance in patients with BV undergoing clinical treatment is conducive to HR-HPV regression, and provides theoretical support for the prevention and control of cervical cancer microecological approach and the occurrence and development of cervical cancer.

Comparison of Gut Microbiome in Neonates Born by Caesarean Section and Vaginal Seeding with Gut Microbiomes of Neonates Born by Caesarean Section Without Vaginal Seeding and Neonates Born by Vaginal Delivery

Background

Pregnancy is an admirable biological process, resulting in significant changes in many of the body's normal systems so that they can support the development of the fetus. These changes involve hormonal changes, weight gain, immune system regulation, and others that need to be synchronized to maintain both maternal and fetal health.

Objective

The purpose of this study was to compare gut microbiome in neonates born by caesarean section and vaginal seeding with gut microbiomes of neonates born by caesarean section without vaginal seeding and neonates born by vaginal delivery.

Methods

In Democritus University of Thrace, from 2019 to 2022, gut microbiomes were compared for three groups of neonates. Group A included 110 neonates born by CS who underwent vaginal seeding, group B included 85 neonates born by CS without vaginal seeding and group C included 95 neonates born by vaginal delivery.

Results

Vaginal seeding in neonates born with CS resulted in gut microbiome which was similar to the gut microbiome of neonates born by vaginal delivery (including lactobacillus species and bacteroides). On the contrary, gut microbiome of neonates born by CS without vaginal seeding was "limited".

Conclusion

According to our findings, vaginal seeding alters the gut microbiome of the neonates born with CS. However, there is a need for further investigation to prove its efficacy and its safety for the neonate.

Clinical Performance and Safety of Vaginal Ovules in the Local Treatment of Nonspecific Vaginitis: A National, Multicentric Clinical Investigation

PURPOSE

Nonspecific vaginitis is a distinct clinical entity with particular microscopic and immunologic features. There is currently no standard of care for women with nonspecific vaginitis. The aim of our study was to assess the change in vaginal symptoms score after 3 months of treatment with an intravaginal medical device in participants with abnormal vaginal discharge and specific signs and symptoms. As secondary objectives, the study analyzed other clinical and microscopic features, such as vaginal discharge aspect, change in vaginal pH, change in vaginal microbiome, and vaginal inflammation.

METHODS

The study population included 47 participants with symptomatic vulvovaginitis, distinct from candidiasis, trichomoniasis, or bacterial vaginosis. The study design included 2 research sites from Romania. The treatment protocol consisted of 1 ovule per day inserted intravaginally during 15 consecutive days. The total study duration was 3 months.

FINDINGS

The intravaginal medical device had a positive impact on the vaginal symptoms score for 72.34% of the study participants. Topical administration of the ovules balanced vaginal pH values and significantly reduced signs of inflammation between study visits.

IMPLICATIONS

This intravaginal medical device had curative effects that support its use as a stand-alone treatment in women with nonspecific vaginitis. A second clinical investigation is ongoing to evaluate the clinical efficacy of the device in postoperative care of cervical and vaginal wounds traumatic or secondary to surgical interventions.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov identifier: NCT04735705.

Possible Therapeutic Mechanisms and Future Perspectives of Vaginal Microbiota Transplantation

Microbial communities inhabiting the human body play a crucial role in protecting the host against pathogens and inflammation. Disruptions to the microbial composition can lead to various health issues. Microbial transfer therapy (MTT) has emerged as a potential treatment option to address such issues. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) is the most widely used form of MTT and has been successful in treating several diseases. Another form of MTT is vaginal microbiota transplantation (VMT), which involves transferring vaginal microbiota from a healthy female donor to a diseased patient's vaginal cavity with the goal of restoring normal vaginal microbial composition. However, VMT has not been extensively studied due to safety concerns and a lack of research. This paper explores the therapeutic mechanisms of VMT and discusses future perspectives. Further research is necessary to advance the clinical applications and techniques of VMT.

Comparative analysis of vaginal microbiota sampling using menstrual cups and high vaginal swabs in pregnant women living with HIV-1 infection

Background

Menstrual cups (MCs) are increasingly used to collect cervicovaginal secretions to characterise vaginal mucosal immunology, in conjunction with high vaginal swabs (HVS) for metataxonomics, particularly in HIV transmission studies. We hypothesised that both methods of collecting bacterial biomass are equivalent for 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

Material and Methods

Cervicovaginal fluid (CVF) samples from 16 pregnant women with HIV-1 (PWWH) were included to represent the major vaginal bacterial community state types (CST I-V). Women underwent sampling during the second trimester by liquid amies HVS followed by a MC (Soft disc™) and samples were stored at -80°C. Bacterial cell pellets obtained from swab elution and MC (500 µL, 1 in 10 dilution) were resuspended in 120 µL PBS for DNA extraction. Bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed using V1-V2 primers and were analysed using MOTHUR. Paired total DNA, bacterial load, amplicon read counts, diversity matrices and bacterial taxa were compared by sampling method using MicrobiomeAnalyst, SPSS and R.

