1
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Dong J, Zhu XN, Zeng PM, Cao DD, Yang Y, Hu J, Luo ZG. A hominoid-specific signaling axis regulating the tempo of synaptic maturation. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114548. [PMID: 39052482 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Human cortical neurons (hCNs) exhibit high dendritic complexity and synaptic density, and the maturation process is greatly protracted. However, the molecular mechanism governing these specific features remains unclear. Here, we report that the hominoid-specific gene TBC1D3 promotes dendritic arborization and protracts the pace of synaptogenesis. Ablation of TBC1D3 in induced hCNs causes reduction of dendritic growth and precocious synaptic maturation. Forced expression of TBC1D3 in the mouse cortex protracts synaptic maturation while increasing dendritic growth. Mechanistically, TBC1D3 functions via interaction with MICAL1, a monooxygenase that mediates oxidation of actin filament. At the early stage of differentiation, the TBC1D3/MICAL1 interaction in the cytosol promotes dendritic growth via F-actin oxidation and enhanced actin dynamics. At late stages, TBC1D3 escorts MICAL1 into the nucleus and downregulates the expression of genes related with synaptic maturation through interaction with the chromatin remodeling factor ATRX. Thus, this study delineates the molecular mechanisms underlying human neuron development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Dong
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Xiao-Na Zhu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Peng-Ming Zeng
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Dong-Dong Cao
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Ji Hu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Zhen-Ge Luo
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China; State Key Laboratory of Advanced Medical Materials and Devices, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China.
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2
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Cassel de Camps C, Rostami S, Xu V, Li C, Lépine P, Durcan TM, Moraes C. Microfabricated dynamic brain organoid cocultures to assess the effects of surface geometry on assembloid formation. Biotechnol J 2024; 19:e2400070. [PMID: 39167558 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202400070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Organoids have emerged as valuable tools for the study of development and disease. Assembloids are formed by integrating multiple organoid types to create more complex models. However, the process by which organoids integrate to form assembloids remains unclear and may play an important role in the resulting organoid structure. Here, a microfluidic platform is developed that allows separate culture of distinct organoid types and provides the capacity to partially control the geometry of the resulting organoid surfaces. Removal of a microfabricated barrier then allows the shaped and positioned organoids to interact and form an assembloid. When midbrain and unguided brain organoids were allowed to assemble with a defined spacing between them, axonal projections from midbrain organoids and cell migration out of unguided organoids were observed and quantitatively measured as the two types of organoids fused together. Axonal projection directions were statistically biased toward other midbrain organoids, and unguided organoid surface geometry was found to affect cell invasion. This platform provides a tool to observe cellular interactions between organoid surfaces that are spaced apart in a controlled manner, and may ultimately have value in exploring neuronal migration, axon targeting, and assembloid formation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sabra Rostami
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Vanessa Xu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Chen Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Paula Lépine
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Thomas M Durcan
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Christopher Moraes
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Rosalind and Morris Goodman Cancer Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Division of Experimental Medicine, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
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3
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Iwata R, Vanderhaeghen P. Metabolic mechanisms of species-specific developmental tempo. Dev Cell 2024; 59:1628-1639. [PMID: 38906137 PMCID: PMC11266843 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2024.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Development consists of a highly ordered suite of steps and transitions, like choreography. Although these sequences are often evolutionarily conserved, they can display species variations in duration and speed, thereby modifying final organ size or function. Despite their evolutionary significance, the mechanisms underlying species-specific scaling of developmental tempo have remained unclear. Here, we will review recent findings that implicate global cellular mechanisms, particularly intermediary and protein metabolism, as species-specific modifiers of developmental tempo. In various systems, from somitic cell oscillations to neuronal development, metabolic pathways display species differences. These have been linked to mitochondrial metabolism, which can influence the species-specific speed of developmental transitions. Thus, intermediary metabolic pathways regulate developmental tempo together with other global processes, including proteostasis and chromatin remodeling. By linking metabolism and the evolution of developmental trajectories, these findings provide opportunities to decipher how species-specific cellular timing can influence organism fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryohei Iwata
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KUL, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Pierre Vanderhaeghen
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KUL, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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4
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Nehme R, Pietiläinen O, Barrett LE. Genomic, molecular, and cellular divergence of the human brain. Trends Neurosci 2024; 47:491-505. [PMID: 38897852 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2024.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
