COVID-19 pandemic repercussions on plastic and antiviral polymeric textile causing pollution on beaches and coasts of South America

Review on personal protective equipment: Emerging concerns in micro(nano)plastic pollution and strategies for addressing environmental challenges

The COVID-19 pandemic was caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, marking one of the most catastrophic global health crises of the 21st century. Throughout this period, widespread use and improper disposal of personal protective equipment (PPE) emerged as a pressing environmental issue, significantly impacting various life forms. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a high rate of PEP disposal. An alarming 1.6 × 106 tons of plastic waste each day has been generated since the onset of the outbreak, predominantly from the inadequate disposal of PPE. The mismanagement and subsequent degradation of discarded PPE significantly contribute to increased non-biodegradable micro(nano)plastic (MNP) waste. This pollution has had profound adverse effects on terrestrial, marine, and aquatic ecosystems, which have been extensively of concern recently. Accumulated MNPs within aquatic organisms could serve as a potential route for human exposure when consuming seafood. This review presents a novel aspect concerning the pollution caused by MNPs, particularly remarking on their role during the pandemic and their detrimental effects on human health. These microplastic particles, through the process of fragmentation, transform into nanoparticles, persisting in the environment and posing potential hazards. The prevalence of MNP from PPE, notably masks, raises concerns about their plausible health risks, warranting global attention and comprehensive exploration. Conducting a comprehensive evaluation of the long-term effects of these processes and implementing effective management strategies is essential.

Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and polystyrene microplastics co-exposure caused oxidative stress to activate NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway aggravated pyroptosis and inflammation in mouse kidney

Polystyrene microplastic (PS-MPs) contamination has become a worldwide hotspot of concern, and its entry into organisms can cause oxidative stress resulting in multi-organ damage. The plasticizer di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a common endocrine disruptor, these two environmental toxins often occur together, but their combined toxicity to the kidney and its mechanism of toxicity are unknown. Therefore, in this study, we established PS-MPS and/or DEHP-exposed mouse models. The results showed that alone exposure to both PS-MPs and DEHP caused inflammatory cell infiltration, cell membrane rupture, and content spillage in kidney tissues. There were also down-regulation of antioxidant enzyme levels, increased ROS content, activated of the NF-κB pathway, stimulated the levels of heat shock proteins (HSPs), pyroptosis, and inflammatory associated factors. Notably, the co-exposure group showed greater toxicity to kidney tissues, the cellular assay further validated these results. The introduction of the antioxidant n-acetylcysteine (NAC) and the NLRP3 inhibitor (MCC950) could mitigate the changes in the above measures. In summary, co-exposure of PS-MPs and DEHP induced oxidative stress that activated the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway and aggravated kidney pyroptosis and inflammation, as well as that HSPs are also involved in this pathologic injury process. This study not only enriched the nephrotoxicity of plasticizers and microplastics, but also provided new insights into the toxicity mechanisms of multicomponent co-pollution in environmental.

Antibacterial mechanism of lignin and lignin-based antimicrobial materials in different fields

The control of microbial infection transmission often relies on the utilization of synthetic and metal-based antimicrobial agents. However, their non-biodegradability and inadequate disposal practices lead to significant environmental contamination. To address this concern, the quest for natural alternatives has gained paramount importance. Lignin, a widely available renewable aromatic compound, emerges as a promising candidate owing to its inherent phenolic moiety, which lends itself well to acting as a natural antimicrobial agent either independently or in combination with other agents. This article provides a comprehensive account of the structure and primary classes of lignin. Additionally, it elucidates the antimicrobial mechanism of lignin, the factors influencing its efficacy, and the methods employed for its detection. Moreover, it describes the progress made in developing the antimicrobial capacity of lignin in different areas. In conclusion, this paper not only outlines the current state of research on the antimicrobial function of lignin, but also identifies challenges and future possibilities for enhancing its antimicrobial properties. This work holds great significance in the ongoing endeavor to contribute to high-impact research on natural alternatives for controlling infections and fostering environmentally conscious practices.

Temporal trends in personal protective equipment (PPE) debris during the COVID-19 pandemic in Çanakkale (Turkey)

This study examines trends in PPE (masks, gloves) and disinfecting wipes over three years of the pandemic. The densities of discarded masks, wet wipes, and gloves (personal protective equipment: PPE), were quantified on the streets of Canakkale, Turkey during similar time periods in 2020, 2021 and 2022. Geotagged images of PPE on the streets and sidewalks were documented with a smartphone, while the track of an observer was recorded using a fitness tracker app along a 7.777 km long survey route in the city center, parallel to the Dardanelles Strait. A total of 18 surveys were conducted over three years, and the survey route was subdivided into three zones based on utilization patterns: pedestrian zone, traffic zone and a recreational park zone. The combined densities of all types of PPE density were high in 2020, lower in 2021 and highest in 2022. The within year trend showed an increase over the three study years. The average density of gloves declined from an initially high level in 2020, when the SARS-CoV-2 virus was thought to be transmitted by contact, to near zero in 2021 and to zero in 2022. Densities of wipes were similar in 2020 and 2021 and higher in 2022. Masks were initially difficult to procure in 2020, and their densities progressively increased during that year reaching a plateau in 2021 with similar densities in 2022. PPE densities were significantly lower in the pedestrian route relative to the traffic and park routes, which were not different from each other. The partial curfews implemented by the Turkish government and the effects of prevention measures taken on the PPE concentration in the streets are discussed along with the importance of waste management practices.

Spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics in Miri coastal area, NW Borneo: inference from a periodical observation

The current study aims to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution of microplastics (MPs) in the Miri coast, targeting their occurrences, characterisation, and potential sources. For a periodical study, coastal sediments were collected from three different time intervals (monsoon, post-monsoon, and post-COVID) and subjected to stereomicroscope, ATR-FTIR, and SEM-EDX analyses. These results show a significant increase of MPs in post-COVID samples by approximately 218% and 148% comparatively with monsoon and post-monsoon samples, respectively. The highest concentration of MPs was detected near the river mouths and industrial areas where the waste discharge rate and anthropogenic activities dominate. Fibre-type MPs are the most abundant, with an average of nearly 64%, followed by fragments, films, microbeads, and foams. The most dominant polymer types were polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyester (PET). Overall, the current study shows a better understanding of MPs occurrence and potential sources in the Miri coastal area.

Face masks: a COVID-19 protector or environmental contaminant?

Face masks, a prime component of personal protective equipment (PPE) items, have become an integral part of human beings to survive under the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic situation. The global population requires an estimated 130 billion face masks and 64 billion gloves/month, while the COVID-19 pandemic has led to the daily disposal of approximately 3.5 billion single-use face masks, resulting in a staggering 14,245,230.63 kg of face mask waste. The improper disposal of face mask wastes followed by its mismanagement is a challenge to the scientists as the wastes create pollution leading to environmental degradation, especially plastic pollution (macro/meso/micro/nano). Each year, an estimated 0.15-0.39 million tons of COVID-19 face mask waste, along with 173,000 microfibers released daily from discarded surgical masks, could enter the marine environment, while used masks have a significantly higher microplastic release capacity (1246.62 ± 403.50 particles/piece) compared to new masks (183.00 ± 78.42 particles/piece). Surgical face masks emit around 59 g CO2-eq greenhouse gas emissions per single use, cloth face masks emit approximately 60 g CO2-eq/single mask, and inhaling or ingesting microplastics (MPs) caused adverse health problems including chronic inflammation, granulomas or fibrosis, DNA damage, cellular damage, oxidative stress, and cytokine secretion. The present review critically addresses the role of face masks in reducing COVID-19 infections, their distribution pattern in diverse environments, the volume of waste produced, degradation in the natural environment, and adverse impacts on different environmental segments, and proposes sustainable remediation options to tackle environmental challenges posed by disposable COVID-19 face masks.

