Flexible high resolution-mass spectrometry approach for screening new psychoactive substances in urban wastewater

Absence of new psychoactive substances in wastewater from South Wales, UK, revealed by optimised liquid chromatography-time-of-flight analysis

New psychoactive substances are produced and marketed to mimic the effects of their illicit counterparts and to attempt to evade drug tests and prosecution. Here, we present the optimisation, validation and application of an analytical method using liquid chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry to detect and quantify 37 new psychoactive substances and illicit substances in wastewater from South Wales, UK, using a targeted analysis method. Sample preparation was performed using solid-phase extraction with Oasis HLB cartridges. The LC separation was performed using a YMC-Triart Phenyl 450 bar column (12 nm, 5 μm, 100 × 3 mm) which provided good separation and resolution for all targeted analytes with a run time of 9 min. The method was validated using the following parameters: sensitivity, selectivity, linearity, accuracy, precision, recovery and matrix effects. The method was then applied to influent wastewater samples collected from two wastewater treatment plants in Wales, UK.

Target and Nontarget Screening to Support Capacity Scaling for Substance Use Assessment through a Statewide Wastewater Surveillance Network in New York

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been widely implemented around the world as a complementary tool to conventional surveillance techniques to inform and improve public health responses. Currently, wastewater surveillance programs in the U.S. are evaluating integrated approaches to address public health challenges across multiple domains, including substance abuse. In this work, we demonstrated the potential of online solid-phase extraction coupled with liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry to support targeted quantification and nontargeted analysis of psychoactive and lifestyle substances as a step toward understanding the operational feasibility of a statewide wastewater surveillance program for substance use assessment in New York. Target screening confirmed 39 substances in influent samples collected from 10 wastewater treatment plants with varying sewershed characteristics and is anticipated to meet the throughput demands as the statewide program scales up to full capacity. Nontarget screening prioritized additional compounds for identification at three confidence levels, including psychoactive substances, such as opioid analgesics, phenethylamines, and cathinone derivatives. Consumption rates of 12 target substances detected in over 80% of wastewater samples were similar to those reported by previous U.S.-based WBE studies despite the uncertainty associated with back-calculations. For selected substances, the relative bias in consumption estimates was sensitive to variations in monitoring frequency, and factors beyond human excretion (e.g., as indicated by the parent-to-metabolite ratios) might also contribute to their prevalence at the sewershed scale. Overall, our study marks the initial phase of refining analytical workflows and data interpretation in preparation for the incorporation of substance use assessment into the statewide wastewater surveillance program in New York.

Workflow to facilitate the detection of new psychoactive substances and drugs of abuse in influent urban wastewater

The complexity around the dynamic markets for new psychoactive substances (NPS) forces researchers to develop and apply innovative analytical strategies to detect and identify them in influent urban wastewater. In this work a comprehensive suspect screening workflow following liquid chromatography - high resolution mass spectrometry analysis was established utilising the open-source InSpectra data processing platform and the HighResNPS library. In total, 278 urban influent wastewater samples from 47 sites in 16 countries were collected to investigate the presence of NPS and other drugs of abuse. A total of 50 compounds were detected in samples from at least one site. Most compounds found were prescription drugs such as gabapentin (detection frequency 79%), codeine (40%) and pregabalin (15%). However, cocaine was the most found illicit drug (83%), in all countries where samples were collected apart from the Republic of Korea and China. Eight NPS were also identified with this protocol: 3-methylmethcathinone 11%), eutylone (6%), etizolam (2%), 3-chloromethcathinone (4%), mitragynine (6%), phenibut (2%), 25I-NBOH (2%) and trimethoxyamphetamine (2%). The latter three have not previously been reported in municipal wastewater samples. The workflow employed allowed the prioritisation of features to be further investigated, reducing processing time and gaining in confidence in their identification.

