Sources and processes affecting the spatio-temporal distribution of pharmaceuticals and X-ray contrast media in the water resources of the Lower Jordan Valley, Jordan

Graphene-based nanomaterials for adsorption of iodinated X-ray contrast media from contaminated water: A comparative study

Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) was frequently detected in the aqueous environment. In this work, the applicability of three graphene-based nanomaterials (graphene nanosheets (GNS), graphene oxide (GO), and reduced graphene oxide (rGO)) for the adsorptive removal of the six ICMs including iohexol, iopamidol, iomeprol, iopromide, iodixanol and ioversol from aqueous solution was firstly evaluated by batch adsorption method. Among the three graphene-based nanomaterials, the GNS displayed the best adsorption performances for the adsorption of the six ICMs. The maximum uptakes of the six ICMs by the GNS (161.5 mg g-1 for iohexol, 267.2 mg g-1 for iodixanol, 197.7 mg g-1 for iopromide, 197.0 mg g-1 for iopamidol, 109.6 mg g-1 for iomeprol, and 168.2 mg g-1 for ioversol) can rapidly achieved within 10 min and indicate no dependence on pH in the range of 4-9. The results obtained from the calculations of isotherms, kinetics and thermodynamic supported the occurrence of a chemisorption of the GNS for the six ICMs. The π-π interactions between benzene ring of the ICMs and the sp2-hybridized two-dimensional sheet of GNS were deemed the predominant adsorption mechanism.

Occurrence of iodinated contrast media (ICM) in water environments and their control strategies with a particular focus on iodinated by-products formation: A comprehensive review

Iodinated contrast media (ICM), one of the pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs), are frequently detected in various water bodies due to the strong biochemical stability and recalcitrance to conventional water treatment. Additionally, ICM pose a risk of forming iodinated by-products that can be detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem. Consequently, effectively removing ICM from aqueous environments is a significant concern for environmental researchers. This article provides a comprehensive review of the structural characteristics of ICM, their primary source (e.g., domestic and hospital wastewater), detected concentrations in water environments, and ecological health hazards associated with them. The current wastewater treatment technologies for ICM control are also reviewed in detail with the aim of providing a reference for future research. Prior researches have demonstrated that traditional treatment processes (such as physical adsorption, biochemical method and chemical oxidation method) have inadequate efficiencies in the removal of ICM. Currently, the application of advanced oxidation processes to remove ICM has become extensive, but there are some issues like poor deiodination efficiency and the risk of forming toxic intermediates or iodinated by-products. Conversely, reduction technologies have a high deiodination rate, enabling the targeted removal of ICM. But the subsequent treatment issues related to iodine (such as I- and OI-) are often underestimated, potentially generating iodinated by-products during the subsequent treatment processes. Hence, we proposed using combined reduction-oxidation technologies to remove ICM and achieved synchronous control of iodinated by-products. In the future, it is recommended to study the degradation efficiency of ICM and the control efficiency of iodinated by-products by combining different reduction and oxidation processes.

Occurrence and risk of iodinated X-ray contrast media in source and tap water from Jiangsu province, China

Microcontaminants in the water environment have received increasing attention due to their adverse effects on human health and wildlife. However, iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM), a type of microcontaminants, have not yet been systematically documented in source and tap water. This study investigated ICM in water samples via a sampling activity from 25 drinking water sources and their corresponding 30 household taps in south-central Jiangsu Province, China. The total concentrations of ICM ranged from 14.2 to 138.5 ng/L in source water and 3.7 to 101.3 ng/L in tap water, respectively. The calculated average water treatment efficiency to remove ICM is 38.3% with large variation under different processes (ranging from 7.3% to 75.7%), which implied that ICM could not be effectively removed using current treatment technologies. By integrating other ICM into the predominant compound iohexol with relative potency factors, the health risks of total ICM through water consumption were assessed using the Monte Carlo simulation. The results concluded that the risk of ingesting ICM through tap water was not a major health concern for adults, teens, or children in the study area. Nevertheless, due to the lack of long-term toxicity data relevant for humans for ICM, this risk may be underestimated, which requires further research.