Results

The total DNA eluted from one aliquot of diluted CVF from an MC was similar to that of a HVS (993ng and 609ng, p=0.18); the mean bacterial loads were also comparable for both methods (MC: 8.0 log10 16S rRNA gene copies versus HVS: 7.9 log10 16S rRNA gene copies, p=0.27). The mean number of sequence reads generated from MC samples was lower than from HVS (MC: 12730; HVS:14830, p=0.05). The α-diversity metrices were similar for both techniques; MC Species Observed: 41 (range 12-96) versus HVS: 47 (range 16-96), p=0.15; MC Inverse Simpson Index: 1.98 (range 1.0-4.0) versus HVS: 0.48 (range 1.0-4.4), p=0.22). The three most abundant species observed were: Lactobacillus iners, Lactobacillus crispatus and Gardnerella vaginalis. Hierarchical clustering of relative abundance data showed that samples obtained using different techniques in an individual clustered in the same CST group.

Conclusion

These data demonstrate that despite sampling slightly different areas of the lower genital tract, there was no difference in bacterial load or composition between methods. Both are suitable for characterisation of vaginal microbiota in PWWH. The MC offers advantages, including a higher volume of sample available for DNA extraction and complimentary assays.

A Novel Approach for the Treatment of Aerobic Vaginitis: Azithromycin Liposomes-in-Chitosan Hydrogel

Biocompatible mucoadhesive formulations that enable a sustained drug delivery at the site of action, while exhibiting inherent antimicrobial activity, are of great importance for improved local therapy of vaginal infections. The aim of this research was to prepare and evaluate the potential of the several types of azithromycin (AZM)-liposomes (180-250 nm) incorporated into chitosan hydrogel (AZM-liposomal hydrogels) for the treatment of aerobic vaginitis. AZM-liposomal hydrogels were characterized for in vitro release, and rheological, texture, and mucoadhesive properties under conditions simulating the vaginal site of application. The role of chitosan as a hydrogel-forming polymer with intrinsic antimicrobial properties was explored against several bacterial strains typical for aerobic vaginitis as well as its potential effect on the anti-staphylococcal activity of AZM-liposomes. Chitosan hydrogel prolonged the release of the liposomal drug and exhibited inherent antimicrobial activity. Additionally, it boosted the antibacterial effect of all tested AZM-liposomes. All AZM-liposomal hydrogels were biocompatible with the HeLa cells and demonstrated mechanical properties suitable for vaginal application, thus confirming their potential for enhanced local therapy of aerobic vaginitis.

Interspecies Interactions within the Host: the Social Network of Group B Streptococcus

Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is a pervasive neonatal pathogen accounting for a combined half a million deaths and stillbirths annually. The most common source of fetal or neonatal GBS exposure is the maternal microbiota. GBS asymptomatically colonizes the gastrointestinal and vaginal mucosa of 1 in 5 individuals globally, although its precise role in these niches is not well understood. To prevent vertical transmission, broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered to GBS-positive mothers during labor in many countries. Although antibiotics have significantly reduced GBS early-onset neonatal disease, there are several unintended consequences, including an altered neonatal microbiota and increased risk for other microbial infections. Additionally, the incidence of late-onset GBS neonatal disease remains unaffected and has sparked an emerging hypothesis that GBS-microbe interactions in developing neonatal gut microbiota may be directly involved in this disease process. This review summarizes our current understanding of GBS interactions with other resident microbes at the mucosal surface from multiple angles, including clinical association studies, agriculture and aquaculture observations, and experimental animal model systems. We also include a comprehensive review of in vitro findings of GBS interactions with other bacterial and fungal microbes, both commensal and pathogenic, along with newly established animal models of GBS vaginal colonization and in utero or neonatal infection. Finally, we provide a perspective on emerging areas of research and current strategies to design microbe-targeting prebiotic or probiotic therapeutic intervention strategies to prevent GBS disease in vulnerable populations.

Association between human papillomavirus infection and common sexually transmitted infections, and the clinical significance of different Mycoplasma subtypes

Introduction

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, especially persistent high-risk HPV, is associated with cervical cancer. Female reproductive tract microecological disorders and lower genital tract infections have been increasingly correlated with HPV infection and cervical lesions. Due to their common risk factors and transmission routes, coinfection with other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) has become a concern. Additionally, the clinical significance of Mycoplasma subtypes appear to vary. This study aimed to assess the correlations between common STIs and HPV infection, and to investigate the clinical significance of Mycoplasma subtypes.

Methods

We recruited 1,175 patients undergoing cervical cancer screening at the Peking University First Hospital gynecological clinic from March 2021 to February 2022 for vaginitis and cervicitis tests. They all received HPV genotyping and detection of STIs, and 749 of them underwent colposcopy and cervical biopsy.

Results

Aerobic vaginitis/desquamative inflammatory vaginitis and STIs (mainly single STIs) were found significantly more often in the HPV-positive group than in the HPV-negative group. Among patients with a single STI, rates of infection with herpes simplex virus type 2 or UP6 in the HPV-positive group were significantly higher than in the HPV-negative group (ORadj: 1.810, 95%CI: 1.211–2.705, P=0.004; ORadj: 11.032, 95%CI: 1.465–83.056, P=0.020, respectively).

Discussion

Through detailed Mycoplasma typing, a correlation was found between different Mycoplasma subtypes and HPV infection. These findings suggest that greater attention should be paid to detecting vaginal microecological disorders in those who are HPV-positive. Further, lower genital tract infections, including both vaginal infections and cervical STIs, are significantly more common among women who are HPV-positive and who thus require more thorough testing. Detailed typing and targeted treatment of Mycoplasma should become more routine in clinical practice.