Influent wastewater analysis to investigate emerging trends of new psychoactive substances use in Europe

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can provide objective and timely information on the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS), originally designed as legal alternatives of internationally controlled drugs. NPS have rapidly emerged on the global drug market, posing a challenge to drug policy and constituting a risk to public health. In this study, a WBE approach was applied to monitor the use of more than 300 NPS, together with fentanyl and its main metabolite norfentanyl, in influent wastewater collected from 12 European cities during March-June 2021. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of NPS in composite 24 h influent wastewater samples were based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. In-sample stability tests demonstrated the suitability of most investigated biomarkers, except for a few synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids and phenetylamines. Fentanyl, norfentanyl and eight NPS were quantified in influent wastewater and at least three substances were found in each city, demonstrating their use in Europe. N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC) were the most common NPS found, with the latter having the highest mass loads (up to 24.8 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). Seven additional substances, belonging to five categories of NPS, were identified in different cities. Spatial trends of NPS use were observed between cities and countries, and a changing weekly profile of use was observed for 3-MMC. WBE is a useful tool to rapidly evaluate emerging trends of NPS use, complementing common indicators (i.e. population surveys, seizures) and helping to establish measures for public health protection.

HRMS-based suspect screening of pharmaceuticals and their transformation products in multiple environmental compartments: An alternative to target analysis?

The comprehensive monitoring of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in the environment is challenging given the myriad of substances continuously discharged, the increasing number of new compounds being produced (and released), or the variety of the associated human metabolites and transformation products (TPs). Approaches such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based suspect analysis have emerged to overcome the drawbacks of classical target analytical methods, e.g., restricted chemical coverage. In this study, we assess the readiness of HRMS-based suspect screening to replace or rather complement target methodologies by comparing the performance of both approaches in terms of i) detection of PhACs in various environmental samples (water, sediments, biofilm, fish plasma, muscle and liver) in a field study; ii) PhACs (semi)quantification and iii) prediction of their environmental risks. Our findings revealed that target strategies alone significantly underestimate the variety of PhACs potentially impacting the environment. However, relying solely on suspect strategies can misjudge the presence and risk of low-level but potentially risky PhACs. Additionally, semiquantitative approaches, despite slightly overestimating concentrations, can provide a realistic overview of PhACs concentrations. Hence, it is recommended to adopt a combined strategy that first evaluates suspected threats and subsequently includes the relevant ones in the established target methodologies.

Non-target analysis for water characterization: wastewater treatment impact and selection of relevant features

Non-target analyses were conducted to characterize and compare the molecular profiles (UHPLC-HRMS fingerprint) of water samples from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Inlet and outlet samples were collected from three campaigns spaced 6 months apart in order to highlight common trends. A significant impact of the treatment on the sample fingerprints was shown, with a 65-70% abatement of the number of features detected in the effluent, and more polar, smaller and less intense molecules found overall compared to those in WWTP influent waters. Multivariate analysis (PCA) associated with variations of the features between inlets and outlets showed that features appearing or increasing were correlated with effluents while those disappearing or decreasing were correlated with influents. Finally, effluent features considered as relevant to a potentially adverse effect on aqueous media (i.e. those which appeared or increased or slightly varied from the influent) were highlighted. Three hundred seventy-five features common with the 3 campaigns were thus selected and further characterized. For most of them, elementary composition was found to be C, H, N, O (42%) and C, H, N, O, P (18%). Considering the MS2 spectra and several reference MS2 databases, annotations were proposed for 35 of these relevant features. They include synthetic products, pharmaceuticals and metabolites.

Fluorinated-Squaramide Covalent Organic Frameworks for High-Performance and Interference-Free Extraction of Synthetic Cannabinoids

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs), one of the largest groups of new psychoactive substances (NPSs), have emerged as a significant public health threat in different regions worldwide. Analyzing SCs in water samples is critical to estimate their consumption and control. However, due to their low background concentration and the coexistence of complex matrix, the selective and effective enrichment of SCs is still challenging. In this study, a series of fluorinated-squaramide-based covalent organic frameworks (COF: FSQ-2, FSQ-3, and FSQ-4) are synthesized, and the as-prepared FSQ-4 exhibits strong affinity to different SCs. The proper pore size (1.4 nm) and pre-located functional groups (hydrogen-bond donors, hydrogen-bond acceptors, and fluorophilic segments) work synergistically for efficient SCs capture. Remarkably, when coupled FSQ-4 with solid-phase microextraction (SPME), trace-level (part per trillion, 10-9 ) determination of 13 SCs can be easily achieved, representing one of the best results among NPS analyses, and the excellent extraction performance can be maintained under various interfering conditions.