Chorographic assessment on the overburden of single-use plastics bio-medical wastes risks and management during COVID-19 pandemic in India

Amid the rapid influx of SARS‑CoV‑2 patients in various hospitals across India, the disposal of COVID-19 bio-medical wastes become a major challenging crisis in these days. As a consequence, the unexpected surge of utilizing Single-Use Plastics (SUP) from Personal Protection Equipments (PPEs) in particular protective gloves, nose masks, body aprons. is common in day to day and estimated as minimum of 730 g of waste can be generated per day/person in India. The research objectives on a national scale focuses that the document being active belongings, communications and preparations associated with hospital desecrates care and the existing facts on the physical condition and ecological risk on health care biomedical throw away which dropped during the SARS‑CoV‑2 virus disease pandemic. Based on number of confirmed COVID-19 cases 5,78,578 and 3,92,1149 health care workers as of 1st July 2020 (includes active, recovered and deaths) in India is assessed using GIS that an average 3150 tons per day of SUP waste generated only due to COVID-19 even though the hospitals make all safety measures to put away the clinical wastes. The States like Maharashtra (484.12tons/day), Tamil Nadu (337.76 tons/day), Andhra Pradesh (229.23 tons/day), Rajasthan (183.87 tons/day), Gujarat (181.41 tons/day), Karnataka, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh are over loaded with 212.73, 244.36 and 176.86 tons/day respectively greater than their normal per day bio-medical waste generated. This study finds the space in handling of Bio-Medical Waste Management of the pandemic COIVD-19 outbreaks and its’ remedial actions to improve the necessity in the future emergency in the developing countries like India.

Personal protective equipment-derived pollution during Covid-19 era: A critical review of ecotoxicology impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges

During the COVID-19 pandemic, people used personal protective equipment (PPE) to lessen the spread of the virus. The release of microplastics (MPs) from discarded PPE is a new threat to the long-term health of the environment and poses challenges that are not yet clear. PPE-derived MPs have been found in multi-environmental compartments, e.g., water, sediments, air, and soil across the Bay of Bengal (BoB). As COVID-19 spreads, healthcare facilities use more plastic PPE, polluting aquatic ecosystems. Excessive PPE use releases MPs into the ecosystem, which aquatic organisms ingest, distressing the food chain and possibly causing ongoing health problems in humans. Thus, post-COVID-19 sustainability depends on proper intervention strategies for PPE waste, which have received scholarly interest. Although many studies have investigated PPE-induced MPs pollution in the BoB countries (e.g., India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar), the ecotoxicity impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges of PPE-derived waste have largely gone unnoticed. Our study presents a critical literature review covering the ecotoxicity impacts, intervention strategies, and future challenges across the BoB countries (e.g., India (162,034.45 tons), Bangladesh (67,996 tons), Sri Lanka (35,707.95 tons), and Myanmar (22,593.5 tons). The ecotoxicity impacts of PPE-derived MPs on human health and other environmental compartments are critically addressed. The review's findings infer a gap in the 5R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Redesign, and Restructure) Strategy's implementation in the BoB coastal regions, hindering the achievement of UN SDG-12. Despite widespread research advancements in the BoB, many questions about PPE-derived MPs pollution from the perspective of the COVID-19 era still need to be answered. In response to the post-COVID-19 environmental remediation concerns, this study highlights the present research gaps and suggests new research directions considering the current MPs' research advancements on COVID-related PPE waste. Finally, the review suggests a framework for proper intervention strategies for reducing and monitoring PPE-derived MPs pollution in the BoB countries.

A multi-jurisdictional study on the quantification of COVID-19 household plastic waste in six Latin American countries

This study examines urban plastic waste generation using a citizen science approach in six Latin American countries during a global pandemic. The objectives are to quantify generation rates of masks, gloves, face shields, and plastic bags in urban households using online survey and perform a systematic cross-jurisdiction comparisons in these Latin American countries. The per capita total mask generation rates ranged from 0.179 to 0.915 mask cap-1 day-1. A negative correlation between the use of gloves and masks is observed. Using the average values, the approximate proportion of masks, gloves, shields, and single-use plastic bags was 34:5:1:84. We found that most studies overestimated face mask disposal rate in Latin America due to the simplifying assumptions on the number of masks discarded per person, masking prevalence rate, and average mask weight. Unlike other studies, end-of-life PPE quantities were directly counted and reported by the survey participants. Both of the conventional weight-based estimates and the proposed participatory survey are recommended in quantifying COVID waste. Participant' perception based on the Likert scale is generally consistent with the waste amount generated. Waste policy and regulation appear to be important in daily waste generation rate. The results highlight the importance of using measured data in waste estimates.

Long-term release kinetic characteristics of microplastic from commonly used masks into water under simulated natural environments

Masks-related microplastic pollution poses a new threat to the environment and human health that has gained increasing concern. However, the long-term release kinetics of microplastic from masks in aquatic environments have yet to studied, which hampers its risk assessment. Four types of masks, namely cotton mask, fashion mask, N95 mask, and disposable surgical mask were exposed to systematically simulated natural water environments to determine the time-dependent microplastic release characteristics at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months, respectively. In addition, the structure changes of employed masks were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was applied to analyze the chemical composition and groups of released microplastic fibers. Our results showed that the simulated natural water environment could degrade four types of masks and continuously produce microplastic fibers/fragments in a time-dependent manner. The dominant size of released particles/fibers was below 20 μm across four types of face masks. The physical structure of all four masks was damaged to varying degrees concomitant with photo-oxidation reaction. Collectively, we characterized the long-term release kinetics of microplastic from four types of commonly used masks under a well-mimic real word water environment. Our findings suggest that urgent action must be taken to properly manage disposable masks and ultimately limit the health threats associated with discarded masks.

Personal protective equipment and micro-nano plastics: A review of an unavoidable interrelation for a global well-being hazard

The usage and the demand for personal protective equipments (PPEs) for our day-to-day survival in this pandemic period of COVID-19 have seen a steep rise which has consequently led to improper disposal and littering. Fragmentation of these PPE units has eventually given way to micro-nano plastics (MNPs) emission in the various environmental matrices and exposure of living organisms to these MNPs has proven to be severely toxic. Numerous factors contribute to the toxicity imparted by these MNPs that mainly include their shape, size, functional groups and their chemical diversity. Even though multiple studies on the impacts of MNPs toxicity are available for other organisms, human cell line studies for various plastic polymers, other than the most common ones namely polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS) and polypropylene (PP), are still at their nascent stage and need to be explored more. In this article, we cover a concise review of the literature on the impact of these MNPs in biotic and human systems focusing on the constituents of the PPE units and the additives that are essentially used for their manufacturing. This review will subsequently identify the need to gather scientific evidence at the smaller level to help combat this microplastic pollution and induce a more in-depth understanding of its adverse effect on our existence.