Evaluation of the accumulation of the iodinated contrast agents diatrizoic acid and iohexol in Dreissena polymorpha mollusks

Mollusks are very sensitive to aquatic environmental alterations and then, are important bio-indicators for monitoring the contamination of water bodies. Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICMs) are ubiquitously present in the aquatic environment, primarily due to their high consumption for diagnosis purposes, high injection levels, low biodegradability, and low removal rates by wastewater treatment plants. Although these compounds are assumed to be of low toxicity, aquatic organisms are continuously exposed to these agents, which may result in adverse effects as ICMs can act as iodine source and disrupt the endocrine system. Thus, the evaluation of their environmental risk, especially on aquatic fauna is of great interest. To this end, we first compared the accumulation behavior, based on iodine analysis, of two ICM exhibiting different osmolality, diatrizoic acid and iohexol in Dreissena polymorpha bivalves exposed under laboratory conditions at concentrations of 0, 100, and 1000 μg/L during 4 and 7 days. This study was the first to provide information on iodine concentration in whole soft tissues and several organs in control zebra mussels. Moreover, it showed, after exposure, an increase of iodine content mainly in the digestive glands, followed by gills and gonads, highlighting that ICMs actually enter the organisms. Thus, bioaccumulation of ICMs studies were then performed, by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, on entire mollusks and digestive glands of organisms exposed at 0, 10, 100, and 1000 μg/L of both ICMs during 21 days, followed by 4 days of depuration. These first data on ICMs concentrations in zebra mussels, showed a clear accumulation of ICMs in mussels as a function of relative exposure level, as well as a rapid depuration. Osmolality did not seem to have a significant impact on the accumulation level, but a slight difference was observed on the accumulation pattern between both ICMs.

Occurrence and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals in surface waters of the Middle East and North Africa: A review

Pharmaceutical compounds in surface water are perceived as contaminants of emerging concern due to their impacts on the aquatic environment and human health. The risk associated with these compounds has not been quantified in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). This review identified that 210 pharmaceutical compounds have been analyzed in MENA water compartments between 2008 and 2022. In fact, 151 of these substances were detected in at least one of 13 MENA countries where occurrence studies had been conducted. Antibiotics claimed the highest number of pharmaceuticals detected with concentrations ranging between 0.03 and 66,400 ng/L (for Thiamphenicol and Spiramycin respectively). To investigate whether any of these compounds exert an ecological, human health, or antibiotic resistance risk, a screening-level risk assessment was performed in surface water matrices using maximum, median, and minimum concentrations. 39 and 8 detected pharmaceuticals in MENA surface waters posed a possible risk on aquatic ecosystems and human health respectively. Extremely high risk quotients (>1000) for six pharmaceuticals (17β estradiol, spiramycin, diclofenac, metoprolol, ethinylestradiol, and carbamazepine) were enumerated based on maximal concentrations implying an alarming risk on aquatic toxicity. Moreover, hormones posed the highest possible risk on human health whether ingested through drinking water or fish (e.g., 17β-estradiol had a health risk quotient of 2880 for children). Spiramycin showed a high risk of antibiotic resistance with a risk quotient of 133. This review serves as a basis for future prioritization studies and regulatory guidelines in the MENA region to minimize the risks of the identified compounds.

A review on occurrence of emerging pollutants in waters of the MENA region

Little is known about the occurrence of emerging pollutants (EPs) in waters in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region despite the extensive use of low-quality water there. Available data dealing with the sources, occurrence and removal of EPs within the MENA region in different categories of water is collected, presented and analyzed in this literature review. According to the collected database, the occurrence and removal efficiency of EPs in the water matrix in the MENA region is available, respectively, for 13 and six countries of the 18 in total; no available data is registered for the rest. Altogether, 290 EPs have been observed in different water matrices across the MENA countries, stemming mainly from industrial effluents, agricultural practices, and discharge or reuse of treated wastewater (TWW). Pharmaceutical compounds figure among the most frequently reported compounds in wastewater, TWW, surface water, and drinking water. Nevertheless, pesticides are the most frequently detected pollutants in groundwater. Worryingly, 57 cases of EPs have been reported in different fresh and drinking waters, exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) and European Commission (EC) thresholds. Overall, pharmaceuticals, organic compounds, and pesticides are the most concerning EP groups. The review revealed the ineffectiveness of treatment processes used in the region to remove EPs. Negative removals of some EPs such as carbamazepine, erythromycin, and sulfamethoxazole were recorded, suggesting their possible accumulation or release during treatment. This underlines the need to set in place and strengthen control measures, treatment procedures, standards, and policies for such pollutants in the region.

Knowledge and practices concerning the storage and disposal of home medications among people in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional study

Background

Medications are widely used and stored in people’s homes throughout the year. Inappropriate storage of home medications is a worldwide problem and may affect the effectiveness and stability of medications, which impacts the activity and capability of these medications to treat diseases. This study aimed to assess the awareness of the public in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia concerning the appropriate storage of used medications and the proper disposal of unwanted medications.