Investigation of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS), Other Illicit Drugs, and Drug-Related Compounds in a Taiwanese Wastewater Sample Using High-Resolution Mass-Spectrometry-Based Targeted and Suspect Screening

The proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) in recent years has posed a significant challenge to public health. Traditional monitoring methods have proven insufficient in tracking these constantly evolving substances, leading to the development of alternative approaches such as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The present study aims to utilize high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based targeted and suspect screening to profile NPS, other illicit drugs, and drug-related compounds in a Taiwanese wastewater sample. For the targeted analysis, 8 out 18 standards of illicit drugs have been identified. The suspect screening approach based on approximately 3600 substances in the SWGDRUG library can further identify 92 compounds, including opiate analgesics, synthetic cathinones, phenylalkylamines derivatives, phenethylamine derivatives, tryptamine derivatives, steroids, and ephedrine-related compounds. Additionally, the presence of 5-methoxy-2-aminoindane (MEAI) in the wastewater indicates that drug dealers have recently sold this potential NPS to evade drug regulations. This study firstly reports the HRMS-based comprehensive profile of NPS, other illicit drugs, and drug-related compounds in Taiwan, which could be applied as biomarkers for estimating the consumption of drugs.

Target and suspect screening of (new) psychoactive substances in South Korean wastewater by LC-HRMS

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a type of abused drug designed to mimic the effects of the currently known illicit drugs, whose structures are constantly changing to escape surveillance. The quick identification of NPS use in the community therefore demands immediate action. This study aimed to develop a target and suspect screening method using LC-HRMS to identify NPS in wastewater samples. An in-house database of 95 traditional and NPS was built using the reference standards, and an analytical method was developed. Wastewater samples were collected from 29 wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) across South Korea, representing 50 % of the total population. The psychoactive substances in waste water samples were screened using in-house database and developed analytical methods. A total of 14 substances were detected in the target analysis, including three NPS (N-methyl-2-AI, 25E-NBOMe, and 25D-NBOMe) and 11 traditional psychoactive substances and their metabolites (zolpidem phenyl-4-COOH, ephedrine, ritalinic acid, tramadol, phenmetrazine, phendimetrazine, phentermine, methamphetamine, codeine, morphine, and ketamine). Out of these, N-methyl-2-AI, zolpidem phenyl-4-COOH, ephedrine, ritalinic acid, tramadol, phenmetrazine, and phendimetrazine were detected with a detection frequency of over 50 %. Primarily, N-methyl-2-Al was detected in all the wastewater samples. Additionally, four NPSs (amphetamine-N-propyl, benzydamine, isoethcathinone, methoxyphenamine) were tentatively identified at level 2b in a suspect screening analysis. This is the most comprehensive study to investigate NPS using target and suspect analysis methods at the national level. This study raises a need for continuous monitoring of NPS in South Korea.

A Framework for Public Health Authorities to Evaluate Health Determinants for Wastewater-Based Epidemiology

BACKGROUND

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is rapidly developing as a powerful public health tool. It can provide information about a wide range of health determinants (HDs), including community exposure to environmental hazards, trends in consumption of licit and illicit substances, spread of infectious diseases, and general community health. As such, the list of possible candidate HDs for WBE is almost limitless. Consequently, a means to evaluate and prioritize suitable candidates for WBE is useful, particularly for public health authorities, who often face resource constraints.

OBJECTIVES

We have developed a framework to assist public health authorities to decide what HDs may be appropriate for WBE and what biomarkers could be used. This commentary reflects the experience of the authors, who work at the interface of research and public health implementation.

DISCUSSION

To be suitable for WBE, a candidate HD should address a public health or scientific issue that would benefit from better understanding at the population level. For HDs where information on individual exposures or stratification by population subgroups is required, WBE is less suitable. Where other methodologies are already used to monitor the candidate HD, consideration must be given to whether WBE could provide better or complementary information to the current approach. An essential requirement of WBE is a biomarker specific for the candidate HD. A biomarker in this context refers to any human-excreted chemical or biological that could act as an indicator of consumption or exposure to an environmental hazard or of the human health state. Suitable biomarkers should meet several criteria outlined in this commentary, which requires background knowledge for both the biomarker and the HD. An evaluation tree summarizing key considerations for public health authorities when assessing the suitability of candidate HDs for WBE and an example evaluation are presented. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11115.