Exopolysaccharides from vaginal lactobacilli modulate microbial biofilms

BACKGROUND

Exopolysaccharides (EPS) secreted by beneficial lactobacilli exert a plethora of positive activities, but little is known about their effects on biofilms of opportunistic vaginal pathogens and especially on biofilms of lactobacilli themselves. Here, the EPS produced by six vaginal lactobacilli, belonging to Lactobacillus crispatus (BC1, BC4, BC5) and Lactobacillus gasseri (BC9, BC12, BC14) species were isolated from cultural supernatants and lyophilized.

RESULTS

Lactobacillus EPS were chemically characterized in terms of monosaccharide composition by liquid chromatography (LC) analysis coupled to UV and mass spectrometry (MS) detection. Moreover, the ability of EPS (0.1, 0.5, 1 mg/mL) to stimulate the biofilm formation of lactobacilli and to inhibit the formation of pathogens' biofilms was evaluated by crystal violet (CV) staining and 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Isolated EPS (yields 133-426 mg/L) were heteropolysaccharides mainly composed of D-mannose (40-52%) and D-glucose (11-30%). For the first time we demonstrated that Lactobacillus EPS were able to stimulate in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05) the formation of biofilms of ten strains belonging to L. crispatus, L. gasseri and Limosilactobacillus vaginalis species, in terms of cell viability (84-282% increase at 1 mg/mL) and especially biofilm biomass (40-195% increase at 1 mg/mL), quantified with MTT assay and CV staining, respectively. EPS released from L. crispatus and L. gasseri were found to better stimulate the biofilms of the same producer species rather than that of other species, including producing strains themselves and other strains. Conversely, the biofilm formation of bacterial (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp., Enterococcus spp. and Streptococcus agalactiae) and fungal (Candida spp.) pathogens was inhibited. The anti-biofilm activity was dose-dependent and was more marked for L. gasseri-derived EPS (inhibition up to 86%, 70%, and 58% at 1 mg/mL, 0.5 mg/mL, and 0.1 mg/mL, respectively), whilst L. crispatus-derived EPS resulted overall less efficient (inhibition up to 58% at 1 mg/mL and 40% at 0.5 mg/mL) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Lactobacilli-derived EPS favour the biofilm formation of lactobacilli preventing, at the same time, that of opportunistic pathogens. These results support the possible employment of EPS as postbiotics in medicine as a therapeutic/preventive strategy to counteract vaginal infections.

Growing threat of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae colonisation in high-risk pregnancies: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the epidemiological changes in extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-E) vaginal colonisation in pregnant women deemed at high risk, and to identify independent risk factors. Further, the differences in perinatal outcomes according to maternal ESBL-E vaginal colonisation were analysed.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Republic of Korea.

POPULATION

A cohort of 1460 women admitted to our high-risk pregnancy unit between 14⁺⁰ and 36⁺⁶  weeks of gestation.

METHODS

The trend of changes in the association of ESBL-E vaginal colonisation from January 2010 to December 2020 was analysed. The main outcomes were analysed over the study period and ESBL-E vaginal colonisation.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Rate of ESBL-E vaginal colonisation, risk factors for ESBL-E vaginal colonisation and perinatal outcomes.

RESULTS

The ESBL-E vaginal colonisation rate has tended to increase over the past 11 years, which was attributed to a significantly higher proportion of ESBL-producing Escherichia coli. Cerclage (RR 3.7, 95% CI 2.19-6.40) and prior antibiotic treatment (RR 4.0, 95% CI 2.44-6.54) were found as independent risk factors for ESBL-E vaginal colonisation. Earlier gestational age at delivery and higher proven early-onset neonatal sepsis (EONS) rate were observed in the ESBL-E-positive group.

CONCLUSIONS

The ESBL-E vaginal colonisation rate in pregnant patients at high risk has increased over the past decade, and the independent risk factors for colonisation are cerclage and prior antibiotic treatment. Additionally, maternal ESBL-E vaginal colonisation is associated with higher rates of proven EONS.

Analysis of the related factors of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) in cervical cytology of post-menopausal women

Introduction

Atrophy of the reproductive tract mucosa caused by the decrease of estrogen may increase the detection rate of ASC-US in cervical cytology of post-menopausal women. In addition, other pathogenic infections and inflammation can change the cellular morphology and increase the detection rate of ASC-US. However, further studies are needed to elucidate whether the high detection rate of ASC-US in post-menopausal women leads to the high referral rate of colposcopy.

Methods

This retrospective study was conducted to document ASC-US in cervical cytology reports at the Department of Cytology at Gynecology and Obstetrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital between January 2006 and February 2021. We then analyzed 2,462 reports of women with ASC-US at the Cervical Lesions Department. A total of 499 patients with ASC-US and 151 cytology with NILM participants underwent vaginal microecology tests.

Results

The average reporting rate of ASC-US in cytology was 5.7%. The detection rate of ASC-US in women aged > 50 years (7.0%) was significantly higher than that in women aged ≤50 years (5.0%) (P<0.05). The CIN2+ detection rate was significantly lower in the post- (12.6%) than in pre-menopausal (20.5%) patients with ASC-US (P <0.05). The prevalence of abnormal reporting rate of vaginal microecology was significantly lower in the pre-menopausal group (56.2%) than that in the post-menopausal group (82.9%) (P<0.05). The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis (BV) (19.60%) was relatively high in the pre-menopausal group, but the abundance of bacteria-inhibiting flora (40.79%) was mainly an abnormality in the post-menopausal group. The vaginal microecological abnormality rate of the women with HR-HPV (-) of ASC-US was 66.22%, which was significantly higher than that of the HR-HPV (-) and the NILM group (52.32%; P<0.05).