Global plastic upcycling during and after the COVID-19 pandemic: The status and perspective

Plastic pollution has become one of the most pressing environmental issues worldwide since the vast majority of post-consumer plastics are hard to degrade in the environment. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic had disrupted the previous effort of plastic pollution mitigation to a great extent due to the overflow of plastic-based medical waste. In the post-pandemic era, the remaining challenge is how to motivate global action towards a plastic circular economy. The need for one package of sustainable and systematic plastic upcycling approaches has never been greater to address such a challenge. In this review, we summarized the threat of plastic pollution during COVID-19 to public health and ecosystem. In order to solve the aforementioned challenges, we present a shifting concept, regeneration value from plastic waste, that provides four promising pathways to achieve a sustainable circular economy: 1) Increasing reusability and biodegradability of plastics; 2) Transforming plastic waste into high-value products by chemical approaches; 3) The closed-loop recycling can be promoted by biodegradation; 4) Involving renewable energy into plastic upcycling. Additionally, the joint efforts from different social perspectives are also encouraged to create the necessary economic and environmental impetus for a circular economy.

Chemical-analytical characterization and leaching of heavy metals associated with nanoparticles and microplastics from commercial face masks and the abundance of personal protective equipment (PPE) waste in three metropolitan cities of South America

In this study, we surveyed the presence of personal protective equipment (PPE) waste on the streets of Bogotá-Colombia, Lima-Perú, and Mar del Plata-Argentina. Furthermore, this work is also focused on the release capacity of Ag, Cu, and Zn metals associated with nanoparticles, and microplastics (MPs) from textile face masks (TFMs) and disposable face masks. According to our results, an association between low-income areas and PPE waste was found, which may be related to the periodicity of waste collection and economic activity. Polymers, like polypropylene, cotton-polyester, and additives, such as CaCO₃, MgO, and Ag/Cu as nanoparticles, were identified. TFMs released high levels of Cu (35,900-60,200 μg·L^-1), Zn (2340-2380 μg·L^-1), and MPs (4528-10,640 particles/piece). Metals associated with nanoparticles leached by face masks did not present any antimicrobial activity against P. aeruginosa. Our study suggests that TFMs may leach large amounts of polluting nano/micromaterials in aquatic environments with potential toxicological effects on organisms.

Effects of UV radiation on natural and synthetic materials

The deleterious effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation on construction materials, especially wood and plastics, and the consequent impacts on their useful lifetimes, are well documented in scientific literature. Any future increase in solar UV radiation and ambient temperature due to climate change will therefore shorten service lifetimes of materials, which will require higher levels of stabilisation or other interventions to maintain their lifetimes at the present levels. The implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments on substances that deplete the ozone layer, controls the solar UV-B radiation received on Earth. This current quadrennial assessment provides a comprehensive update on the deleterious effects of solar UV radiation on the durability of natural and synthetic materials, as well as recent innovations in better stabilising of materials against solar UV radiation-induced damage. Pertinent emerging technologies for wood and plastics used in construction, composite materials used in construction, textile fibres, comfort fabric, and photovoltaic materials, are addressed in detail. Also addressed are the trends in technology designed to increase sustainability via replacing toxic, unsustainable, legacy additives with 'greener' benign substitutes that may indirectly affect the UV stability of the redesigned materials. An emerging class of efficient photostabilisers are the nanoscale particles that include oxide fillers and nanocarbons used in high-performance composites, which provide good UV stability to materials. They also allow the design of UV-shielding fabric materials with impressive UV protection factors. An emerging environmental issue related to the photodegradation of plastics is the generation of ubiquitous micro-scale particles from plastic litter exposed to solar UV radiation.

Different weathering conditions affect the release of microplastics by masks

A generation of microplastics caused by improper disposal of disposable masks has become a non-negligible environmental concern. In order to investigate the degradation mechanisms of masks and the release of microplastics under different environmental conditions, the masks are placed in 4 common environments. After 30 days of weathering, the total amount and release kinetics of microplastics released from different layers of the mask were studied. The chemical and mechanical properties of the mask were also discussed. The results showed that the mask released 25141±3543 particles/mask into the soil, which is much more than the sea and river water. The release kinetics of microplastics fit the Elovich model better. All samples correspond to the release rate of microplastics from fast to slow. Experiments show that the middle layer of the mask is released more than the other layers, and the amount of release was highest in the soil. And the tensile capacity of the mask is negatively correlated with its ability to release microplastics in the following order, which are soil > seawater > river > air > new masks. In addition, during the weathering process, the C-C/C-H bond of the mask was broken.

Beach litter in three South American countries: A baseline for restarting monitoring and cleaning after COVID-19 closure

The COVID-19 pandemic caused that most countries established the closure of many beaches, affecting the scientific monitoring of thousands of coastal sectors. This article shows the status of beach litter in South America before and after COVID-19 closure. The data were obtained during the years 2019, 2020 and 2022 on 25 beaches using a technique BLAT-QQ. The results show that cigarette butts were the most frequent type of litter, meanwhile Brazil should improve cleanliness of general gross litter and gross polystyrene. Colombia gross vegetation litter and small vegetation litter, and Ecuador organic litter from animals. The results shown in qualitative and quantitative manner facilitate their understanding for managers, scholars and activists interested on beach litter monitoring. This baseline is useful to analyse regional and worldwide marine litter trends with the purpose to start or restart monitoring of tourist beaches from a science-based method.

COVID-19 personal protective equipment (PPE) contamination in coastal areas of Granada, Spain

The use of disposable personal protective equipment (PPE) as a control measure to avoid transmission against COVID-19 has generated a challenge to the waste management and enhances plastic pollution in the environment. The research aims to monitor the presence of PPE waste and other plastic debris, in a time interval where the use of face mask at specific places was still mandatory, on the coastal areas of Granada (Spain) which belongs to the Mediterranean Sea. Four beaches called La Rijana, La Charca, La Rábita and Calahonda were examined during different periods. The total amount of sampled waste was 17,558 plastic units. The abundance, characteristics and distribution of PPE and other plastic debris were determined. Results showed that the observed amount of total plastic debris were between 2.531·10^-2 and 24.487·10^-2 units per square meter, and up to 0.136·10^-2 for PPE debris, where face masks represented the 92.22 % of the total PPE debris, being these results comparable to previous studies in other coastal areas in the world. On the other hand, total plastic debris densities were in the range from 2.457·10^-2 to 92.219·10^-2 g/m² and densities were up to 0.732·10^-2 for PPE debris. PPE debris supposed 0.79 % of the weight of total waste and the 0.51 % of total items. Concerning non-PPE plastic waste: cigarettes filters, food containers and styrofoam were the most abundant items (42.95, 10.19 and 16.37 % of total items, respectively). During vacation periods, total plastic debris amount increased 92.19 % compared to non-vacation periods. Regarding type of beaches, the presence of plastic debris was significantly higher on touristic/recreational than in fishing beaches. Data showed no significant differences between accessible and no-accessible beaches, but between periods with restrictive policy about mask face use and periods with non-restrictive policy data suggest significant differences between densities (g/m²) for PPE litter. The amount of PPEs debris is also correlated with the number of cigarettes filters (Person's r = 0.650), food containers (r = 0.782) and other debris (r = 0.63). Finally, although interesting results were provided in this study, further research is required to better understand the consequences of this type of pollution and to provide viable solutions to this problem.