Nationwide investigation on the use of new psychoactive substances in Italy through urban wastewater analysis

New psychoactive substances (NPS) emerged in the mid-2000s as a legal alternative to established illicit drugs. Despite the high individual and public harm associated to NPS, little is known about their real extent of use. New strategies are required to deal with the challenging monitoring of NPS, affected by the high number of substances available in the market, their rapid change and level of innovation, and their easy distribution mainly through the web. In this study, a wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach was applied for a nationwide monitoring of the use of eight categories of NPS in the population, including fentanyl analogues. Sixty-two biomarkers of NPS were selected following an established criterion, that included the most frequently and recently reported. A selective analytical method based on solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated for NPS analysis in wastewater. Composite wastewater samples (24 h) were collected in 33 Italian cities in October-November 2020 and analyzed according the validated method. Results highlighted the use of ten NPS, mainly synthetic cathinones and tryptamines, all over Italy. Methcathinone was found in all the cities and the highest mass loads corresponded to 3-methylmethcathinone with values up to 3.8 mg/day/1000 inhabitants. Low levels of fentanyl (found in 9 cities) and its main metabolite norfentanyl (11) were found whereas no fentanyl analogues were identified. As far as we know, this is the first time that the use of fentanyl and its analogues was investigated in Italy by wastewater analysis. WBE is a useful tool to rapidly evaluate emerging trends of NPS use, complementing common indicators (i.e. population surveys, seizures) and helping to establish measures for public health protection.

Qualitative fingerprinting of psychoactive pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, and related human metabolites in wastewater: A year-long study from Riga, Latvia

The COVID-19 pandemic has become an unprecedented public health emergency causing immense societal and socio-economic consequences. Multiple studies have outlined that interventions to curb the spread of the virus are likely to have an effect on substance use patterns. In this study, we explored the presence of psychoactive pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs and related human metabolites in 24-h composite wastewater samples that were collected weekly in 2021 from the central WWTP of Riga, Latvia. The analysis was performed via suspect screening approach using three separate high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) workflows, which relied on reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and direct infusion HRMS. In total, 39 out of 149 substances were detected throughout the sampling period. These include pharmaceuticals (mainly antiepileptics, antidepressants and antipsychotics), illicit drugs (e.g., MDMA, MDEA, cocaine, etc.) and new psychoactive substances (alpha-PVP). The results were evaluated in relation to COVID-19 incidence rate and the severity of containment and closure policies. For some compounds we observed temporal changes that may be potentially linked to the state of the pandemic. For instance, higher detection rates were observed for several illicit drugs during periods, when restrictions on public events were relaxed. Meanwhile, some psychoactive pharmaceuticals and drugs used to treat upper respiratory tract infections displayed increased prevalence in weeks when the national COVID-19 incidence rates were higher. However, without baseline reference data from previous years, it is difficult to discern how much of the relationships seen are linked to pandemic progression and seasonal variability.

Developments in high-resolution mass spectrometric analyses of new psychoactive substances

The proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has necessitated the development and improvement of current practices for the detection and identification of known NPS and newly emerging derivatives. High-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is quickly becoming the industry standard for these analyses due to its ability to be operated in data-independent acquisition (DIA) modes, allowing for the collection of large amounts of data and enabling retrospective data interrogation as new information becomes available. The increasing popularity of HRMS has also prompted the exploration of new ways to screen for NPS, including broad-spectrum wastewater analysis to identify usage trends in the community and metabolomic-based approaches to examine the effects of drugs of abuse on endogenous compounds. In this paper, the novel applications of HRMS techniques to the analysis of NPS is reviewed. In particular, the development of innovative data analysis and interpretation approaches is discussed, including the application of machine learning and molecular networking to toxicological analyses.