Discussion

The detection rate of ASC-US in women aged > 50 years was higher than that ≤50 years, but the detection rate of CIN2+ was lower in the post-menopausal women with ASC-US. However, vaginal microecological abnormalities may increase the false-positive diagnosis rate of ASC-US. The vaginal microecological abnormalities of the menopausal women with ASC-US are mainly attributed to infectious diseases such as BV, and it mainly occurs in the post-menopausal women was bacteria-inhibiting flora. Therefore, to avoid the high referral rate for colposcopy, more attention should be paid to the detection of vaginal microecology.

Bacteria and macrophages in the tumor microenvironment

Cancer and microbial infections are significant worldwide health challenges. Numerous studies have demonstrated that bacteria may contribute to the emergence of cancer. In this review, we assemble bacterial species discovered in various cancers to describe their variety and specificity. The relationship between bacteria and macrophages in cancer is also highlighted, and we look for ample proof to establish a biological basis for bacterial-induced macrophage polarization. Finally, we quickly go over the potential roles of metabolites, cytokines, and microRNAs in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment by bacterially activated macrophages. The complexity of bacteria and macrophages in cancer will be revealed as we gain a better understanding of their pathogenic mechanisms, which will lead to new therapeutic approaches for both inflammatory illnesses and cancer.

Scoping review of cytolytic vaginosis literature

BACKGROUND

Cytolytic vaginosis (CV) is a little-known, controversial condition that is typically not considered for women presenting with vulvovaginitis symptoms. Objective: The objective of this scoping review was to identify and compile the global evidence on CV.

METHODS

A medical librarian searched Prospero, Wiley Cochrane Library, Ovid Embase, Ovid Medline, EBSCO CINAHL, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and Scopus, from inception to April 4, 2019 and updated to October 17, 2021. Studies were eligible if they discussed CV. Two independent reviewers conducted study selection and data extraction.

RESULTS

Sixty-four studies were identified, with 67% of studies (n = 43) published since 2007. Studies were from around the world, including the United States (28%, n = 18), Brazil (11%, n = 7), Portugal (11%, n = 7), and China (11%, n = 7). Fifty percent of studies (n = 32) were reviews; the remainder were observational; and of these, 78% (n = 25) were cross-sectional. The most frequent topics included: diagnosis (19%, n = 12), prevalence (17%, n = 11), and overview of CV (50%, n = 32). Evidence for prevalence in symptomatic women (median prevalence of 5%, interquartile range 3%-8%) was based only on 16% of studies (n = 10) with minimal evidence on prevalence in asymptomatic women and across different geographic regions. Microbiological findings, including abundant lactobacilli and fragmented epithelial cells, were found useful to distinguish between CV and vulvovaginal candidiasis, and Lactobacillus crispatus was noted to dominate the vaginal flora in women with CV. Most studies used subjective criteria to diagnose CV as the condition lacks gold-standard microscopic criteria. The suggested primary treatment (baking soda irrigations) was largely based on expert opinion, and there was minimal evidence on associations between CV and other conditions.

CONCLUSION

Knowledge gaps currently exist in all realms of CV research. Additional research is needed to confirm the validity of CV and ensure that women are diagnosed and treated effectively.

Staphylococcus aureus Fibronectin-Binding Proteins Contribute to Colonization of the Female Reproductive Tract

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an opportunistic pathogen and frequent colonizer of human skin and mucosal membranes, including the vagina, with vaginal colonization reaching nearly 25% in some pregnant populations. MRSA vaginal colonization can lead to aerobic vaginitis (AV), and during pregnancy, bacterial ascension into the upper reproductive tract can lead to adverse birth outcomes. USA300, the most prominent MRSA lineage to colonize pregnant individuals, is a robust biofilm former and causative agent of invasive infections; however, little is known about how it colonizes and ascends in the female reproductive tract (FRT). Our previous studies showed that a MRSA mutant of seven fibrinogen-binding adhesins was deficient in FRT epithelial attachment and colonization. Using both monolayer and multilayer air-liquid interface cell culture models, we determine that one class of these adhesins, the fibronectin binding proteins (FnBPA and FnBPB), are critical for association with human vaginal epithelial cells (hVECs) and hVEC invasion through interactions with α₅β₁ integrin. We observe that both FnBPs are important for biofilm formation as single and double fnbAB mutants exhibit reduced biofilm formation on hVECs. Using heterologous expression of fnbA and fnbB in Staphylococcus carnosus, FnBPs are also found to be sufficient for hVEC cellular association, invasion, and biofilm formation. In addition, we found that an ΔfnbAB mutant displays attenuated ascension in our murine vaginal colonization model. Better understanding of MRSA FRT colonization and ascension can ultimately inform treatment strategies to limit MRSA vaginal burden or prevent ascension, especially during pregnancy and in those prone to AV.

Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain as a new driver in restoring the normal vaginal microbiota: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

Probiotics play a key role in maintaining the health of the female reproductive tract, representing a promising alternative to safeguard or restore the homeostasis of the vaginal microbiota. The present randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study was performed to evaluate the ability of the potential probiotic Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain, orally administrated, to balance the vaginal microbiota of women with vaginal dysbiosis. Sixty women, with signs and symptoms of vaginal dysbiosis, were recruited and randomly allocated to receive oral capsules containing the L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain at 1.0 × 10¹⁰ colony-forming units or placebo once daily for 10 days. Clinical and microbiological parameters were evaluated in three scheduled appointments: at baseline (T0), 10 days after the start of the treatment (T1), and 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). In addition, the quality of life, through the WHO quality of life assessment questionnaire, was assessed at baseline (T0) and 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). The probiotic was well tolerated and no side effects were reported. The oral consumption of the potential probiotic L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain determined a significant improvement of both clinical signs and symptoms not only 10 days after the start of the treatment (T1) but also 30 days after the end of the treatment (T2). A significant reduction of potential pathogens and a concomitant increase of lactobacilli was revealed, by microbial count, at both T1 and T2 sampling times. In addition, the enhancement of the perceived physical health, social relations, and environment was reported. Differently, in placebo group clinical and microbiological parameters as well as quality of life remained almost unchanged. The potential probiotic L. rhamnosus CA15 (DSM 33960) strain could be a safe and effective approach to restore and maintain a balanced vaginal microbiota.

PREVALENCE OF AEROBIC VAGINITIS AFTER GYNECOLOGICAL SURGERIES AND ASSOCIATED ADVERSE PREGNANCY OUTCOME IN UKRAINE

OBJECTIVE

Aim: To determine prevalence of Aerobic Vaginitis (AV) after gynecologic surgery, risk factors and antimicrobial resistance of responsible pathogens, and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Ukraine.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Materials and Methods: Multicenter retrospective cohort study was conducted from January 2020 to December 2022 in fifteen medical clinics from eight regions of Ukraine. Smears were analyzed using Donders' classification method and Dong's modified AV diagnosis for Gram stains. Definitions of HAIs were adapted from the CDC/NHSN. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of bacteria was determined by Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion test according to the protocol of the EUCAST.

RESULTS

Results: Prevalence of AV among women's undergoing gynecologic surgery in Ukraine was 68.7%. Of the total AV cases, 70.3% were in non-pregnant and 29,7% in pregnant women. The most common pathogen of AV was Escherichia coli, followed by Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus agalactiae, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among the S. aureus strains, 11,6% of MRSA (Methicillin resistant S.aureus) were isolated whereas none of the CoNS were cefoxitin resistant. History of vaginal infection, history of post-operative infection and antibiotic use acted as an important risk factor of AV incidence rate. The presence of AV worsened pregnancy outcomes, by increasing the incidence of preterm birth, the premature rupture of membranes, miscarriage, neonatal jaundice, and neonatal infection.

CONCLUSION

Conclusions: Aerobic Vaginitis after gynecological surgeries in Ukraine is a common medical problem in women that is associated with significant morbidity, adverse pregnancy outcome, and hence frequent medical visits.

Qualitative and Quantitative Detection of Multiple Sexually Transmitted Infection Pathogens Reveals Distinct Associations with Cervicitis and Vaginitis

Many diverse pathogens have been discovered from reproductive-tract infections, but the relationship between the presence and abundance of particular pathogen species and disease manifestations is poorly defined. The present work examined the association of multiple common pathogens causing sexually transmitted infections (STIs) with cervicitis and vaginitis. The presence and abundance of 15 STI pathogens and the genotypes of human papillomavirus were determined in a cohort of 944 women that included 159 cervicitis patients, 207 vaginitis patients, and 578 healthy controls. Logistic regression and random forest models were constructed and validated in a separate cohort of 420 women comprising 52 cervicitis patients, 109 vaginitis patients, and 259 healthy controls. The frequency of individual STI pathogen species varied among the symptomatic patients and healthy controls. Abundance determination was necessary for most pathogens that were associated with the studied diseases. STI pathogens were more commonly associated with cervicitis than with vaginitis. Pathogen identification- and quantification-based diagnosis was observed for cervicitis with high sensitivity and specificity, but for vaginitis, the assay results would need to be combined with results of other diagnostic tests to firmly establish the pathogen-disease correlation. Integrated qualitative and quantitative detection of a selected panel of common STI pathogens can reveal their association with cervicitis and vaginitis. STI pathogen identification and quantification can be used to diagnose cervicitis and also help improve correct diagnosis of vaginitis. IMPORTANCE Scarce information exists with regard to whether STI pathogens can be defined as valid microbiological predictive markers for the diagnosis of cervicitis and vaginitis. We therefore conducted this study to assess the presence and abundance of a wide range of STI pathogens among patients having these two diseases and healthy controls as well. High sensitivity and specificity were observed for cervicitis by pathogen identification- and quantification-based diagnosis. In contrast, the assay results obtained for vaginitis would need to be combined with test results obtained by other diagnostic methods to decisively establish the pathogen-disease correlation. Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative detection of a selected panel of common STI pathogens and further coupling with machine learning models is worthwhile for establishing pathogen-based diagnosis of gynecological inflammations, which could be of great value in guiding the rational use of antimicrobials to control the spread of STIs.