Method

A cross-sectional survey was conducted in the eastern region of Saudi Arabia between February and June 2018. The study questionnaire tool was constructed based on several previous studies regarding medication storage, recycling, and the correct and safe disposal of expired, unwanted, or unused medication.

Results

A total of 820 responses was collected. The results showed that 91.0% of the respondents keep their medications in the original container, and only 4.5% of them write the expiry date on the new containers. While 47.1% of the respondents read the storage instructions written in the medication leaflet, only 16.2% of the respondents ask the pharmacist about the storage instructions. A majority of the respondents (84.4%) check the expiry date of medications before use, and 70.1% of them periodically check the expiry date of stored medications. Age, gender, and education level were important factors that affected medication storage practices.

Conclusion

This work underpinned the lack of awareness among the public regarding the appropriate way to store home medications and the proper way to dispose of unwanted and expired medications.

Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Pollutant Levels in Wastewater and the Waters of the Zarqa River, Jordan

Assamra wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is the largest treatment facility in Jordan. Treated wastewater is discharged into the Zarqa River (ZR) and used to irrigate fodder and vegetables. ZR also includes surface runoff, stormwater, and raw wastewater illegally discharged into the river. This study examined pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC) in water resources in the ZR basin. Samples of WWTP influent and effluent and river water from four sites along ZR were collected. Concentrations of 18 target antibiotics, one stimulant, and 15 other PhACs were determined in the samples. Five antibiotics were detected in WWTP influent (510–860 ng L−1 for ∑Antibiotics) and six in the effluent (2300–2600 ng L−1 for ∑Antibiotics). Concentrations in the effluent of all antibiotics except clarithromycin increased by 2- to 5-fold compared with those in influent, while clarithromycin concentration decreased by around 4- fold (from 308 to 82 ng L−1). WWTP influent and effluent samples contained 14 non-antibiotic PhACs, one simulant, and six antibiotics at detectable concentrations. The dominant PhACs were paracetamol (74% of ∑PhACs) in the influent and carbamazepine (78% of ∑PhACs) in the effluent. At ZR sampling sites, carbamazepine was the dominant PhAC in all cases (800–2700 ng L−1). The antibiotics detected in WWTP effluent were also detected at the ZR sites. In summary, water in ZR is contaminated with PhACs, including antibiotics, and wastewater discharge seems to be the main pathway for this contamination. The occurrence of antibiotics and other PhACs in the irrigated soil requires investigation to assess their fate.

Comprehensive review on iodinated X-ray contrast media: Complete fate, occurrence, and formation of disinfection byproducts

Iodinated contrast media (ICM) are drugs which are used in medical examinations for organ imaging purposes. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have shown incapability to remove ICM, and as a consequence, ICM and their transformation products (TPs) have been detected in environmental waters. ICM show limited biotransformation and low sorption potential. ICM can act as iodine source and can react with commonly used disinfectants such as chlorine in presence of organic matter to yield iodinated disinfection byproducts (IDBPs) which are more cytotoxic and genotoxic than conventionally known disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Even highly efficient advanced treatment systems have failed to completely mineralize ICM, and TPs that are more toxic than parent ICM are produced. This raises issues regarding the efficacy of existing treatment technologies and serious concern over disinfection of ICM containing waters. Realizing this, the current review aims to capture the attention of scientific community on areas of less focus. The review features in depth knowledge regarding complete environmental fate of ICM along with their existing treatment options.

Medications disposal and medications storage in Jordan: A cross-sectional study

AIMS

Many concerns arise from the improper disposal of medications, which is associated with a negative impact on health and wildlife. The majority of the consumers of pharmaceutical products remain unaware of the procedures of disposal of unused or expired medicines. This study aimed to explore the practices of Jordanian individuals regarding the disposal and storage of unused or expired medications.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted in Jordan for the period between July and November 2019 of patients who reported having unused, leftover or expired medications in their homes. The questionnaire tool was constructed based on a number of studies concerning medication recycling and international guidelines about correct and safe disposal of expired, unwanted or unused medication.

RESULTS

A total of 1092 participants were included in the study. Their mean age was 32.4 (SD = 13.6) years and 56.8% (n = 620) were males. More than half of the participants (58.1%, n = 634) reported that they had unused, leftover or expired medications in their homes. The bedroom, kitchen and store room were the three most commonly reported places for the storage of unused, leftover or expired medications. The pharmacist was the main source for information regarding the storage of medications. The three most common reasons reported by the participants regarding having unused/leftover medications at home were change or discontinuation by the doctor (29.4%), self-discontinuation as the illness symptoms improved or resolved (28.2%) and forgetfulness (25.1%).