While many core biological processes are conserved across species, the human brain has evolved with unique capacities. Current understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms that endow human traits as well as associated vulnerabilities remains limited. However, emerging data have illuminated species divergence in DNA elements and genome organization, in molecular, morphological, and functional features of conserved neural cell types, as well as temporal differences in brain development. Here, we summarize recent data on unique features of the human brain and their complex implications for the study and treatment of brain diseases. We also consider key outstanding questions in the field and discuss the technologies and foundational knowledge that will be required to accelerate understanding of human neurobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralda Nehme
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Olli Pietiläinen
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Neuroscience Center, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lindy E Barrett
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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5
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Lindhout FW, Krienen FM, Pollard KS, Lancaster MA. A molecular and cellular perspective on human brain evolution and tempo. Nature 2024; 630:596-608. [PMID: 38898293 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07521-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The evolution of the modern human brain was accompanied by distinct molecular and cellular specializations, which underpin our diverse cognitive abilities but also increase our susceptibility to neurological diseases. These features, some specific to humans and others shared with related species, manifest during different stages of brain development. In this multi-stage process, neural stem cells proliferate to produce a large and diverse progenitor pool, giving rise to excitatory or inhibitory neurons that integrate into circuits during further maturation. This process unfolds over varying time scales across species and has progressively become slower in the human lineage, with differences in tempo correlating with differences in brain size, cell number and diversity, and connectivity. Here we introduce the terms 'bradychrony' and 'tachycrony' to describe slowed and accelerated developmental tempos, respectively. We review how recent technical advances across disciplines, including advanced engineering of in vitro models, functional comparative genetics and high-throughput single-cell profiling, are leading to a deeper understanding of how specializations of the human brain arise during bradychronic neurodevelopment. Emerging insights point to a central role for genetics, gene-regulatory networks, cellular innovations and developmental tempo, which together contribute to the establishment of human specializations during various stages of neurodevelopment and at different points in evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feline W Lindhout
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Fenna M Krienen
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Katherine S Pollard
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Institute for Computational Health Sciences, and Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Madeline A Lancaster
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge, UK.
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6
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Casimir P, Iwata R, Vanderhaeghen P. Linking mitochondria metabolism, developmental timing, and human brain evolution. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2024; 86:102182. [PMID: 38555796 PMCID: PMC11190843 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2024.102182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 03/03/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Changes in developmental timing are an important factor of evolution in organ shape and function. This is particularly striking for human brain development, which, compared with other mammals, is considerably prolonged at the level of the cerebral cortex, resulting in brain neoteny. Here, we review recent findings that indicate that mitochondria and metabolism contribute to species differences in the tempo of cortical neuron development. Mitochondria display species-specific developmental timeline and metabolic activity patterns that are highly correlated with the speed of neuron maturation. Enhancing mitochondrial activity in human cortical neurons results in their accelerated maturation, while its reduction leads to decreased maturation rates in mouse neurons. Together with other global and gene-specific mechanisms, mitochondria thus act as a cellular hourglass of neuronal developmental tempo and may thereby contribute to species-specific features of human brain ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Casimir
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Institut de Recherches en Biologie Humaine et Moléculaire (IRIBHM), and ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), 1070 Brussels, Belgium; Department of Neurology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Brugmann, ULB, 1020 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ryohei Iwata
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium. https://twitter.com/@Ryo2Iwata
| | - Pierre Vanderhaeghen
- VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium; Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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7
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Azzi C, Rayon T. Timing mechanisms: insights from comparative neural differentiation systems. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2024; 86:102197. [PMID: 38648722 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2024.102197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Temporal control is central to deploy and coordinate genetic programs during development. At present, there is limited understanding of the molecular mechanisms that govern the duration and speed of developmental processes. Timing mechanisms may run in parallel and/or interact with each other to integrate temporal signals throughout the organism. In this piece, we consider findings on the extrinsic control of developmental tempo and discuss the intrinsic roles of cell cycle, metabolic rates, protein turnover, and post-transcriptional mechanisms in the regulation of tempo during neural development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Azzi
- Epigenetics & Signalling Programmes, The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK. https://twitter.com/@azziChiA
| | - Teresa Rayon
- Epigenetics & Signalling Programmes, The Babraham Institute, Babraham Research Campus, Cambridge CB22 3AT, UK.