Roles of the Microbiota of the Female Reproductive Tract in Gynecological and Reproductive Health

The microbiome of the female reproductive tract defies the convention that high biodiversity is a hallmark of an optimal ecosystem. Although not universally true, a homogeneous vaginal microbiome composed of species of Lactobacillus is generally associated with health, whereas vaginal microbiomes consisting of other taxa are generally associated with dysbiosis and a higher risk of disease. The past decade has seen a rapid advancement in our understanding of these unique biosystems. Of particular interest, substantial effort has been devoted to deciphering how members of the microbiome of the female reproductive tract impact pregnancy, with a focus on adverse outcomes, including but not limited to preterm birth. Herein, we review recent research efforts that are revealing the mechanisms by which these microorganisms of the female reproductive tract influence gynecologic and reproductive health of the female reproductive tract.

Incidence of symptomatic aerobic vaginitis among some Iraqi women in Baghdad city

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a newly adopted type of vaginal infection caused by aerobic bacteria; it was defined by Donders in 2002 and diagnosed according to Donder's criteria. AV is associated with increased vaginal pH, decreased vaginal microbiota and overgrowth of facultative anaerobic or aerobic bacteria, including Gram-positive cocci and Gram-negative bacilli. Because knowledge of the aerobic bacterial types causing AV is very important and only limited studies are available in Iraq about this type of vaginal infection, this study aimed to report the prevalence of AV in symptomatic women in Baghdad City, investigate the aerobic bacterial types associated and to evaluate the most critical symptoms and risk factors associated with AV. One hundred fifteen high vaginal swabs (HVSs) and 115 vaginal swabs (VSs) were collected from women of age 18-50 years attending some hospitals and private clinics in Baghdad City under the supervision of a competent gynecologist. Vaginal swabs were prepared for direct wet mount preparation to test under the microscope and Gram staining for AV identification according to Donders Criteria. High vaginal swabs were cultured on different culture media; the primary diagnosis of obtained colonies was based on phenotypic characteristics, conventional biochemical tests and Gram staining. The diagnosis was confirmed using Gram-positive (GP) and Gram-negative (GN) identification cards of the VITEK 2 System. Statistical analysis was carried out using (SPSS v 20) and p-value ≤ 0.05 at 95% CI was considered statistically significant. Out of the 115 swabs, only 89 (77.3%) swabs showed bacterial growth. Ninety-five bacterial isolates were obtained, including (65.2%) Gram-positive and (34.7%) Gram-negative bacteria. G+ve bacterial isolates included: (46.3%) Staphylococcus spp., (6.3%) Kocuria spp., (6.3%) Enterococcus spp., (5.2%) Micrococcus luteus and (1.0%) of Streptococcus agalactiae. G-ve bacterial isolates included (15.7%) Escherichia coli, (11.2%) Klebsiella pneumoniae, (3.2%) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (3.2%) Pseudomonas aeruginosa, (2.1%) Acinetobacter baumannii and (2.1%) Proteus mirabilis. More than half (58.4%) of patients showed severe AV. Mixed bacterial infections were reported in 6 (6.7%) cases only. Vaginal pH ranged between (5.5- 6.5). The most frequent(100%) testified symptoms were abnormal vaginal discharge and itching, or irritation, the less frequent symptoms (51.6%) was vaginal dyspareunia, and the most significant symptoms in associated with different bacterial types and age groups were foul smelling and burning (p= 0.001, 0.008, 0.0001). Among the risk factors, age was significantly associated with most bacterial types obtained with p values (0.05 and 0.02). Staphylococcus spp. and E.coli were the predominant bacterial types in AV patients in the current study, and the lower rate of bacteria was Streptococcus agalactiae (1.0%). A high prevalence of AV was reported; therefore, regular screening and proper diagnosis of AV using microscopic examinations, culturing of swabs and determining vaginal pH using specific vaginal pH test strips should be stimulated to develop AV management. Keywords: High vaginal swabs, Vaginal swabs, Aerobic vaginitis, aerobic G+ve and G-ve bacteria, Risk factors, Iraq.

Vaginal microbiota networks as a mechanistic predictor of aerobic vaginitis

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a complex vaginal dysbiosis that is thought to be caused by the micro-ecological change of the vaginal microbiota. While most studies have focused on how changes in the abundance of individual microbes are associated with the emergence of AV, we still do not have a complete mechanistic atlas of the microbe-AV link. Network modeling is central to understanding the structure and function of any microbial community assembly. By encapsulating the abundance of microbes as nodes and ecological interactions among microbes as edges, microbial networks can reveal how each microbe functions and how one microbe cooperate or compete with other microbes to mediate the dynamics of microbial communities. However, existing approaches can only estimate either the strength of microbe-microbe link or the direction of this link, failing to capture full topological characteristics of a network, especially from high-dimensional microbial data. We combine allometry scaling law and evolutionary game theory to derive a functional graph theory that can characterize bidirectional, signed, and weighted interaction networks from any data domain. We apply our theory to characterize the causal interdependence between microbial interactions and AV. From functional networks arising from different functional modules, we find that, as the only favorable genus from Firmicutes among all identified genera, the role of Lactobacillus in maintaining vaginal microbial symbiosis is enabled by upregulation from other microbes, rather than through any intrinsic capacity. Among Lactobacillus species, the proportion of L. crispatus to L. iners is positively associated with more healthy acid vaginal ecosystems. In a less healthy alkaline ecosystem, L. crispatus establishes a contradictory relationship with other microbes, leading to population decrease relative to L. iners. We identify topological changes of vaginal microbiota networks when the menstrual cycle of women changes from the follicular to luteal phases. Our network tool provides a mechanistic approach to disentangle the internal workings of the microbiota assembly and predict its causal relationships with human diseases including AV.