CONCLUSION

A high percentage of the Jordanian population improperly handles their unused, leftover or expired medications. More restrictions are needed on the prescribing and dispensing of medications by the authorities concerned and there is a need to establish public guidelines regarding the use and correct disposal of pharmaceuticals.

Emerging contaminants in the water bodies of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA): A critical review

Many emerging contaminants (ECs) are not currently removed by conventional water treatment methods and consequently, often reach the aquatic environment. In the absence of proper management strategies, ECs can accumulate in water bodies, which poses potential environmental and health risks. This paper critically reviews, for the first time, the reported occurrence and treatment of ECs in the Middle Eastern and North Africa (MENA) region. The paper also provides recommendations to properly manage EC risks. In the MENA region, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have been detected in surface water, seawater, groundwater, and wastewater treatment plants. A focus on surface water in the published literature suggests that studies are skewed towards worldwide trends, whereas studies on ECs in seawater are of great importance in the study region. The types of PPCPs detected in the MENA region vary, but anti-inflammatories and antibiotics dominate. In comparison, microplastics have mainly been studied in surface waters and seawater with much less focus on drinking water. The majority of microplastics in the region are secondary types resulting from the degradation of larger plastic debris; polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) fibers are the most frequently detected polymers, which are indicative of local anthropogenic sources. Research progress on ECs varies between countries, having received more attention in Iran and Tunisia. Most MENA countries have now begun monitoring water bodies for ECs; however, studies are still lacking in some countries including Sudan, Djibouti, Syria, Ethiopia, and Bahrain. Based on this review, critical knowledge gaps and research needs are identified. Countries in the MENA region require further research on a broader range of EC types. Overall, water pollution due to the use and release of ECs can be tackled by improving public awareness, public campaigns, government intervention, and advanced monitoring and treatment methods.

Transformation of X-ray contrast media by conventional and advanced oxidation processes during water treatment: Efficiency, oxidation intermediates, and formation of iodinated byproducts

X-ray contrast media (ICM), as the most widely used intravascular pharmaceuticals, have been frequently detected in various environmental compartments. ICM have attracted increasingly scientific interest owing to their role as an iodine contributor, resulting in the high risk of forming toxic iodinated byproducts (I-BPs) during water treatment. In this review, we present the state-of-the-art findings relating to the removal efficiency as well as oxidation intermediates of ICM by conventional and advanced oxidation processes. Moreover, formation of specific small-molecular I-BPs (e.g., iodoacetic acid and iodoform) during these processes is also summarized. Conventional oxidants and disinfectants including chlorine (HOCl) and chloramine (NH₂Cl) have low reactivities towards ICM with HOCl being more reactive. Iodinated/deiodinated intermediates are generated from reactions of HOCl/NH₂Cl with ICM, and they can be further transformed into small-molecular I-BPs. Types of disinfectants and ICM as well as solution conditions (e.g., presence of bromide (Br^-) and natural organic matters (NOM)) display significant impact on formation of I-BPs during chlor(am)ination of ICM. Uncatalyzed advanced oxidation process (AOPs) involving ozone (O₃) and ferrate (Fe(VI)) exhibit slow to mild reactivities towards ICM, usually leading to their incomplete removal under typical water treatment conditions. In contrast, UV photolysis and catalyzed AOPs including hydroxyl radical (HO^•) and/or sulfate radical (SO₄^.-) based AOPs (e.g., UV/hydrogen peroxide, UV/persulfate, UV/peroxymonosulfate (PMS), and CuO/PMS) and reactive chlorine species (RCS) involved AOPs (e.g., UV/HOCl and UV/NH₂Cl) can effectively eliminate ICM under various conditions. Components of water matrix (e.g., chloride (Cl^-), Br^-, bicarbonate (HCO₃^-), and NOM) have great impact on oxidation efficiency of ICM by catalyzed AOPs. Generally, similar intermediates are formed from ICM oxidation by UV photolysis and AOPs, mainly resulting from a series reactions of the side chain and/or C-I groups (e.g. cleavage, dealkylation, oxidation, and rearrange). Further oxidation or disinfection of these intermediates leads to formation of small-molecular I-BPs. Pre-oxidation of ICM-containing waters by AOPs tends to increase formation of I-BPs during post-disinfection process, while this trend also depends on the oxidation processes applied and solution conditions. This review summarizes the latest research findings relating to ICM transformation and (by)products formation during disinfection and AOPs in water treatment, which has great implications for the practical applications of these technologies.