Insights into the degradation mechanism of PET and PP under marine conditions using FTIR

Plastics possess diverse functional properties that have made them extremely desirable. However, due to poor waste management practices, large quantities eventually end up in the oceans where their degradation begins. Hence, it is imperative to understand and further investigate the dynamics of this process. Currently, most relevant studies have been carried out under benign and/or controlled weather conditions. This study investigates the natural degradation of polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in more extreme environments. Simulated and real marine conditions, both in the laboratory (indoors) and outdoors were applied for a duration of 140 days and results were assessed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis. SEM micrographs revealed variations in the morphologies of both plastic types. Degradation signs were shown in both plastic types, under all conditions. Findings indicated that microplastics (MPs) degraded faster than macroplastics, with PP MPs having higher weight loss (49%) than PET MPs (1%) when exposed to outdoor marine conditions. Additionally, the degradation rates of MPs-PP were higher than MPs-PET for outdoor and indoor treatments, with 1.07 × 10^-6 g/d and 4.41 × 10^-7 g/d, respectively. FTIR combined with PCA was efficient in determining the most degraded plastic types.

Current knowledge on the presence, biodegradation, and toxicity of discarded face masks in the environment

During the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic, facemasks became mandatory, with a great preference for disposable ones. However, the benefits of face masks for health safety are counteracted by the environmental burden related to their improper disposal. An unprecedented influx of disposable face masks entering the environment has been reported in the last two years of the pandemic, along with their implications in natural environments in terms of their biodegradability, released contaminants and ecotoxicological effects. This critical review addresses several aspects of the current literature regarding the (bio)degradation and (eco)toxicity of face masks related contaminants, identifying uncertainties and research needs that should be addressed in future studies. While it is indisputable that face mask contamination contributes to the already alarming plastic pollution, we are still far from determining its real environmental and ecotoxicological contribution to the issue. The paucity of studies on biodegradation and ecotoxicity of face masks and related contaminants, and the uncertainties and uncontrolled variables involved during experimental procedures, are compromising eventual comparison with conventional plastic debris. Studies on the abundance and composition of face mask-released contaminants (microplastics/fibres/ chemical compounds) under pre- and post-pandemic conditions should, therefore, be encouraged, along with (bio)degradation and ecotoxicity tests considering environmentally relevant settings. To achieve this, methodological strategies should be developed to overcome technical difficulties to quantify and characterise the smallest MPs and fibres, adsorbents, and leachates to increase the environmental relevancy of the experimental conditions.

Application of Pyrolysis for the Evaluation of Organic Compounds in Medical Plastic Waste Generated in the City of Cartagena-Colombia Applying TG-GC/MS

In this study, the thermal degradation and pyrolysis of hospital plastic waste consisting of polyethylene (PE), polystyrene (PS), and polypropylene (PP) were investigated using TG-GC/MS. The identified molecules with the functional groups of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, aromatics, phenols, CO and CO2 were found in the gas stream from pyrolysis and oxidation, and are chemical structures with derivatives of aromatic rings. They are mainly related to the degradation of PS hospital waste, and the alkanes and alkenes groups originate mainly from PP and PE-based medical waste. The pyrolysis of this hospital waste did not show the presence of derivatives of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans, which is an advantage over classical incineration methodologies. CO, CO2, phenol, acetic acid and benzoic acid concentrations were higher in the gases from the oxidative degradation than in those generated in the pyrolysis with helium. In this article, we propose different pathways of reaction mechanisms that allow us to explain the presence of molecules with other functional groups, such as alkanes, alkenes, carboxylic acids, alcohols, aromatics and permanent gases.

Facemask: Protection or threat?

Facemasks were widely used as a protection against SARS-COV-2, which significantly reduced COVID-19 transmission during the pandemic. However, concerns have been raised regarding its adverse impacts on human health due to intense use and mismanagement. Although rampant plastic littering was the norm before the pandemic, the magnitude of the problem is worsening as potentially COVID-19-infected facemasks are thrown along the shoreline. This study assessed the discarded facemasks on the most popular beach destinations in Mati City, Davao Oriental, Philippines. A total of N = 284 discarded facemasks were found in a cumulative area of 22,500 m², with an average density of 8.4 × 10^-4 items/m². The surgical facemask (82 %; n = 234) was the most abundant type of facemask found in the areas, followed by KF94 (16 %; n = 45) and KN95 (2 %; n = 5). The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed significant differences in the visual counts of facemasks on the three beaches (p < 0.05).

Personal protective equipment (PPE) disposal during COVID-19: An emerging source of microplastic and microfiber pollution in the environment

Waste generated by healthcare facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic has become a new source of pollution, particularly with the widespread use of single-use personal protective equipment (PPE). Releasing microplastics (MPs) and microfibers (MFs) from discarded PPE becomes an emerging threat to environmental sustainability. MPs/MFs have recently been reported in a variety of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, including water, deep-sea sediments, air, and soil. As COVID-19 spreads, the use of plastic-made PPE in healthcare facilities has increased significantly worldwide, resulting in massive amounts of plastic waste entering the terrestrial and marine environments. High loads of MPs/MFs emitted into the environment due to excessive PPE consumption are easily consumed by aquatic organisms, disrupting the food chain, and potentially causing chronic health problems in humans. Thus, proper management of PPE waste is critical for ensuring a post-COVID sustainable environment, which has recently attracted the attention of the scientific community. The current study aims to review the global consumption and sustainable management of discarded PPE in the context of COVID-19. The severe impacts of PPE-emitted MPs/MFs on human health and other environmental segments are briefly addressed. Despite extensive research progress in the area, many questions about MP/MF contamination in the context of COVID-19 remain unanswered. Therefore, in response to the post-COVID environmental remediation concerns, future research directions and recommendations are highlighted considering the current MP/MF research progress from COVID-related PPE waste.

Effect of low-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and high-density polyethylene micro-plastic contamination on the index and engineering properties of clayey soil- an experimental study

Soil health is one of the prominent features of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs seek to achieve the target of 75% healthy soils by 2030. On the contrary, the growing accumulation of microplastic contamination in soil environments is an issue of worldwide concern. The effect of a variety of microplastic accumulation on soil index and engineering properties is still unclear. Clayey soil is very important in geotechnical engineering because of its complex behaviour. This study investigates the effects of a variety of microplastics such as Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), and High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) in environmental relevant concentrations (2%,4%,6% w/w) on index and engineering properties of clayey soil with respect to a number of observation days. In the present study, the non-contaminated soil treated as a control. The detailed experimentation revealed a significant change in the liquid limit, plastic limit, and shear strength values of clayey soil with an increasing percentage of microplastic contamination, whereas minute changes are recorded with respect to the number of observation days, this may be due to inert nature of microplastic. The shear strength is one of the critical engineering properties of soil that determines the strength and stability of the soil. The shear strength value of 0.94 kg/cm² for control decreased to 0.76 kg/cm² and 0.73 kg/cm² and 0.85 kg/cm² for the addition of 2%, 4%, and 6% respectively of LDPE microplastic contamination, similarly, for PVC microplastic contamination of 2%, 4% the shear strength decreases to 0.77 kg/cm², 0.85 kg/cm² respectively, the HDPE microplastic contamination of 2%, 4%, and 6% results in shear strength decrease to 0.52 kg/cm², 0.53 kg/cm² and 0.65 kg/cm².The altered values of shear strength along with other index and engineering properties of soil due to microplastic contamination may lead to instability in structures or may increase the chances of harmful natural threats such as landslides. The present study provides evidence of significant changes in the index and engineering properties and therefore the stability of the soil which is the major contribution of the study.