Microbial Diversity and Pathogenic Properties of Microbiota Associated with Aerobic Vaginitis in Women with Recurrent Pregnancy Loss

Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) is a major reproductive problem that affects approximately 5% of couples. The objective of this study was to assess vaginal flora dysbiosis in women suffering from unexplained RPL and to investigate the pathogenic properties of the microbiota associated with aerobic vaginitis (AV). The study included one hundred fifteen women, 65 with RPL and 50 controls. The diversity of vaginal microbiota isolated was evaluated by molecular sequencing. Then, pathogenic factors, such as acid-resistance, antibiotics susceptibility, and biofilm formation were evaluated. The prevalence of AV was five-fold higher in the RPL group than in the controls (64.6% vs. 12.0%). The most prevalent isolates in the case group were Enterococcus spp. (52%) and Staphylococcus spp. (26%). All bacterial strains tolerate low pH. The prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) among all bacteria was 47.7%. Of all strains, 91.0% were biofilm producers. The presence of MDR was found to be related to biofilm formation. The results provide evidence supporting an increased presence of dysbiosis of the vaginal flora, especially AV, in women with RPL in Tunisia. The viability of the AV-associated bacteria and their persistence in the genitals may be due to their ability to resist low pH and to produce a biofilm.

Human genital tracts microbiota: dysbiosis crucial for infertility

Human body is colonized by trillions of microbes, influenced by several factors, both endogenous, as hormones and circadian regulation, and exogenous as, life-style habits and nutrition. The alteration of such factors can lead to microbial dysbiosis, a phenomenon which, in turn, represents a risk factor in many different pathologies including cancer, diabetes, autoimmune and cardiovascular disease, and infertility. Female microbiota dysbiosis (vaginal, endometrial, placental) and male microbiota dysbiosis (seminal fluid) can influence the fertility, determining a detrimental impact on various conditions, as pre-term birth, neonatal illnesses, and macroscopic sperm parameters impairments. Furthermore, unprotected sexual intercourse creates a bacterial exchange between partners, and, in addition, each partner can influence the microbiota composition of partner's reproductive tracts. This comprehensive overview of the effects of bacterial dysbiosis in both sexes and how partners might influence each other will allow for better personalization of infertility management.

Aerobic vaginitis in the third trimester and its impact on pregnancy outcomes

Background

Aerobic vaginitis (AV) is a vaginal inflammation characterized by disruption of the lactobacillus microbiota and increased counts of different aerobic bacteria. AV may result in severe complications, especially during pregnancy, including preterm delivery, neonatal and maternal infections. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of AV in the third trimester of pregnancy, and the relationship between AV and pregnancy outcomes. 

Methods

A cross-sectional descriptive study included 323 pregnant women attending for routine antenatal care in the Hue University Hospital. Vaginal samples collected at the third trimester of pregnancy were evaluated for AV according to the scoring system of Donders and cultured for identification of predominant bacteria. Pregnancy was followed to its end, and pregnancy outcomes were recorded for both mothers and infants.

Results

The proportion of pregnant women diagnosed with AV in the third trimester was found to be 15.5%, with the vast majority of the cases (84%) displaying the light AV and 16% the moderate AV. The vaginal cultures in the women with AV revealed most frequently Streptococcus agalactiae (6%), followed by Enterococcus spp (4%), Staphylococcus aureus (4%), and Acinetobacter baumannii (2%). In addition, AV during the last trimester of pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of puerperal sepsis (OR 8.65, 95% CI: 1.41—53.16, p = 0.020) and there was a slightly increased risk for neonatal infections, which was statistically insignificant.

Conclusions

The proportion of AV is relatively high in Vietnamese pregnant women. Since it is associated with an increased risk of puerperal sepsis, it needs to be diagnosed and treated before delivery.

Accurate 16S Absolute Quantification Sequencing Revealed Vaginal Microecological Composition and Dynamics During Mixed Vaginitis Treatment With Fufang FuRong Effervescent Suppository

Background

The diagnosis and treatment of mixed vaginitis are more complicated than single pathogenic infections, and there may be adverse reactions and several contraindications to conventional antibiotic therapy. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the preliminary effects of Fufang Furong Effervescent Suppository for the management of aerobic vaginitis (AV) mixed with bacterial vaginosis (BV) using Accurate 16S absolute quantification sequencing (Accu16S).

Methods

In the present randomized, blind, multi-center clinical trial, women (20 to 55 years) who had received a diagnosis of AV+BV were randomly assigned into clindamycin positive control (n = 41) and Fufang Furong Effervescent Suppository (n = 39) groups. The follow-up occurred in three time periods (V1: -2~0 days; V2: 15-17 days; V3: 40 ± 3 days). At each visit, two vaginal swabs, one for clinical evaluation and one for laboratory examination, were taken from each patient. The Nugent score, Donders’ score, drug-related complications, recurrence rates, and microecological changes of vaginal swabs were assessed in the time three periods.