Identification of effective parameters for anti-inflammatory concentration in València City's wastewater using fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis

The current literature about pharmaceutical and personal care compounds (PPCPs) focuses on identifying their concentration and toxicological risk both in surface water and in wastewater. However, the influence of urban areas (population ageing, income level, hospitals and others) has not yet been analysed. Knowing how a population (and its facilities) affects PPCPs' presence in wastewater is important to identify the conditions that are responsible for their presence. In this work, the influence of water consumption, population ageing, income level, hospitals and nursing homes on the anti-inflammatory concentration have been analysed. To fill the gap between the quantitative data on PPCPs' concentration and the qualitative reasoning of the influence of urban areas on the anti-inflammatory concentration, the use of fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) is proposed. The fsQCA results are presented as recipes that show the different causal combinations of conditions that explain the presence of anti-inflammatories in wastewater. Using fsQCA for urban wastewater management with the aim of explaining the presence of anti-inflammatories in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is a novelty in the literature. The results obtained here show the influence of water consumption (WATCON), hospitals (HOSP) and population ageing (POPAG) as the main conditions for the anti-inflammatory concentration in Valèncian wastewater. Specifically, these conditions are present in all the recipes obtained with consistency of 99%. Through the results obtained, it would be possible to identify that HOSP are the main facilities that discharge anti-inflammatories into urban wastewater. Hence, the necessity of preventive measures to avoid the anti-inflammatory discharge into water bodies has been showed. Furthermore, under a methodological point of view, this work highlights the eligibility of fsQCA as a wastewater cycle management tool.

Occurrence and indicators of pharmaceuticals in Chinese streams: A nationwide study

Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) are excreted by humans and animals and released into the aquatic environment through wastewater, which can have potential negative impacts on ecological systems. To conduct a nationwide investigation of the occurrence of PhACs in water resources in China, an analytical procedure based on solid-phase extraction (SPE) and LC-MS/MS was used to measure 45 PhACs in surface water samples from a network of 29 rivers across 31 provinces in China in 2014 and 2015. PhACs were prevalent in all sampled streams. The concentrations of commonly detected PhACs were comparable to those detected in other countries. High total concentrations (mean > 1 μg L^-1) of all tested PhACs were primarily detected in areas under extreme water stress, specifically northern and eastern coastal areas. Source apportionment based on the profiles of the target compounds found that 54% of the PhACs in China originated from freshly discharged untreated sewage. Metformin (MET) and its biodegradation product, guanylurea (GUL), were used as a pair of indicators to predict PhAC contamination levels and differentiate between biotreated and unbiotreated wastewater. High MET/GUL can be used to indicate untreated wastewater, whereas low MET/GUL values are a strong indicator of treated wastewater. Furthermore, wastewater biotreatment ratios were calculated. We estimated that the biotreatment ratios of most of the provinces in China were less than 50%. We conclude that more attention should be paid to untreated sewage water, especially water in rural areas rather than the existing concentration on urban sewage treatment-oriented management.

Dissipation behavior and residue distribution of fluazaindolizine and its seven metabolites in tomato ecosystem based on SAX SPE procedure using HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS technique

Fluazaindolizine suspension concentrate (500gL^-1 SC), as a pre-commercialized product, was firstly investigated under open-field conditions. A sensitive method for simultaneous determination of fluazaindolizine and seven metabolites (IN-QEK31, IN-F4106, IN-A5760, IN-UJV12, IN-UNS90, IN-QZY47 and IN-TMQ01) was established and validated using HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS technique. The LOQs of these pollutants in tomato were 0.01mgkg^-1, and their recoveries were 81.1%-117% with the relative standard deviations (RSDs <11.8%). The dissipation behaviours of fluazaindolizine in soil followed first-order kinetics with the half lives of 4.6-32.4days, whilst the residues in plant were below its LOQ after 7days. The fluazaindolizine residues in soil were below 0.963mgkg^-1, based on root irrigation applications (50-75mg a.i. per plant) twice and pre-harvest interval (PHI, 3days), while the residues of IN-QEK31, IN-F4106 and IN-A5760 were below 3.9mgkg^-1, excluding other four metabolites (<0.01mgkg^-1). The residues of fluazaindolizine in tomato were below 0.01mgkg^-1, and IN-QEK31 remained 0.135mgkg^-1. The current study could not only guide reasonable usage of the formulation, but also facilitate the setting of residue definition and its maximum residue limits (MRLs) of fluazaindolizine in tomato.