Environmental occurrence and ecological risks of psychoactive substances

Psychoactive substances are ubiquitous in the environment at low concentrations, and tobacco, cannabis, etc. are all widely-existing examples. Given their potent biological activity, psychoactive substances are suspected to be harmful to the environment, and reports of their ecological risks are gradually increasing. Since the 1990s, the investigations into psychoactive substances have made remarkable progress, yet some research fields still need to be modernised. For example, the unification of standardised analytical methods as well as the supplementation of occurrence literature. In addition, a relatively lagging risk evaluation system caused by a lack of toxicity data is particularly in need of improvement. The purpose of this article is to develop a review of current research on psychoactive substances, including analytical methods, distribution in environmental compartments, and ecological risk assessment, as well as to point out deficiencies and development prospects and to offer motivation for enhancing the research level in this field.

Development and application of an in-house library and workflow for gas chromatography-electron ionization-accurate-mass/high-resolution mass spectrometry screening of environmental samples

This work presents an optimized gas chromatography–electron ionization–high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-EI-HRMS) screening method. Different method parameters affecting data processing with the Agilent Unknowns Analysis SureMass deconvolution software were optimized in order to achieve the best compromise between false positives and false negatives. To this end, an accurate-mass library of 26 model compounds was created. Then, five replicates of mussel extracts were spiked with a mixture of these 26 compounds at two concentration levels (10 and 100 ng/g dry weight in mussel, 50 and 500 ng/mL in extract) and injected in the GC-EI-HRMS system. The results of these experiments showed that accurate mass tolerance and pure weight factor (combination of reverse-forward library search) are the most critical factors. The validation of the developed method afforded screening detection limits in the 2.5–5 ng range for passive sampler extracts and 1–2 ng/g for mussel sample extracts, and limits of quantification in the 0.6–3.2 ng and 0.1–1.8 ng/g range, for the same type of samples, respectively, for 17 model analytes. Once the method was optimized, an accurate-mass HRMS library, containing retention indexes, with ca. 355 spectra of derivatized and non-derivatized compounds was generated. This library (freely available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5647960), together with a modified Agilent Pesticides Library of over 800 compounds, was applied to the screening of passive samplers, both of polydimethylsiloxane and polar chemical integrative samplers (POCIS), and mussel samples collected in Galicia (NW Spain), where a total of 75 chemicals could be identified.

Prevalence study of drugs and new psychoactive substances in hair of ketamine consumers using a methanolic direct extraction prior to high-resolution mass spectrometry

Few studies have reported the prevalence or incidence about the consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPS). The hair analysis can be useful for this purpose. At the present, ketamine is the most consumed arylcyclohexylamine associated to young consumers and polyconsumption profiles. For this reason, ketamine consumer cases become very interesting to provide information on NPS prevalence. In this work, ten former cases of the National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Science (INTCF) of Madrid Department (INTCFM), all of them belonging to defendants accused of crimes against public health and who had been found positive to ketamine, were reassessed. At the first toxicological analysis of those hair samples, a positive consume in ketamine had been determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). In this work, the same hair samples were reanalyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry ( UHPLC-HRMS/MS) using an incubation methanolic extraction combined with a single, simpler, non-selective and direct sample pre-treatment. After corroborating the GC-MS results previously obtained for the same samples, the detection of additional NPS using this new methodology evidenced its benefits and opened the possibility to perform a NPS prevalence study. In brief, in those cases with a positive consumption in ketamine, a polyconsumption of other drugs and NPS was found, including different arylcyclohexylamines as deschloroketamine, 3-MeO-PCP and methoxetamine; and cathinones as methylmetcathinone and N-ethyl-pentylone.

Development of a single retention time prediction model integrating multiple liquid chromatography systems: Application to new psychoactive substances

Database-driven suspect screening has proven to be a useful tool to detect new psychoactive substances (NPS) outside the scope of targeted screening; however, the lack of retention times specific to a liquid chromatography (LC) system can result in a large number of false positives. A singular stream-lined, quantitative structure-retention relationship (QSRR)-based retention time prediction model integrating multiple LC systems with different elution conditions is presented using retention time data (n = 1281) from the online crowd-sourced database, HighResNPS. Modelling was performed using an artificial neural network (ANN), specifically a multi-layer perceptron (MLP), using four molecular descriptors and one-hot encoding of categorical labels. Evaluation of test set predictions (n = 193) yielded coefficient of determination (R²) and mean absolute error (MAE) values of 0.942 and 0.583 min, respectively. The model successfully differentiated between LC systems, predicting 54%, 81% and 97% of the test set within ±0.5, ±1 and ±2 min, respectively. Additionally, retention times for an analyte not previously observed by the model were predicted within ±1 min for each LC system. The developed model can be used to predict retention times for all analytes on HighResNPS for each participating laboratory's LC system to further support suspect screening.

Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists and their human metabolites in sewage water: Stability assessment and identification of transformation products

Since their first appearance in 2008, synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) remain the most popular new psychoactive substances (NPS) in the EU. Following consumption, these drugs and their metabolites are urinary excreted and enter the sewage system enabling the application of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Knowing the fate of target analytes in sewage water is essential for successful application of WBE. This study investigates the stability of several chemically diverse SCRAs and selected human metabolites under sewage conditions utilizing a combination of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Target analytes included SCRAs with indole (5F-PB-22, PB-22 pentanoic acid), indazole (AMB-FUBINACA, 5F-ADB, 5F-ADB dimethylbutanoic acid), carbazole (MDMB-CHMCZCA, EG-018), and γ-carboline (Cumyl-PeGaClone) chemical core structures representing most of the basic core structures that have occurred up to now. Stability tests were performed using wastewater effluent containing 5% activated sludge as inoculum to monitor degradation processes and formation of transformation products (TPs). The majority of investigated SCRAs, excluding the selected human metabolites, was recalcitrant to microbial degradation in sewage systems over a period of 29 days. Their stability was rather controlled by physico-chemical processes like sorption and hydrolysis. Considering a typical hydraulic in-sewer retention time of 24 h, the concentration of AMB-FUBINACA decreased by 90% thus representing the most unstable SCRA investigated in this study. Among the 10 newly identified TPs, three could be considered as relevant markers and should be included into future WBE studies to gain further insight into use and prevalence of SCRAs on the drug market.

New psychoactive substances in several European populations assessed by wastewater-based epidemiology

Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can be a useful tool to face some of the existing challenges in monitoring the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS), as it can provide objective and updated information. This Europe-wide study aimed to verify the suitability of WBE for investigating the use of NPS. Selected NPS were monitored in urban wastewater by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The main classical illicit drugs were monitored in the same samples to compare their levels with those of NPS. Raw composite wastewater samples were collected in 2016 and 2017 in 14 European countries (22 cities) following best practice sampling protocols. Methcathinone was most frequent (>65% of the cities), followed by mephedrone (>25% of the cities), and only mephedrone, methcathinone and methylone were found in both years. This study depicts the use of NPS in Europe, confirming that it is much lower than the use of classical drugs. WBE proved able to assess the qualitative and quantitative spatial and temporal profiles of NPS use. The results show the changeable nature of the NPS market and the importance of large WBE monitoring campaigns for selected priority NPS. WBE is valuable for complementing epidemiological studies to follow rapidly changing profiles of use of drugs.

International snapshot of new psychoactive substance use: Case study of eight countries over the 2019/2020 new year period

There is considerable concern around the use of new psychoactive substances (NPS), but still little is known about how much they are really consumed. Analysis by forensics laboratories of seized drugs and post-mortem samples as well as hospital emergency rooms are the first line of identifying both 'new' NPS and those that are most dangerous to the community. However, NPS are not necessarily all seized by law enforcement agencies and only substances that contribute to fatalities or serious afflictions are recorded in post-mortem and emergency room samples. To gain a better insight into which NPS are most prevalent within a community, complementary data sources are required. In this work, influent wastewater was analysed from 14 sites in eight countries for a variety of NPS. All samples were collected over the 2019/2020 New Year period, a time which is characterized by celebrations and parties and therefore a time when more NPS may be consumed. Samples were extracted in the country of origin following a validated protocol and shipped to Australia for final analysis using two different mass spectrometric strategies. In total, more than 200 were monitored of which 16 substances were found, with geographical differences seen. This case study is the most comprehensive wastewater analysis study ever carried out for the identification of NPS and provides a starting point for future, ongoing monitoring of these substances.

Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs

The misuse of psychoactive substances is attracting a great deal of attention from the general public. An increase use of psychoactive substances is observed among young people who do not have enough awareness of the harmful effects of these substances. Easy access to illicit drugs at low cost and lack of effective means of routine screening for new psychoactive substances (NPS) have contributed to the rapid increase in their use. New research and evidence suggest that drug use can cause a variety of adverse psychological and physiological effects on human health (anxiety, panic, paranoia, psychosis, and seizures). We describe different classes of these NPS drugs with emphasis on the methods used to identify them and the identification of their metabolites in biological specimens. This is the first review that thoroughly gives the literature on both natural and synthetic illegal drugs with old known data and very hot new topics and investigations, which enables the researcher to use it as a starting point in the literature exploration and planning of the own research. For the first time, the conformational analysis was done for selected illegal drugs, giving rise to the search of the biologically active conformations both theoretically and using lab experiments.

Hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry-the "all-in-one" device in analytical toxicology?

This trend article reviews papers with hyphenated high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) approaches applied in analytical toxicology, particularly in clinical and forensic toxicology published since 2016 and referenced in PubMed. The article focuses on the question of whether HRMS has or will become the all-in-one device in these fields as supposed by the increasing number of HRMS presentations at scientific meetings, corresponding original papers, and review articles. Typical examples for the different application fields are discussed such as targeted or untargeted drug screening, quantification, drug metabolism studies, and metabolomics approaches. Considering the reviewed papers, HRMS is currently the only technique that fulfills the criteria of an all-in-one device for the various applications needed in analytical toxicology.

Graphical abstract

High-throughput wastewater analysis for substance use assessment in central New York during the COVID-19 pandemic

Wastewater entering sewer networks represents a unique source of pooled epidemiological information. In this study, we coupled online solid-phase extraction with liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry to achieve high-throughput analysis of health and lifestyle-related substances in untreated municipal wastewater during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Twenty-six substances were identified and quantified in influent samples collected from six wastewater treatment plants during the COVID-19 pandemic in central New York. Over a 12 week sampling period, the mean summed consumption rate of six major substance groups (i.e., antidepressants, antiepileptics, antihistamines, antihypertensives, synthetic opioids, and central nervous system stimulants) correlated with disparities in household income, marital status, and age of the contributing populations as well as the detection frequency of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA in wastewater and the COVID-19 test positivity in the studied sewersheds. Nontarget screening revealed the covariation of piperine, a nontarget substance, with SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater collected from one of the sewersheds. Overall, this proof-of-the-concept study demonstrated the utility of high-throughput wastewater analysis for assessing the population-level substance use patterns during a public health crisis such as COVID-19.

Perspectives and challenges associated with the determination of new psychoactive substances in urine and wastewater - A tutorial

New psychoactive substances (NPS), often designed as (legal) substitutes to conventional illicit drugs, are constantly emerging in the drug market and being commercialized in different ways and forms. Their use continues to cause public health problems and is therefore of major concern in many countries. Monitoring NPS use, however, is arduous and different sources of information are required to get more insight of the prevalence and diffusion of NPS use. The determination of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater has shown great potential, adding a different and complementary light on this issue. However, it also presents analytical challenges and limitations that must be taken into account such as the complexity of the matrices, the high sensitivity and selectivity required in the analytical methods as a consequence of the low analyte concentrations as well as the rapid transience of NPS on the drug market creating a scenario with constantly moving analytical targets. Analytical investigation of NPS in pooled urine and wastewater is based on liquid chromatography hyphenated to mass spectrometry and can follow different strategies: target, suspect and non-target analysis. This work aims to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different data acquisition workflows and data exploration approaches in mass spectrometry, but also pays attention to new developments such as ion mobility and the use of in-silico prediction tools to improve the identification capabilities in high-complex samples. This tutorial gives an insight into this emerging topic of current concern, and describes the experience gathered within different collaborations and projects supported by key research articles and illustrative practical examples.