The impact of plastic during the COVID-19 pandemic: The point of view of the environmental science literature

COVID-19 is the official name of the disease provoked by a coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2. Since the advent of the first cases of the new coronavirus, our society has been completely changed. Due to the changes, new environmental challenges were imposed, principally due to the considerable growth in using plastic materials in packages and personal protective equipment such as face masks. The impact of plastic during the COVID-19 pandemic was discussed in the present work from the point of view of the environmental science area. Bibliometric analysis and mapping were performed based on Scopus database search results. Emphasis was placed on analyzing the authors' keywords of the publications. The main concern of the research area concerning the use of plastic during the COVID-19 pandemic is the pollution of water bodies by plastic.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by COVID-19 pandemic in Marina Beach, the longest urban beach in Asia: Abundance, distribution, and analytical characterization

COVID-19 pandemic has enforced the use of personal protective equipment (PPE, masks and gloves). However, the mismanagement of litter are exacerbating the increasing plastic issue worldwide. In the present study, we sampled discarded PPE in 10 sites along Marina Beach, India. We characterized the litter types by chemical analysis techniques. A total of 1154 COVID-19-associated PPE items were found on Marina beach. The highest number of items were face masks (97.9 %) and the mean PPE density in the sites studied was 4 × 10^-3 PPE m^-2. The results demonstrate that poor solid waste management and lack of awareness are the main causes of pollution at Marina beach. FTIR spectroscopy revealed that face masks and gloves were principally made of polypropylene and latex, respectively. The FTIR spectra also showed signs of chemical degradation. Our results suggest that plastic pollution is increasing, possibly becoming more impactful to marine biota. Beach management measures were discussed.

Microbial strategies for degradation of microplastics generated from COVID-19 healthcare waste

COVID-19 pandemic has led to the generation of massive plastic wastes, comprising of onetime useable gloves, masks, tissues, and other personal protective equipment (PPE). Recommendations for the employ of single-use disposable masks made up of various polymeric materials like polyethylene, polyurethane, polyacrylonitrile, and polypropylene, polystyrene, can have significant aftermath on environmental, human as well as animal health. Improper disposal and handling of healthcare wastes and lack of proper management practices are creating serious health hazards and an extra challenge for the local authorities designated for management of solid waste. Most of the COVID-19 medical wastes generated are now being treated by incineration which generates microplastic particles (MPs), dioxin, furans, and various toxic metals, such as cadmium and lead. Moreover, natural degradation and mechanical abrasion of these wastes can lead to the generation of MPs which cause a serious health risk to living beings. It is a major threat to aquatic lives and gets into foods subsequently jeopardizing global food safety. Moreover, the presence of plastic is also considered a threat owing to the increased carbon emission and poses a profound danger to the global food chain. Degradation of MPs by axenic and mixed culture microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, microalgae etc. can be considered an eco-sustainable technique for the mitigation of the microplastic menace. This review primarily deals with the increase in microplastic pollution due to increased use of PPE along with different disinfection methods using chemicals, steam, microwave, autoclave, and incineration which are presently being employed for the treatment of COVID-19 pandemic-related wastes. The biological treatment of the MPs by diverse groups of fungi and bacteria can be an alternative option for the mitigation of microplastic wastes generated from COVID-19 healthcare waste.

Microplastics in commercial seafood: Pleoticus muelleri as a case study in an estuarine environment highly affected by human pressure (Southwestern Atlantic)

Plastic pollution in seafood has become a worldwide safety concern due to its possible harm to humans. This is the first study which has investigated the length-weight relationship, growth patterns and condition factor, together with the concentrations of microplastics (MPs) and mesoplastics (MesoPs) in Pleoticus muelleri from the Bahia Blanca Estuary (BBE), Argentina. Forty-nine individuals were collected from three sampling stations in the BBE, and each abdominal muscle with the gastrointestinal tract was analyzed. P. muelleri showed an isometric growth pattern (b = 3.0054) with values of K similar among the individuals collected (ranged between 0.80 and 0.91), considering them in good condition compared to other crustacean species around the world. 96% of shrimp presented transparent or black synthetic fibers as prevalent types, with an abundance average of (3.0 ± 2.90) MPs/g w. w. And (0.053 ± 0.16) MesoPs/g w. w. as well as a dominant size range of 0.5-1.5 mm, in accordance with recent studies in the same area. The linear regression analysis showed that K was independent of the concentration of MPs ingested by P. muelleri, with R² ranging between 0.024 and 0.194 indicating that MPs contamination does not affect the nutritional condition of shrimp. SEM/EDX detected the presence of elements like C, O, K, and Mg, tissue residues and fractures on the surface of the analyzed fibers. FTIR confirmed different types of polymers in shrimp related to textile fabrics probably from untreated sewage discharges from nearby cities. The results of this research provide useful information for a better understanding of MPs contamination in seafood, suggesting P. muelleri as a suitable species for monitoring MPs in estuarine ecosystems. Likewise, more research is required to know the effects of MPs on food safety in humans.

Abundance and characterization of personal protective equipment (PPE) polluting Kish Island, Persian Gulf

Plastic pollution is one of the major environmental threats the world is facing nowadays, which was exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, multiple reports of single-use plastics driven by the pandemic, namely personal protective equipment (PPE) (e.g., face masks and gloves), contaminating coastal areas have been published. However, most studies focused solely on counting and visually characterizing this type of litter. In the present study, we complement conventional reports by characterizing this type of litter through chemical-analytical techniques. Standardized sampling procedures were carried out in Kish Island, The Persian Gulf, resulting in an average density of 2.34 × 10-4 PPE/m2. Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy confirmed the polymeric composition of weathered face masks and showed the occurrence of additional absorption bands associated with the photooxidation of the polymer backbone. On the other hand, the three layers of typical surgical face masks showed different non-woven structures, as well as signs of physical degradation (ruptures, cracks, rough surfaces), possibly leading to the release of microplastics. Furthermore, elemental mapping through energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy showed that the middle layer of the masks allocated more elements of external origin (e.g., Na, Cl, Ca, Mg) than the outer and inner layers. This is likely to the overall higher surface area of the middle layer. Furthermore, our evidence indicates that improperly disposed PPE is already having an impact on a number of organisms in the study area.