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8
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Imamura M, Nakai R, Ohnuki M, Hamazaki Y, Tanabe H, Sato M, Harishima Y, Horikawa M, Watanabe M, Oota H, Nakagawa M, Suzuki S, Enard W. Generation of chimpanzee induced pluripotent stem cell lines for cross-species comparisons. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2024; 60:544-554. [PMID: 38386235 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-024-00853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
As humans' closest living relatives, chimpanzees offer valuable insights into human evolution. However, technical and ethical limitations hinder investigations into the molecular and cellular foundations that distinguish chimpanzee and human traits. Recently, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have emerged as a novel model for functional comparative studies and provided a non-invasive alternative for studying embryonic phenomena. In this study, we generated five new chimpanzee iPSC lines from peripheral blood cells and skin fibroblasts with SeV vectors carrying four reprogramming factors (human OCT3/4, SOX2, KLF4, and L-MYC) and characterized their pluripotency and differentiation potential. We also examined the expression of a human-specific non-coding RNA, HSTR1, which is predicted to be involved in human brain development. Our results show that the chimpanzee iPSCs possess pluripotent characteristics and can differentiate into various cell lineages. Moreover, we found that HSTR1 is expressed in human iPSCs and their neural derivatives but not in chimpanzee counterparts, supporting its possible role in human-specific brain development. As iPSCs are inherently variable due to genetic and epigenetic differences in donor cells or reprogramming procedures, it is essential to expand the number of chimpanzee iPSC lines to comprehensively capture the molecular and cellular properties representative of chimpanzees. Hence, our cells provide a valuable resource for investigating the function and regulation of human-specific transcripts such as HSTR1 and for understanding human evolution more generally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Imamura
- Molecular Biology Section, Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan.
| | - Risako Nakai
- Molecular Biology Section, Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan
- iPSC-Based Drug Discovery and Development Team, RIKEN BioResource Research Center, Soraku, Kyoto, 619-0237, Japan
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Mari Ohnuki
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Human Biology (WPI-ASHBi), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- Hakubi Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
- Anthropology and Human Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
| | - Yusuke Hamazaki
- Molecular Biology Section, Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Tanabe
- Research Center for Integrative Evolutionary Science, SOKENDAI (The Graduate University for Advanced Studies), Hayama, 240-0193, Japan
| | - Momoka Sato
- Department of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Kami-Ina, Nagano, 399-4598, Japan
| | - Yu Harishima
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94704, USA
| | - Musashi Horikawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Mao Watanabe
- Department of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Kami-Ina, Nagano, 399-4598, Japan
| | - Hiroki Oota
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
| | - Masato Nakagawa
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, Kyoto, 606-8507, Japan
| | - Shunsuke Suzuki
- Department of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shinshu University, Kami-Ina, Nagano, 399-4598, Japan
| | - Wolfgang Enard
- Anthropology and Human Genomics, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München, Germany
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9
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Chen XS, Han R, Liu YT, Huang W, Wang Q, Xiong X, Zhang Y, Zhao JG, Li SH, Li XJ, Yang WL. Comparative analysis of primate and pig cells reveals primate-specific PINK1 expression and phosphorylation. Zool Res 2024; 45:242-252. [PMID: 38287905 PMCID: PMC11017073 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2023.241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), a mitochondrial kinase that phosphorylates Parkin and other proteins, plays a crucial role in mitophagy and protection against neurodegeneration. Mutations in PINK1 and Parkin can lead to loss of function and early onset Parkinson's disease. However, there is a lack of strong in vivo evidence in rodent models to support the theory that loss of PINK1 affects mitophagy and induces neurodegeneration. Additionally, PINK1 knockout pigs ( Sus scrofa) do not appear to exhibit neurodegeneration. In our recent work involving non-human primates, we found that PINK1 is selectively expressed in primate brains, while absent in rodent brains. To extend this to other species, we used multiple antibodies to examine the expression of PINK1 in pig tissues. In contrast to tissues from cynomolgus monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis), our data did not convincingly demonstrate detectable PINK1 expression in pig tissues. Knockdown of PINK1 in cultured pig cells did not result in altered Parkin and BAD phosphorylation, as observed in cultured monkey cells. A comparison of monkey and pig striatum revealed more PINK1-phosphorylated substrates in the monkey brain. Consistently, PINK1 knockout in pigs did not lead to obvious changes in the phosphorylation of Parkin and BAD. These findings provide new evidence that PINK1 expression is specific to primates, underscoring the importance of non-human primates in investigating PINK1 function and pathology related to PINK1 deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Sheng Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Rui Han
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Yan-Ting Liu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Xin Xiong