Shadow prices of emerging pollutants in wastewater treatment plants: Quantification of environmental externalities

Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are designed to remove mainly the organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds and suspended solids from wastewater but are not capable of removing chemicals of human origin, such as pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs). The presence of PPCPs in wastewater has environmental effects on the water bodies receiving the WWTP effluents and renders the effluent as unsuitable as a nonconventional water source. Considering PPCPs as non-desirable outputs, the shadow prices methodology has been implemented using the output distance function to measure the environmental benefits of removing five PPCPs (acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen, carbamazepine and trimethoprim) from WWTP effluents discharged to three different ecosystems (wetland, river and sea). Acetaminophen and ibuprofen show the highest shadow prices of the sample for wetland areas. Their values are 128.2 and 11.0 €/mg respectively. These results represent a proxy in monetary terms of the environmental benefit achieved from avoiding the discharge of these PPCPs in wetlands. These results suggest which PPCPs are urgent to remove from wastewater and which ecosystems are most vulnerable to their presence. The findings of this study will be useful for the plant managers in order to make decisions about prioritization in the removal of different pollutants.

Distribution and relevance of iodinated X-ray contrast media and iodinated trihalomethanes in an aquatic environment

Distribution and relevance of iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) and iodinated disinfection byproducts (I-DBPs) in a real aquatic environment have been rarely documented. In this paper, some ICM were proven to be strongly correlated with I-DBPs through investigation of five ICM and five iodinated trihalomethanes (I-THMs) in surface water and two drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) of the Yangtze River Delta, China. The total ICM concentrations in Taihu Lake and the Huangpu River ranged from 88.7 to 131 ng L^-1 and 102-252 ng L^-1, respectively. While the total I-THM concentrations ranged from 128 to 967 ng L^-1 in Taihu Lake and 267-680 ng L^-1 in the Huangpu River. Iohexol, the dominant ICM, showed significant positive correlation (p < 0.01) with CHClI₂ in Taihu Lake. Iopamidol and iomeprol correlated positively (p < 0.01) with some I-THMs in the Huangpu River. The observed pronounced correlations between ICM and I-THMs indicated that ICM play an important role in the formation of I-THMs in a real aquatic environment. Characteristics of the I-THM species distributions indicated that I-THMs may be transformed by natural conditions. Both DWTPs showed negligible removal efficiencies for total ICM (<20%). Strikingly high concentrations of total I-THMs were observed in the finished water (2848 ng L^-1 in conventional DWTP and 356 ng L^-1 in advanced DWTP). Obvious transformation of ICM to I-THMs was observed during the chlorination and ozonization processes in DWTPs. We suggest that ICM is an important source for I-DBP formation in the real aquatic environment.

Biodegradation of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors with oxygen, nitrate, manganese (IV), iron (III) and sulfate as electron acceptors

Biodegradation of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds was examined in long term batch experiments for a period of two and a half years to obtain more insight into the effects of redox conditions. A mix including lipid lowering agents (e.g. clofibric acid, gemfibrozil), analgesics (e.g. diclofenac, naproxen), beta blockers (e.g. atenolol, propranolol), X-ray contrast media (e.g. diatrizoic acid, iomeprol) as well as the antiepileptic carbamazepine and endocrine disruptors (e.g. bisphenol A, 17α-ethinylestradiol) was analyzed in batch tests in the presence of oxygen, nitrate, manganese (IV), iron (III), and sulfate. Out of the 23 selected substances, 14 showed a degradation of >50% of their initial concentrations under aerobic conditions. The beta blockers propranolol and atenolol and the analgesics pentoxifylline and naproxen showed a removal of >50% under anaerobic conditions. In particular naproxen proved to be degradable with oxygen and under most anaerobic conditions, i.e. with manganese (IV), iron (III), or sulfate. The natural estrogens estriol, estrone and 17β-estradiol showed complete biodegradation under aerobic and nitrate-reducing conditions, with a temporary increase of estrone during transformation of estriol and 17β-estradiol. Transformation of 17β-estradiol under Fe(III)-reducing conditions resulted in an increase of estriol as well. Concentrations of clofibric acid, carbamazepine, iopamidol and diatrizoic acid, known for their recalcitrance in the environment, remained unchanged.