Results

At baseline, the two groups were similar in frequency of presentation with vaginal burning, odor, abnormal discharge, and itching. No meaningful differences in Nugent and Donders’ scores were detected between the two groups at stage V2 (Nugent: p = 0.67; Donders’: p = 0.85) and V3 (Nugent: p = 0.97; Donders: p = 0.55). The Furong group presented fewer complications compared to the Clindamycin group. However, this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.15). Additionally, Accu16S indicated that the total abundance of bacteria in both groups sharply decreased in stage V2, but slightly increased in V3. In stage V3, the absolute abundance of Lactobacillus in the Furong group was considerably higher compared to untreated samples (p < 0.05). On the other hand, no momentous increase was detected in the Clindamycin group (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

Fufang Furong Effervescent Suppository can be as effective as clindamycin cream in the management of AV+BV while may restore the vagina microecosystem better.

Microbiota and HPV: the role of viral infection on vaginal microbiota

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that the prevalence of human papillomaviruses (HPV) infection is between 9% and 13% of the world population and only in the United States, more than 6.2 million are positive every year. There are more than 100 types of HPV, among them, two serotypes (16 and 18) are related to 70% of cervical cancers and precancerous cervical lesions. The vaginal microbiota could play a considerable role in HPV infection and the genesis of cervical tumors caused by HPV. Moreover, bacteria are strongly associated with vaginal inflammation and oncogenic mutations in human cells. We aim to investigate whether HPV infection could influence the bacterial microbiota composition in the uterine cervix. A total of 31 women were enrolled in this study. The vaginal swabs were collected; the HPV‐DNA was extracted with QIAamp DNA Microbiome. The V3–V4–V6 region of the 16S rDNA gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by sequencing with MiSeq Illumina. The main phylum identified in the vaginal microbiota were Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. The phylum of Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroides was more represented in HPV‐positive patients. Lactobacilli represented the dominant genus, with a high percentage of Lactobacilli iners, Lactobacilli jensenii, and Lactobacilli crispatus as species. Gardnerella vaginalis, Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Proteus spp., and Atopobium were the most represented in HPV‐positive patients. An altered vaginal microbiota might play a functional role in HPV cervical infection, progression, and clearance. The relationship between infection and microbiota could spur the development of new probiotics. However, further studies are needed to clarify the role of the vaginal microbiota in HPV infection.

Abnormal vaginal flora correlates with pregnancy outcomes: A retrospective study from 737 pregnant women

OBJECTIVE

Abnormal vaginal flora (AVF) is a common cause of vulvovaginal symptoms in women. This study aims to investigate the prevalence of AVF in pregnant women and assess associations between diverse AVF subtypes and pregnancy outcomes.

METHODS

This study retrospectively collected clinical data of pregnant women who had vaginal flora tests (VFT) between January 2015 and December 2018 in the First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University. AVF were defined into different subtypes according to the results of VFT, including bacterial vaginosis (BV), vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), aerobic bacteria (AV), cytolytic vaginosis (CV), and trichomoniasis. Pregnancy outcomes included gestational age at delivery, preterm birth (PTB), premature rupture of membranes (PROM), and infant birth weight. Student's t-test and Fisher's exact test was used for analyses using SPSS 22.0. P < 0.05 was considered as statistical significance.

RESULTS

A total of 737 pregnant women were included in this study. Pregnant women in AVF group suffered more PROM than women in normal vaginal flora (NVF) group (18.8% [33/176] vs 10.6% [32/302], P = 0.012); pregnant women with BV (31.3% [5/16] vs 10.6% [32/302], P = 0.018) and mixed vaginitis (55.6% [5/9] vs 10.6% [32/302], P = 0.001) had higher PROM rates than women in the NVF group. In addition, pregnant women in NVF and AVF groups had similar PTB rates (5.0% [15/302] vs 3.5% [32/302], P = 0.38).

CONCLUSIONS

AVF, including BV and Mixed vaginitis, augments PROM risk in pregnant women, demonstrating the need for vaginal flora examination during pregnancy.

Vaginal Infections' Etiologies in South-Eastern Gabon - An Overview

Introduction

Discomfort in women of childbearing age associated with vaginal infections, namely bacterial vaginosis (BV), aerobic vaginitis (AV), vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), and trichomoniasis (TV), represent a serious and ongoing gynecological complication throughout the world.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the etiologies of vaginal infections among outpatients in south-eastern Gabon.

Methodology

A cross-sectional study was designed using participants referred directly by their treating doctor for a vaginal swab. Socio-demographic data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Microscopic examinations were used for TV and BV diagnostic. All vaginal swabs were cultured for AV and VVC isolates using standard microbiology methods.

Results

A total of 573 women of reproductive age participated in the study. The most common identified vaginal infections were BV (62.8%) and AV (51.1%) followed by VVC (34.1%). No significant difference was observed for each etiology compared to socio-demographic data. Streptococcus B (23.9%), Staphylococcus aureus (17.7%), Klebsiella spp. (11.6%), and E. coli (5.8%) were the bacteria most associated with AV. A high incidence of non-C. albicans Candida (NCAC) strains causing vulvovaginitis were found. The prevalence of TV (2.1%) was low. Mixed infections had been common among participants. No association was found with TV and other vaginal infections, unlike others studies. The present study identified BV 228 (83.5%) and AV 227 (83.2%) as the main cause of mixed infections. The mixed infection AV-BV 113 (41.4%) was the most represented.

Conclusion

Also that simultaneous AV-BV-VVC represented 69 (25.3%) of mixed infections. Molecular analyses would be needed to identify the key species commonly associated with these vaginal infections.