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jian-Guo Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- Beijing Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Beijing 100101, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shi-Hua Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Xiao-Jiang Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Wei-Li Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Ministry of Education), GHM Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China. E-mail:
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10
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Liu X, Xiao C, Xu X, Zhang J, Mo F, Chen JY, Delihas N, Zhang L, An NA, Li CY. Origin of functional de novo genes in humans from "hopeful monsters". WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2024; 15:e1845. [PMID: 38605485 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
For a long time, it was believed that new genes arise only from modifications of preexisting genes, but the discovery of de novo protein-coding genes that originated from noncoding DNA regions demonstrates the existence of a "motherless" origination process for new genes. However, the features, distributions, expression profiles, and origin modes of these genes in humans seem to support the notion that their origin is not a purely "motherless" process; rather, these genes arise preferentially from genomic regions encoding preexisting precursors with gene-like features. In such a case, the gene loci are typically not brand new. In this short review, we will summarize the definition and features of human de novo genes and clarify their process of origination from ancestral non-coding genomic regions. In addition, we define the favored precursors, or "hopeful monsters," for the origin of de novo genes and present a discussion of the functional significance of these young genes in brain development and tumorigenesis in humans. This article is categorized under: RNA Evolution and Genomics > RNA and Ribonucleoprotein Evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoge Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chunfu Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinwei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Reproductive Biology, Institute of Stem Cell and Regeneration, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jia-Yu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Nicholas Delihas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, USA
| | - Li Zhang
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China
| | - Ni A An
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuan-Yun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, Laboratory of Bioinformatics and Genomic Medicine, Institute of Molecular Medicine, College of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China
- Southwest United Graduate School, Kunming, China
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11
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Jung M, Jung JS, Pfeifer J, Hartmann C, Ehrhardt T, Abid CL, Kintzel J, Puls A, Navarrete Santos A, Hollemann T, Riemann D, Rujescu D. Neuronal Stem Cells from Late-Onset Alzheimer Patients Show Altered Regulation of Sirtuin 1 Depending on Apolipoprotein E Indicating Disturbed Stem Cell Plasticity. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:1562-1579. [PMID: 37728850 PMCID: PMC10896791 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03633-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex multifactorial disease. The greatest known risk factor for late-onset AD is the E4 allele of the apolipoprotein E (APOE), while increasing age is the greatest known non-genetic risk factor. The cell type-specific functions of neural stem cells (NSCs), in particular their stem cell plasticity, remain poorly explored in the context of AD pathology. Here, we describe a new model that employs late-onset AD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to generate NSCs and to examine the role played by APOE4 in the expression of aging markers such as sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) in comparison to healthy subjects carrying APOE3. The effect of aging was investigated by using iPSC-derived NSCs from old age subjects as healthy matched controls. Transcript and protein analysis revealed that genes were expressed differently in NSCs from late-onset AD patients, e.g., exhibiting reduced autophagy-related protein 7 (ATG7), phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2). Since SIRT1 expression differed between APOE3 and APOE4 NSCs, the suppression of APOE function in NSCs also repressed the expression of SIRT1. However, the forced expression of APOE3 by plasmids did not recover differently expressed genes. The altered aging markers indicate decreased plasticity of NSCs. Our study provides a suitable in vitro model to investigate changes in human NSCs associated with aging, APOE4, and late-onset AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Jung
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Juliane-Susanne Jung
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Grosse Steinstrasse 52, 06118, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jenny Pfeifer
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Carla Hartmann
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Toni Ehrhardt
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Chaudhry Luqman Abid
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Jenny Kintzel
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Anne Puls
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Anne Navarrete Santos
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Grosse Steinstrasse 52, 06118, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Thomas Hollemann
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry (IPC), Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Hollystrasse 1, 06114, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Dagmar Riemann