Wastewater-based epidemiology to assess the occurrence of new psychoactive substances and alcohol consumption in Slovakia

Consumption of alcohol and new psychoactive substances (NPS) in a population or during special events (music festivals) is usually monitored through individual questionnaires, forensic and toxicological data, and drug seizures. However, consumption estimates have some biases due mostly to the unknown composition of drug pills for NPS and stockpiling for alcohol. The aim of this study was to evaluate for the first time the real use of alcohol and the occurrence of NPS in Slovakia by wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Urban wastewater samples were collected from nine Slovak cities over two years (2017-2018) and during three music festivals. The study included about 20% of the Slovak population and 50 000 festival attendees. The urinary alcohol biomarker ethyl sulfate (EtS) and thirty NPS were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC - MS/MS). EtS concentrations were used for estimating the per capita alcohol consumption in each city. The average alcohol consumption in the selected cities and festivals in 2017-2018 ranged between 7 and 126 L/day/1000 inhabitants and increased during the weekends and music festivals. Five NPS belonging to the classes of synthetic cathinones (mephedrone, methcathinone, buphedrone and pentedrone) and phenethylamines (25-iP-NBoMe) were found in the low ng/L range. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS, while the highest normalized mass load corresponded to mephedrone (3.1 mg/day/1000 inhabitants). Wastewater-based epidemiology can provide timely information on alcohol consumption and NPS occurrence at the community level that is complementary to epidemiology-based monitoring techniques (e.g. population surveys, police seizures, sales statistics).

Determining changes in new psychoactive substance use in Australia by wastewater analysis

Measuring community consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is notoriously difficult to assess by traditional means such as surveys and seizure data. Previously, we used the approach to demonstrate the prevalence of NPS on a national scale. In the current study we explored the temporal resolution for the analysis of NPS in wastewater from Australia. Samples covering all States and Territories in Australia and both metropolitan and regional areas and were collected bimonthly from October 2017-June 2018 and October 2019-February 2020. A qualitative screening method was applied, screening for 201 NPS. In total, 15 substances were found from a variety of classes of NPS. The most prevalent class was synthetic cathinones, with pentylone, N-ethylpentylone and ethylone found in all periods in at least one site in the earlier sampling period, as well as the amphetamine-like paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA). In the latter period, synthetic cathinones were also the most prevalent, including eutylone, marking the first time that this compound has been detected in wastewater. This study shows the application of wastewater analysis to detect outbreaks of NPS use and temporal differences among sites.

The complexities associated with new psychoactive substances in influent wastewater: The case of 4-ethylmethcathinone

Consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is an international problem for health, policing, forensic, and analytical laboratories. The transience of these substances in the community, combined with continual slight structural changes to evade legislation makes the elucidation of NPS an analytical challenge. This is amplified in a matrix as complex as wastewater. For that reason, suspect and non-target methodologies, employing high resolution mass spectrometry are the most appropriate current tool to facilitate the identification of new and existing compounds. In the current work, a qualitative screening method of influent wastewater using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry showed a strong signal at m/z 192.1382 - identical to that of two NPS standards that were in our method (pentedrone and 4-methylethcathinone), and with identical fragment ions, but the retention times did not match. This work shows the methodology followed to identify this compound, highlighting the challenges of the identifying "new" compounds in influent wastewater.

Occurrence and Mass Loading of Synthetic Opioids, Synthetic Cathinones, and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Four U.S. Communities

A few new psychoactive substances (NPS) that mimic the effects of controlled neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs have been forensically identified in the U.S. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can provide a comprehensive and more cost- and time-effective method of determining the prevalence of NPSs in communities. In this study, an analytical method capable of simultaneous determination of trace-level 40 NPS residues (synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, piperazines, indole, and amphetamine) in wastewater was developed and validated. The developed analytical method was utilized to determine the occurrence of NPSs in four rural communities in southern Illinois. Nine NPSs (carfentanil, furanyl fentanyl, methoxyacetyl fentanyl, MAB-CHMINACA, methcathinone, 4-methyl pentedrone, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone (MMMP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP), and 5-(2-Aminopropyl) Indole (5IT) were quantified. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS (detection frequency, df = 100%) followed closely by the MMMP and mCPP (df = 91%). The mass loading of methcathinone, mCPP, and 5-IT using ammoniacal nitrogen-based population were up to 21.1 ± 1.3 mg/d/1000 people, 15.0 ± 0.5 mg/d/1000 people, and 9.75 ± 2.72 mg/d/1000 people, respectively. This is the first study to determine the occurrence of NPSs including synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, and piperazines in the U.S. communities.