Generation and consequence of nano/microplastics from medical waste and household plastic during the COVID-19 pandemic

Since the end of 2019, the world has faced a major crisis because of the outbreak of COVID-19 disease which has created a severe threat to humanity. To control this pandemic, the World Health Organization gave some guidelines like wearing PPE (personal protective equipment) (e.g., face masks, overshoes, gloves), social distancing, hand hygiene and shutting down all modes of public transport services. During this pandemic, plastic products (e.g., household plastics, PPE and sanitizer bottles) have substantially prevented the spread of this virus. Since the outbreak, approximately 1.6 million tons of plastic waste have been generated daily. However, single-use PPE like face masks (N95), surgical masks and hand gloves contain many non-biodegradable plastics materials. These abandoned products have created a huge number of plastic debris which ended up as microplastics (MPs) followed by nanoplastics (NPs) in nature that are hazardous to the eco-system. These MPs and NPs also act as vectors for the various pathogenic contaminants. The goal of this review is to offer an extensive discussion on the formation of NPs and MPs from all of these abandoned plastics and their long-term impact on the environment as well as human health. This review paper also attempts to assess the present global scenario and the main challenge of waste management to reduce the potential NP/MPs pollution to improve the eco-systems.

Food Acquisition, Hygiene, and Generation of Domestic Waste in an Academic Community during the COVID-19 Pandemic

In 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a pandemic, and the closure of universities as a measure to prevent contamination directly affected academic communities. Access to food, though a basic need and a human right, was seriously affected. This study evaluated the locations and frequency of food acquisition; hand, food, and packaging hygiene habits; and household waste generation in an academic community during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research was cross-sectional and performed through an online questionnaire. Data (n = 1472) were analyzed using descriptive statistics; statistical tests were also applied, and p values < 0.01 were considered significant. Most of the population continued to purchase food in supermarkets (89.5%). The frequency of product orders from markets by delivery placed by professors and graduate students was also verified (31.7% and 24.2%). There was an increase in packaging hygiene in the studied population, as well as in fruit and vegetable hygiene; however, use of inappropriate methods was noted. This paper highlights important data on the behavior of an academic community dealing with the problem of solid waste generation during the pandemic. Moreover, there were no changes in waste generation during the pandemic, although there was an increase in packaging consumption (44%). Identifying the behavior of the university community regarding hygiene and food acquisition can help societies from the perspective of transforming habits related to food. Therefore, this research provides support for future investigations and interventions in the field of foods and post-pandemic sustainability.

Release of phthalate esters (PAEs) and microplastics (MPs) from face masks and gloves during the COVID-19 pandemic

Marine pollution with personal protective equipment (PPE) has recently gained major attention. Multiple studies reported the release of microplastics (MPs) and chemical contaminants from face masks, the most used PPE type. However, not much is known concerning the release of phthalate esters (PAEs) in aquatic media, as well as the hazard posed by other types of PPE. In the present study, we investigated the release of MPs and PAEs from face masks and gloves recovered from the environment. The results indicated that both PPEs release MPs comparable to the literature, but higher concentrations were presented by face masks. In turn, the total concentration of six PAEs was higher in gloves than in face masks. The release of these contaminants is exacerbated over time. The present study allows researchers to understand the contribution of PPE to marine pollution while accounting for gloves, a generally overlooked source of contaminants.

COVID-19-related litter pollution on Greek beaches and nearshore shallow water environments

COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in certain types of litter, many of which are expected to end up in the marine environment. The present study aimed to monitor the pandemic-related litter pollution along the Greek coastal environment. Overall, 59 beach and 83 underwater clean-ups were conducted. Litter was categorized as: PPE (face masks and gloves), COVID-19-related, single-use plastic (SUP) and takeaway items. PPE, dominated by face masks (86.21 %), accounted for 0.29 % of all litter. The average PPE density was 3.1 × 10^-3 items m^-2 and 2.59 items/ 100 m. COVID-19-related items represented 1.04 % of the total. Wet wipes showed higher densities (0.67 % of all litter) than in the pre-COVID era, while no increase in SUP and takeaway items was observed. Benthic PPE, dominated by gloves (83.95 %), represented 0.26 % of the total. The mean PPE density was 2.5 × 10^-3 items m^-2.

Is a Plastic-Free Mauritius Island Achievable by 2030? Opportunities and Challenges

A world without plastics seems inconceivable today. Global plastic production and utilization have reached amazing figures in the last four decades. The widespread use of plastics has been attributed to the various useful properties, plastics offer as a material. Plastics are durable, hence persist into the environment for long periods of time before undergoing degradation or fragmenting into microplastics or nano-plastics. Moreover, with trans-boundary movement of plastic wastes, plastic pollution knows no frontier and thus is recognized as one of the most dreadful global challenges, in the Anthropocene era. Countries around the globe are implementing varying policy measures coupled with economic instruments to beat plastic pollution. Likewise, Mauritius, a small island developing state in the Indian Ocean, is not spared from the detrimental impacts of plastic pollution. Ad hoc actions to deal with plastic pollution have unfortunately not yielded the expected results. The Government of Mauritius has recently set its target to make Mauritius a plastic-free island by 2030. To attain this goal, a roadmap is underway. The objectives of this paper are to undertake a situational analysis of the overall process thereby investigating the causes for failures of past measures and to determine whether the challenge of a plastic-free Mauritius could be met. Our analysis revealed that under prevailing conditions, the target would not be met. The paper therefore discusses some enabling factors that need to be incorporated in the roadmap, to successfully achieve the set target.

Combined exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and polystyrene microplastics induced renal autophagy through the ROS/AMPK/ULK1 pathway

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs) are new environmental pollutants that attracted increased attention. At present, the effects and underlying mechanisms of action of combined exposure of DEHP and PS-MPs on the kidney have not been elucidated. To investigate the renal toxicity of DEHP and PS-MPs exposure, we established single and combined DEHP and PS-MPs exposure models in mice and HEK293 cells, respectively. Hematoxylin and eosin staining, transmission electron microscopy, monodansylcadaverine staining, immunofluorescence, real-time quantitative PCR, Western blot analysis and other methods were used to detect relevant indicators. The results showed that the expression levels of ROS/AMPK/ULK1 and Ppargc1α/Mfn2 signaling pathway-related genes were significantly increased in the DEHP and PS-MPs exposure models. The mRNA and protein expression levels of autophagy markers were also upregulated. In addition, we found that the expression levels of mRNAs and proteins in the combined exposure group were more significantly increased than those in the single exposure group. In conclusion, combined exposure to DEHP and PS-MPs caused oxidative stress and activated the AMPK/ULK1 pathway, thereby inducing renal autophagy. Our results enhance the field of nephrotoxicity studies of plasticizers and microplastics and provide new light on combined toxicity studies of DEHP and PS-MPs.

Prospects of TiO2-based photocatalytic degradation of microplastic leachates related disposable facemask, a major COVID-19 waste

COVID-19 is one of the serious catastrophes that have a substantial influence on human health and the environment. Diverse preventive actions were implemented globally to limit its spread and transmission. Personnel protective equipment (PPE) was an important part of these control approaches. But unfortunately, these types of PPE mainly comprise plastics, which sparked challenges in the management of plastic waste. Disposable face masks (DFM) are one of the efficient strategies used across the world to ward off disease transmission. DFMs can contribute to micro and nano plastic pollution as the plastic present in the mask may degrade when exposed to certain environmental conditions. Microplastics (MPs) can enter the food chain and devastate human health. Recognizing the possible environmental risks associated with the inappropriate disposal of masks, it is crucial to avert it from becoming the next plastic crisis. To address this environmental threat, titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based photocatalytic degradation (PCD) of MPs is one of the promising approaches. TiO2-based photocatalysts exhibit excellent plastic degradation potential due to their outstanding photocatalytic ability, cost efficiency, chemical, and thermal stability. In this review, we have discussed the reports on COVID-19 waste generation, the limitation of current waste management techniques, and the environmental impact of MPs leachates from DFMs. Mainly, the prominence of TiO2 in the PCD and the applications of TiO2-based photocatalysts in MPs degradation are the prime highlights of this review. Additionally, various synthesis methods to enhance the photocatalytic performance of TiO2 and the mechanism of PCD are also discussed. Furthermore, current challenges and the future research perspective on the improvement of this approach have been proposed.