Pharmaceuticals, Their Metabolites, and Other Polar Pollutants in Field-Grown Vegetables Irrigated with Treated Municipal Wastewater

The reuse of treated municipal wastewater for crop irrigation is a necessity in arid and semiarid regions but a potential entrance for emerging contaminants into the food chain. However, little attention has yet been paid to the detection of micropollutants and possible metabolites in vegetables grown under realistic field conditions. In this study, the uptake of 28 micropollutants and carbamazepine metabolites in 10 different field-grown vegetable species (among them carrot, lettuce, potato, and zucchini) from Jordan was studied. A total of 12 micropollutants and six carbamazepine metabolites, four of which have never been analyzed before in plant-uptake studies, could be detected in all of the samples in concentrations ranging from 1.7 to 216 ng per g of dry weight. In edible tissues, the total concentration of micropollutants decreased in the order of leafy (247-533) > root (73-126) > fruit-bearing (5-76 ng per g of dry weight) vegetables. A preliminary health-risk assessment for nine compounds according to the TTC concept shows no risk for seven of the micropollutats; for ciprofloxacin and 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, however, more-specific toxicity data would be required for a refined risk assessment.

Accumulation of pharmaceuticals in groundwater under arid climate conditions - Results from unsaturated column experiments

Intense reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture is practiced all over the world, especially in arid and water-scarce regions. In doing so, pharmaceutical residues in the water are irrigated to the soil and subsequently can percolate into the local aquifers. Since evaporation rates in these areas are typically high, persistent substances might enrich in the groundwater recharge of closed catchments like the Jordan Valley. Against this background, unsaturated column tests were conducted to investigate the potential for evaporative accumulation of the two pharmaceuticals bezafibrate and carbamazepine under simulated arid climate conditions. Parallel tests were conducted with inhibited microbiological activity where both substances showed an increase in the effluent concentrations proportional to the evaporation loss of the inflow solution. The mean accumulation factors of the pharmaceuticals correspond to the evaporated water loss. The experiments indicate the accumulation potential for pharmaceuticals with high persistence against biodegradation. For the first time, the overall potential for evaporative enrichment could be demonstrated for pharmaceuticals. Under the given experimental conditions, the two investigated pharmaceuticals did not enrich faster than chloride, which might result in soil salting prior to reaching harmful pharmaceutical concentrations in soil water. The findings are relevant to future assessments of environmental impacts of persistent trace substances, which need to take into account that concentrations in the aquatic cycle might increase further due to evaporative enrichment.

Ubiquitous Detection of Artificial Sweeteners and Iodinated X-ray Contrast Media in Aquatic Environmental and Wastewater Treatment Plant Samples from Vietnam, The Philippines, and Myanmar

Water samples from Vietnam, The Philippines, and Myanmar were analyzed for artificial sweeteners (ASs) and iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICMs). High concentrations (low micrograms per liter) of ASs, including aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose, were found in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) influents from Vietnam. Three ICMs, iohexol, iopamidol, and iopromide were detected in Vietnamese WWTP influents and effluents, suggesting that these ICMs are frequently used in Vietnam. ASs and ICMs were found in river water from downtown Hanoi at concentrations comparable to or lower than the concentrations in WWTP influents. The ASs and ICMs concentrations in WWTP influents and adjacent surface water significantly correlated (r (2) = 0.99, p < 0.001), suggesting that household wastewater is discharged directly into rivers in Vietnam. Acesulfame was frequently detected in northern Vietnamese groundwater, but the concentrations varied spatially by one order of magnitude even though the sampling points were very close together. This implies that poorly performing domestic septic tanks sporadically leak household wastewater into groundwater. High acesulfame, cyclamate, saccharin, and sucralose concentrations were found in surface water from Manila, The Philippines. The sucralose concentrations were one order of magnitude higher in the Manila samples than in the Vietnamese samples, indicating that more sucralose is used in The Philippines than in Vietnam. Acesulfame and cyclamate were found in surface water from Pathein (rural) and Yangon (urban) in Myanmar, but no ICMs were found in the samples. The ASs concentrations were two-three orders of magnitude lower in the samples from Myanmar than in the samples from Vietnam and The Philippines, suggesting that different amounts of ASs are used in these countries. We believe this is the first report of persistent ASs and ICMs having ubiquitous distributions in economically emerging South Asian countries.