- Department Medical Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Magdeburger Strasse 2, 06112, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Dan Rujescu
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Division of General Psychiatry, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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12
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Huang Y, Guo X, Lu S, Chen Q, Wang Z, Lai L, Liu Q, Zhu X, Luo L, Li J, Huang Y, Gao H, Zhang Z, Bu Q, Cen X. Long-term exposure to cadmium disrupts neurodevelopment in mature cerebral organoids. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:168923. [PMID: 38065485 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a pervasive environmental pollutant. Increasing evidence suggests that Cd exposure during pregnancy can induce adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes. However, due to the limitations of neural cell and animal models, it is challenging to study the developmental neurotoxicity and underlying toxicity mechanism of long-term exposure to environmental pollutants during human brain development. In this study, chronic Cd exposure was performed in human mature cerebral organoids for 49 or 77 days. Our study found that prolonged exposure to Cd resulted in the inhibition of cerebral organoid growth and the disruption of neural differentiation and cortical layer organization. These potential consequences of chronic Cd exposure may include impaired GFAP expression, a reduction in SOX2+ neuronal progenitor cells, an increase in TUJ1+ immature neurons, as well as an initial increase and a subsequent decrease in both TBR2+ intermediate progenitors and CTIP2+ deep layer cortical neurons. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that long-term exposure to Cd disrupted zinc and copper ion homeostasis through excessive synthesis of metallothionein and disturbed synaptogenesis, as evidenced by inhibited postsynaptic protein. Our study employed mature cerebral organoids to evaluate the developmental neurotoxicity induced by long-term Cd exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Huang
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xinhua Guo
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Shiya Lu
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qiqi Chen
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Zhiqiu Wang
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Li Lai
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qian Liu
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Xizhi Zhu
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Li Luo
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiayuan Li
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yina Huang
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Hong Gao
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Biomass and Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Zunzhen Zhang
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qian Bu
- Molecular Toxicology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Provincial Education office, Institute of Systems Epidemiology, West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
| | - Xiaobo Cen
- National Chengdu Center for Safety Evaluation of Drugs, State Key Lab of Biotherapy/Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, West China Medical School, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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13
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Fukuda K. The role of transposable elements in human evolution and methods for their functional analysis: current status and future perspectives. Genes Genet Syst 2024; 98:289-304. [PMID: 37866889 DOI: 10.1266/ggs.23-00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile DNA sequences that can insert themselves into various locations within the genome, causing mutations that may provide advantages or disadvantages to individuals and species. The insertion of TEs can result in genetic variation that may affect a wide range of human traits including genetic disorders. Understanding the role of TEs in human biology is crucial for both evolutionary and medical research. This review discusses the involvement of TEs in human traits and disease susceptibility, as well as methods for functional analysis of TEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kei Fukuda
- Integrative Genomics Unit, The University of Melbourne
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14
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Huttner WB, Heide M, Mora-Bermúdez F, Namba T. Neocortical neurogenesis in development and evolution-Human-specific features. J Comp Neurol 2024; 532:e25576. [PMID: 38189676 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
In this review, we focus on human-specific features of neocortical neurogenesis in development and evolution. Two distinct topics will be addressed. In the first section, we discuss the expansion of the neocortex during human evolution and concentrate on the human-specific gene ARHGAP11B. We review the ability of ARHGAP11B to amplify basal progenitors and to expand a primate neocortex. We discuss the contribution of ARHGAP11B to neocortex expansion during human evolution and its potential implications for neurodevelopmental disorders and brain tumors. We then review the action of ARHGAP11B in mitochondria as a regulator of basal progenitor metabolism, and how it promotes glutaminolysis and basal progenitor proliferation. Finally, we discuss the increase in cognitive performance due to the ARHGAP11B-induced neocortical expansion. In the second section, we focus on neocortical development in modern humans versus Neanderthals. Specifically, we discuss two recent findings pointing to differences in neocortical neurogenesis between these two hominins that are due to a small number of amino acid substitutions in certain key proteins. One set of such proteins are the kinetochore-associated proteins KIF18a and KNL1, where three modern human-specific amino acid substitutions underlie the prolongation of metaphase during apical progenitor mitosis. This prolongation in turn is associated with an increased fidelity of chromosome segregation to the apical progenitor progeny during modern human neocortical development, with implications for the proper formation of radial units. Another such key protein is transketolase-like 1 (TKTL1), where a single modern human-specific amino acid substitution endows TKTL1 with the ability to amplify basal radial glia, resulting in an increase in upper-layer neuron generation. TKTL1's ability is based on its action in the pentose phosphate pathway, resulting in increased fatty acid synthesis. The data imply greater neurogenesis during neocortical development in modern humans than Neanderthals due to TKTL1, in particular in the developing frontal lobe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Heide