Face masks invading protected areas: Risks and recommendations

Among the indirect environmental impacts generated by the global COVID-19 pandemic, contamination with personal protective equipment (PPE), like face masks, may be one of the most relevant ones. PPE has been found in multiple aquatic, marine, and terrestrial environments, including places of absolute relevancy to biodiversity conservation, such as protected areas (PAs). Here, a brief report of the presence of PPE in six PAs of Peru is presented. PPE pollution in PAs consisted mainly of single-use and reusable face masks, as well as plastics associated with PAs, such as KN95 respirator wrappings. The mean PPE density was estimated as 1.32 × 10^-3 PPE/m². FTIR spectroscopy confirmed that face masks and wrappers mainly consisted of polypropylene and polyethylene, two of the most commonly available synthetic polymers. The material was poorly degraded according to their FTIR spectra, possibly suggesting that they were discarded recently. The recent ban on single-use plastic in Peruvian PAs is regarded as a great step forward toward the efforts made to preserve these invaluable places. However, these measures seemed insufficient to prevent PPE and other types of litter from contaminating areas of ecological importance. Considering the current scenario, several recommendations were proposed to be implemented in PAs in order to prevent PPE from becoming a new plastic issue to tackle. These recommendations are expected to also serve for future events where the use of single-use plastics becomes inevitable, like global pandemics.

Environmental policies for the treatment of waste generated by COVID-19: Text mining review

The rapid transmission of COVID-19 has meant that all economic and human efforts have been focused on confronting it, ignoring environmental aspects whose consequences are causing adverse situations all over the planet. The saturation of the sanitary system and confinement measures have multiplied the waste generated, which implies the need to adapt environmental policies to this new situation caused by the pandemic. It is a review article whose objective was to identify the environmental policies that would facilitate an adequate treatment of the waste generated by the pandemic. It was proposed to analyse the current lines of research developed on this paradigm, applying the text mining methodology. A systematic review of 111 studies published in environmental journals indexed in the Web of Science was carried out. The results identified three areas of interest: knowledge of transmission routes, management of the massive generation of plastics and appropriate treatment of solid waste in extreme situations. Leaders are called upon to implement the contingency plans to sustainably alleviate the enormous waste burden caused by society's adaptation to the restrictions imposed by the pandemic. Specifically, innovation aimed at achieving the reuse of medical products, the promotion of the circular economy and educational campaigns to promote clean environments should be encouraged.

Does marine environmental research meet the challenges of marine pollution induced by the COVID-19 pandemic? Comparison analysis before and during the pandemic based on bibliometrics

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has brought enormous challenges to the global marine environment. Various responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have led to increased marine pollution. Has the COVID-19 pandemic affected marine pollution research? This work comprehensively reviewed marine pollution publications in the Web of Science database before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results show that the COVID-19 outbreak has influenced the marine pollution research by: (i) increasing the number of publications; (ii) reshaping different countries' roles in marine pollution research; (iii) altering the hotspots of marine pollution research. The ranking of countries with high productivity in the marine pollution research field changed, and developed economies are the dominant players both before and after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in this field. Other high-productivity countries, with the exception of China, have higher international cooperation rates in marine pollution research than those before the pandemic. Microplastic pollution has been the biggest challenge of marine pollution and has been aexplored in greater depth during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the mining results of marine pollution publications show the mitigation of plastic pollution in the marine environment remains the main content requires future research. Finally, this paper puts forward corresponding suggestions for the reference of researchers and practitioners to improve the global ability to respond to the challenges posed by the pandemic to the marine environment.

Prospect of microplastic pollution control under the "New normal" concept beyond COVID-19 pandemic

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has led to increasing demand for single-use plastic which aggravates the already existing plastic waste problem. Not only does the demand for personal protective equipment (PPE) increase, but also people shift their preference to online shopping and food delivery to comply with administrative policies for COVID-19 pandemic control. The used PPEs, packaging materials, and food containers may not be handled or recycled properly after their disposal. As a result, the mismanaged plastic waste is discharged into the environment and it may pose even greater risks after breaking into smaller fragments, which was regarded as the source of secondary microplastics (MPs, < 5 mm) or nanoplastics (NPs, < 1 μm). The main objective of this manuscript is to provide a review of the studies related to microplastic release due to pandemic-associated plastic waste. This study summarizes the limited work published on the ecotoxicological/toxicological effect of MPs/NPs released from PPE on aquatic organisms, soil organisms, as well as humans. Given the current status of research on MPs from COVID-related plastic waste, the immediate research directions needed on this topic were discussed.

Effects of microplastics from disposable medical masks on terrestrial invertebrates

This study investigated impacts of microplastics from disposable polypropylene medical masks on woodlice Porcellio scaber, mealworm larvae Tenebrio molitor and enchytraeids Enchytraeus crypticus. Effects of microplastics on survival, reproduction, immune parameters and energy-related traits were assessed after 21 days exposure in soil. Microplastics obtained from each medical mask layer separately differed in size and shape (inner frontal layer: 45.1 ± 21.5 µm, fibers; middle filtering layer: 55.6 ± 28.5 µm, fragments; outer layer: 42.0 ± 17.8 µm, fibers) and composition of additives. Overall, the concentrations of metals and organic chemicals were too low to cause effects on soil invertebrates. The microplastics from disposable medical masks at 0.06%, 0.5%, 1.5%, w/w did not induce severe adverse effects on survival or reproduction (for enchytraeids). A transient immune response of woodlice and a change in energy-related traits in mealworms were observed, which was most clearly seen for the microplastics from the outer layer. This was reflected in increased electron transfer system activity of mealworms and different immune response dynamics of woodlice. In conclusion, the tested soil invertebrates respond to microplastics from disposable medical masks, but it remains unclear what these changes mean for their fitness on the long term.

Occurrence of COVID-19 personal protective equipment (PPE) litters along the eastern coast of Palawan Island, Philippines

The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has caused worldwide health constraints. This study was conducted to establish a baseline monitoring survey to describe the distribution of PPE litters during the COVID-19 pandemic in the province of Palawan, Philippines. A total of 386 COVID-19-related PPE items were present in 83 % of coastal sampling sites with over a cumulative area of 48,200 m², with a density of 8 × 10^-3 items m^-2. The facemask (98 %; n = 377) was the primary type of PPE, followed by face shield (2 %; n = 9). Meanwhile, the daily density of PPE litters in San Manuel, Puerto Princesa ranged from 0 to 9.9 × 10^-2 items m^-2, with a mean density of 8 × 10^-3 items m^-2. The accumulation rates of PPE items ranged from 3.27 × 10^-1 items to 1.143 items d^-1, with an average rate of 7.29 × 10^-1 items d^-1.