Changes in the persistence of two phenylurea herbicides in two Mediterranean soils under irrigation with low- and high-quality water: A laboratory approach

The disappearance of two phenylurea herbicides, chlorotoluron (CHL) and isoproturon (IPU), in two Mediterranean soils, an agricultural calcareous soil (S5) and an organic forest soil (S2), was assessed under irrigation with high- and low-quality water. Irrigation with wastewater, as opposed to irrigation with high-quality water, increased the degradation rate of both herbicides in both soils. For each soil, the decay rate of IPU was always higher than that of CHL, and both pesticides disappeared more rapidly from S5 with lower clay and organic carbon content than from S2. The degradation rate was inversely related with pesticide sorption on soil, because increased sorption would reduce pesticide bioavailability for decomposition. In most cases the residual concentration in soil of both phenylurea herbicides was better fitted to a bi-exponential decay model than to first-order or first-order with plateau models. Dehydrogenase activity, used as an indication of microbial activity, was very high in S2 in comparison with S5, but was not related to pesticide disappearance.

Fecal pollution source tracking toolbox for identification, evaluation and characterization of fecal contamination in receiving urban surface waters and groundwater

The quality of surface waters/groundwater of a geographical region can be affected by anthropogenic activities, land use patterns and fecal pollution sources from humans and animals. Therefore, the development of an efficient fecal pollution source tracking toolbox for identifying the origin of the fecal pollution sources in surface waters/groundwater is especially helpful for improving management efforts and remediation actions of water resources in a more cost-effective and efficient manner. This review summarizes the updated knowledge on the use of fecal pollution source tracking markers for detecting, evaluating and characterizing fecal pollution sources in receiving surface waters and groundwater. The suitability of using chemical markers (i.e. fecal sterols, fluorescent whitening agents, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, and artificial sweeteners) and/or microbial markers (e.g. F+RNA coliphages, enteric viruses, and host-specific anaerobic bacterial 16S rDNA genetic markers) for tracking fecal pollution sources in receiving water bodies is discussed. In addition, this review also provides a comprehensive approach, which is based on the detection ratios (DR), detection frequencies (DF), and fate of potential microbial and chemical markers. DR and DF are considered as the key criteria for selecting appropriate markers for identifying and evaluating the impacts of fecal contamination in surface waters/groundwater.

Rapid determination of X-ray contrast agent iomeprol in human plasma by on-line solid-phase extraction coupled with phase optimized liquid chromatography

Phase optimized liquid chromatography (POPLC) allows for the optimized combination of column segments of any length and stationary phases with different functionalities. In this study, a simple and rapid method using POPLC coupled with on-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) for the analysis of X-ray contrast media agent iomeprol (IOM) in human plasma was developed. Because the phenyl (PH) stationary phase has strong hydrophobic and π-π interactions with IOM and iopromide (IOP, internal standard), the best separation efficiency was achieved with a 250mm×3mm homogenous PH POPLC-column. Different kinds of on-line SPE sorbents were studied, including restricted access material-alkyl diol silica (ADS), LiChrolut EN with excellent absorption capacity and hydrophilic-lipophilic-balanced Oasis HLB. The most efficient on-line sample clean-up was carried out using a fast-flow on-line purification approach with an Oasis HLB pre-column ((20mm×2mm, 30μm). This pre-column showed excellent durability and reproducibility. At least 400 samples could be analyzed with one pre-column. Each plasma sample was directly injected and analyzed within 15min. The calibration curves were linear in the range of 10-1000μg/mL. The limit of quantitation was 2.26μg/mL. The inter-day precision of this method was excellent and less than 1.44%, and the intra-day precision was less than 4.44%. The inter-day and intra-day accuracy ranged from 94.33% to 104.36% and 94.60% to 101.71%, respectively. This validated method is expected to be useful in the analysis of human plasma samples for glomerular filtration rate (GFR) measurements and assessment of kidney function.

Tracking changing X-ray contrast media application to an urban-influenced karst aquifer in the Wadi Shueib, Jordan

Sewage input into a karst aquifer via leaking sewers and cesspits was investigated over five years in an urbanized catchment. Of 66 samples, analyzed for 25 pharmaceuticals, 91% indicated detectable concentrations. The former standard iodinated X-ray contrast medium (ICM) diatrizoic acid was detected most frequently. Remarkably, it was found more frequently in groundwater (79%, median: 54 ng/l) than in wastewater (21%, 120 ng/l), which is supposed to be the only source in this area. In contrast, iopamidol, a possible substitute, spread over the aquifer during the investigation period whereas concentrations were two orders of magnitude higher in wastewater than in groundwater. Knowledge about changing application of pharmaceuticals thus is essential to assess urban impacts on aquifers, especially when applying mass balances. Since correlated concentrations provide conclusive evidence that, for this catchment, nitrate in groundwater rather comes from urban than from rural sources, ICM are considered useful tracers.