- German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Takashi Namba
- Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE - Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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15
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Ciceri G, Baggiolini A, Cho HS, Kshirsagar M, Benito-Kwiecinski S, Walsh RM, Aromolaran KA, Gonzalez-Hernandez AJ, Munguba H, Koo SY, Xu N, Sevilla KJ, Goldstein PA, Levitz J, Leslie CS, Koche RP, Studer L. An epigenetic barrier sets the timing of human neuronal maturation. Nature 2024; 626:881-890. [PMID: 38297124 PMCID: PMC10881400 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06984-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
The pace of human brain development is highly protracted compared with most other species1-7. The maturation of cortical neurons is particularly slow, taking months to years to develop adult functions3-5. Remarkably, such protracted timing is retained in cortical neurons derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) during in vitro differentiation or upon transplantation into the mouse brain4,8,9. Those findings suggest the presence of a cell-intrinsic clock setting the pace of neuronal maturation, although the molecular nature of this clock remains unknown. Here we identify an epigenetic developmental programme that sets the timing of human neuronal maturation. First, we developed a hPSC-based approach to synchronize the birth of cortical neurons in vitro which enabled us to define an atlas of morphological, functional and molecular maturation. We observed a slow unfolding of maturation programmes, limited by the retention of specific epigenetic factors. Loss of function of several of those factors in cortical neurons enables precocious maturation. Transient inhibition of EZH2, EHMT1 and EHMT2 or DOT1L, at progenitor stage primes newly born neurons to rapidly acquire mature properties upon differentiation. Thus our findings reveal that the rate at which human neurons mature is set well before neurogenesis through the establishment of an epigenetic barrier in progenitor cells. Mechanistically, this barrier holds transcriptional maturation programmes in a poised state that is gradually released to ensure the prolonged timeline of human cortical neuron maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Ciceri
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Arianna Baggiolini
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Institute of Oncology Research (IOR), Bellinzona Institutes of Science (BIOS+), Bellinzona, Switzerland
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Hyein S Cho
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Computational Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Meghana Kshirsagar
- Computational Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Microsoft AI for Good Research, Redmond, WA, USA
| | - Silvia Benito-Kwiecinski
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ryan M Walsh
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | | | | | - Hermany Munguba
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - So Yeon Koo
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Weill Cornell Neuroscience PhD Program, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nan Xu
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
- Louis V. Gerstner Jr Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kaylin J Sevilla
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Peter A Goldstein
- Department of Anesthesiology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christina S Leslie
- Computational Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Richard P Koche
- Center for Epigenetics Research, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenz Studer
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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16
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Lázaro J, Sochacki J, Ebisuya M. The stem cell zoo for comparative studies of developmental tempo. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2024; 84:102149. [PMID: 38199063 PMCID: PMC10882223 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2023.102149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The rate of development is highly variable across animal species. However, the mechanisms regulating developmental tempo have remained elusive due to difficulties in performing direct interspecies comparisons. Here, we discuss how pluripotent stem cell-based models of development can be used to investigate cell- and tissue-autonomous temporal processes. These systems enable quantitative comparisons of different animal species under similar experimental conditions. Moreover, the constantly growing stem cell zoo collection allows the extension of developmental studies to a great number of unconventional species. We argue that the stem cell zoo constitutes a powerful platform to perform comparative studies of developmental tempo, as well as to study other forms of biological time control such as species-specific lifespan, heart rate, and circadian clocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Lázaro