Prevalence of Covid-19 personal protective equipment in aquatic systems and impact on associated fauna

The use and undesignated disposal of COVID-19 related personal protective equipments (PPEs) has resulted in a spike in the global mismanagement of plastic waste. Moreover, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has not only affected the socio-economic state of the world but is contributing significantly to the already existing aquatic pollution dilemma. Consequently, PPE litter is an emerging pollutant in aquatic ecosystems that warrants significant attention. This review endeavoured to present a synopsis of the global mismanagement of PPE waste and highlight the devastating ramifications of the ensuing environment. The paper reveals that PPE litter is indeed negatively impacting environmental systems on varying levels around the globe. Furthermore, peak plastic loads are transported by Asian rivers and are deposited into the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Beaches and seabed are the major sinks of COVID-19 PPE litter making benthic organisms to be the most vulnerable. More studies need to be undertaken to monitor aquatic resources to get a detailed overview of COVID-19 PPE litter in the environment.

To what extent do waste management strategies need adaptation to post-COVID-19?

The world has been grappling with the crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic for more than a year. Various sectors have been affected by COVID-19 and its consequences. The waste management system is one of the sectors affected by such unpredictable pandemics. The experience of COVID-19 proved that adaptability to such pandemics and the post-pandemic era had become a necessity in waste management systems and this requires an accurate understanding of the challenges that have been arising. The accurate information and data from most countries severely affected by the pandemic are not still available to identify the key challenges during and post-COVID-19. The documented evidence from literature has been collected, and the attempt has been made to summarize the rising challenges and the lessons learned. This review covers all raised challenges concerning the various aspects of the waste management system from generation to final disposal (i.e., generation, storage, collection, transportation, processing, and burial of waste). The necessities and opportunities are recognized for increasing flexibility and adaptability in waste management systems. The four basic pillars are enumerated to adapt the waste management system to the COVID-19 pandemic and post-COVID-19 conditions. Striving to support and implement a circular economy is one of its basic strategies.

Bacterial biofilms on medical masks disposed in the marine environment: a hotspot of biological and functional diversity

The present paper was aimed at investigating the role of disposable medical masks as a substrate for microbial biofilm growth and for the selection of specific microbial traits in highly impacted marine environments. In this view, we have immerged masks in a coastal area affected by a continuous input of artisanal fishery wastes and hydrocarbons pollution caused by intense maritime traffic. Masks maintained one month in the field were colonized by a bacterial community significantly different from that detected in the natural matrices from the same areas (seawater and sediments). The masks served as a viable substrate for the growth and enrichment of phototrophic microorganisms (Oxyphotobacteria), as well as Ruminococcaceae, Gracilibacteria, and Holophageae. In a follow-up investigation, masks previously colonized in the field were transferred in lab-scale microcosms which were supplemented with hydrocarbons and which contained also a piece of a virgin mask. After one month, a shift in the community composition, likely triggered by hydrocarbons addition, was observed in the previously colonized mask, with signatures characteristic of hydrocarbon-degrading microbial groups. Such hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria were also found to colonize the virgin mask. Remarkably, SEM micrographs provided indications of the occurrence of morphological modifications of the surface components of the virgin masks colonized by hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria. Overall, for the first time, we have demonstrated the potential risk for human and animal health determined by the uncorrected disposal of masks which are suitable substrates for pathogens colonization, permanence and spreading. Moreover, we have herein strengthened the knowledge on the role of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria in the colonization and modification of fossil-based plastics in marine environment.

Examining challenges and multi-strategic approaches in waste management during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review

The COVID-19 pandemic has a negative impact on the environment. Waste generation and improper management during the COVID-19 pandemic posed a major threat to human health and the environment. Irregular and improper waste collection, handling, suspension of waste recycling and unsanitary disposal were all important issues in the processing and management of generated waste. This study emphasised a systematic review and content analysis to categorise all types of waste management (WM) during the COVID-19 pandemic to accomplish a well understanding of the relation between the COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on WM within the literature. In this systematic review, a number of published papers on different aspects of WM during March 2020 to February 2021 were considered in order to identify major challenges in handling WM during the pandemic time and highlight multi-strategic approaches suggested. A content analysis of the 58 relevant papers was carried out by incorporating different types of WM at local as well as global scales. The present review results revealed that the COVID-19 has impacted the quantity and composition of waste, and the crisis caused by the pandemic has also altered the nature of global WM system. A comprehensive analysis on how the systems of WM were affected through the advancement of COVID-19 and what would be the healthier solutions was also highlighted in this systematic review. The results of this systematic review would be beneficial for better policymakers to holistically address potential future pandemics, if any.

Effective recycling of disposable medical face masks for sustainable green concrete via a new fiber hybridization technique

Global public response to the COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic is highly focused on human health. However, conservationists have cautioned of unprecedented threats to the natural environment from a new type of non-biodegradable microplastic waste resulting from extensive use of disposable medical face masks (DMFMs). Thus, this waste must be recycled in an eco-friendly manner on an urgent basis. In this research, we developed a new environmentally friendly recycling technique using waste DMFMs in sustainable green concrete. More explicitly, a new fiber hybridization approach has been introduced in which two types of fibers namely DMFM fiber and basalt fiber (BF) were incorporated into fiber reinforced recycled aggregate concrete (FRAC). The volume fractions of DMFM fiber were 0%, 0.1%, and 0.2% and the volume fractions of BF were 0%, 0.25%, and 0.5%. In addition, two mineral admixtures (fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag) were also used. Test results indicated increase of approximately 12% in compressive strength, 26% in split tensile strength, and 60% in flexural strength of FRAC containing hybrid fibers and mineral admixtures. The density and ultra-sonic pulse velocity (UPV) of DMFM fiber- and BF-modified FRAC ranged from 2406-2433 kg/m³ and 4502-4541 m/s, respectively, which meets structural concrete requirements. The water absorption rate gradually increased with an increase in the volume fractions of fibers but remained within the allowable water absorption limit for construction materials. Lastly, the microstructure investigation indicated excellent concrete quality, improved interfacial transition zones (ITZs), and good compatibility of host concrete matrix with both DMFM fiber and BF that correlates well with the experimental results reported in this study.

Indirect effects of COVID-19 on the environment: How plastic contamination from disposable surgical masks affect early development of plants

Personal protective equipment, used extensively during the COVID-19 pandemic, heavily burdened the environment due to improper waste management. Owing to their fibrous structure, layered non-woven polypropylene (PP) disposable masks release secondary fragments at a much higher rate than other plastic waste types, thus, posing a barely understood new form of ecological hazard. Here we show that PP mask fragments of different sizes induce morphogenic responses in plants during their early development. Using in vitro systems and soil-filled rhizotrons, we found that several PP mask treatments modified the root growth of Brassica napus (L.) regardless of the experimental system. The environment around the root and mask fragments seemed to influence the effect of PP fabric fragment contamination on early root growth. In soil, primary root length was clearly inhibited by larger PP mask fragments at 1 % concentration, while the two smallest sizes of applied mask fragments caused distinct, concentration-dependent changes in the lateral root numbers. Our results indicate that PP can act as a stressor: contamination by PP surgical masks affects plant growth and hence, warrants attention. Further investigations regarding the effects of plastic pollution on plant-soil interactions involving various soil types are urgently needed.