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Barcelona, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; Collaboration for joint PhD degree between EMBL and Heidelberg University, Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg, Germany. https://twitter.com/@JorgeLazaroF
| | - Jaroslaw Sochacki
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Barcelona, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miki Ebisuya
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Barcelona, Dr. Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, TU Dresden, Arnoldstraße 18, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
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17
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Hartung T, Morales Pantoja IE, Smirnova L. Brain organoids and organoid intelligence from ethical, legal, and social points of view. Front Artif Intell 2024; 6:1307613. [PMID: 38249793 PMCID: PMC10796793 DOI: 10.3389/frai.2023.1307613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Human brain organoids, aka cerebral organoids or earlier "mini-brains", are 3D cellular models that recapitulate aspects of the developing human brain. They show tremendous promise for advancing our understanding of neurodevelopment and neurological disorders. However, the unprecedented ability to model human brain development and function in vitro also raises complex ethical, legal, and social challenges. Organoid Intelligence (OI) describes the ongoing movement to combine such organoids with Artificial Intelligence to establish basic forms of memory and learning. This article discusses key issues regarding the scientific status and prospects of brain organoids and OI, conceptualizations of consciousness and the mind-brain relationship, ethical and legal dimensions, including moral status, human-animal chimeras, informed consent, and governance matters, such as oversight and regulation. A balanced framework is needed to allow vital research while addressing public perceptions and ethical concerns. Interdisciplinary perspectives and proactive engagement among scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the public can enable responsible translational pathways for organoid technology. A thoughtful, proactive governance framework might be needed to ensure ethically responsible progress in this promising field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Health and Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
- CAAT-Europe, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Itzy E. Morales Pantoja
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Health and Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Lena Smirnova
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Health and Whiting School of Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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18
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Hergenreder E, Minotti AP, Zorina Y, Oberst P, Zhao Z, Munguba H, Calder EL, Baggiolini A, Walsh RM, Liston C, Levitz J, Garippa R, Chen S, Ciceri G, Studer L. Combined small-molecule treatment accelerates maturation of human pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons. Nat Biotechnol 2024:10.1038/s41587-023-02031-z. [PMID: 38168993 PMCID: PMC11348887 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-023-02031-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The maturation of human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived neurons mimics the protracted timing of human brain development, extending over months to years for reaching adult-like function. Prolonged in vitro maturation presents a major challenge to stem cell-based applications in modeling and treating neurological disease. Therefore, we designed a high-content imaging assay based on morphological and functional readouts in hPSC-derived cortical neurons which identified multiple compounds that drive neuronal maturation including inhibitors of lysine-specific demethylase 1 and disruptor of telomerase-like 1 and activators of calcium-dependent transcription. A cocktail of four factors, GSK2879552, EPZ-5676, N-methyl-D-aspartate and Bay K 8644, collectively termed GENtoniK, triggered maturation across all parameters tested, including synaptic density, electrophysiology and transcriptomics. Maturation effects were further validated in cortical organoids, spinal motoneurons and non-neural lineages including melanocytes and pancreatic β-cells. The effects on maturation observed across a broad range of hPSC-derived cell types indicate that some of the mechanisms controlling the timing of human maturation might be shared across lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Hergenreder
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew P Minotti
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yana Zorina
- Gene Editing and Screening Core Facility, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Surgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Polina Oberst
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Zeping Zhao
- Department of Surgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hermany Munguba
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Elizabeth L Calder
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Arianna Baggiolini
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ryan M Walsh
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Conor Liston
- Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, USA
| | - Joshua Levitz
- Department of Biochemistry, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ralph Garippa
- Gene Editing and Screening Core Facility, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shuibing Chen
- Department of Surgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Gabriele Ciceri
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenz Studer
- The Center for Stem Cell Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA.
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, New York, NY, USA.
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19
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Pagliaro A, Finger R, Zoutendijk I, Bunschuh S, Clevers H, Hendriks D, Artegiani B. Temporal morphogen gradient-driven neural induction shapes single expanded neuroepithelium brain organoids with enhanced cortical identity. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7361. [PMID: 38016960 PMCID: PMC10684874 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43141-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Pluripotent stem cell (PSC)-derived human brain organoids enable the study of human brain development in vitro. Typically, the fate of PSCs is guided into subsequent specification steps through static medium switches. In vivo, morphogen gradients are critical for proper brain development and determine cell specification, and associated defects result in neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we show that initiating neural induction in a temporal stepwise gradient guides the generation of brain organoids composed of a single, self-organized apical-out neuroepithelium, termed ENOs (expanded neuroepithelium organoids). This is at odds with standard brain organoid protocols in which multiple and independent neuroepithelium units (rosettes) are formed. We find that a prolonged, decreasing gradient of TGF-β signaling is a determining factor in ENO formation and allows for an extended phase of neuroepithelium expansion. In-depth characterization reveals that ENOs display improved cellular morphology and tissue architectural features that resemble in vivo human brain development, including expanded germinal zones. Consequently, cortical specification is enhanced in ENOs. ENOs constitute a platform to study the early events of human cortical development and allow interrogation of the complex relationship between tissue architecture and cellular states in shaping the developing human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Pagliaro
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roxy Finger
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Iris Zoutendijk
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Saskia Bunschuh
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Clevers
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Pharma, Research and Early Development (pRED) of F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Delilah Hendriks
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
- Oncode Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Benedetta Artegiani
- The Princess Maxima Center for Pediatric Oncology, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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20
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Abstract
Organismal development requires the reproducible unfolding of an ordered sequence of discrete steps (cell fate determination, migration, tissue folding, etc.) in both time and space. Here, we review the mechanisms that grant temporal specificity to developmental steps, including molecular clocks and timers. Individual timing mechanisms must be coordinated with each other to maintain the overall developmental sequence. However, phenotypic novelties can also arise through the modification of temporal patterns over the course of evolution. Two main types of variation in temporal patterning characterize interspecies differences in developmental time: allochrony, where the overall developmental sequence is either accelerated or slowed down while maintaining the relative duration of individual steps, and heterochrony, where the duration of specific developmental steps is altered relative to the rest. New advances in in vitro modeling of mammalian development using stem cells have recently enabled the revival of mechanistic studies of allochrony and heterochrony. In both cases, differences in the rate of basic cellular functions such as splicing, translation, protein degradation, and metabolism seem to underlie differences in developmental time. In the coming years, these studies should identify the genetic differences that drive divergence in developmental time between species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarete Diaz-Cuadros
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA;
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA;
| | - Olivier Pourquié
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA;
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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21
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Yao Y, Coleman HA, Meagher L, Forsythe JS, Parkington HC. 3D Functional Neuronal Networks in Free-Standing Bioprinted Hydrogel Constructs. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2300801. [PMID: 37369123 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202300801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
The composition, elasticity, and organization of the extracellular matrix within the central nervous system contribute to the architecture and function of the brain. From an in vitro modeling perspective, soft biomaterials are needed to mimic the 3D neural microenvironments. While many studies have investigated 3D culture and neural network formation in bulk hydrogel systems, these approaches have limited ability to position cells to mimic sophisticated brain architectures. In this study, cortical neurons and astrocytes acutely isolated from the brains of rats are bioprinted in a hydrogel to form 3D neuronal constructs. Successful bioprinting of cellular and acellular strands in a multi-bioink approach allows the subsequent formation of gray- and white-matter tracts reminiscent of cortical structures. Immunohistochemistry shows the formation of dense, 3D axon networks. Calcium signaling and extracellular electrophysiology in these 3D neuronal networks confirm spontaneous activity in addition to evoked activities under pharmacological and electrical stimulation. The system and bioprinting approaches are capable of fabricating soft, free-standing neuronal structures of different bioink and cell types with high resolution and throughput, which provide a promising platform for understanding fundamental questions of neural networks, engineering neuromorphic circuits, and for in vitro drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Yao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- School of Physics, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Harold A Coleman
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Laurence Meagher
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- ARC Training Centre for Cell and Tissue Engineering Technologies, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - John S Forsythe
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
- ARC Training Centre for Cell and Tissue Engineering Technologies, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
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22
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Pollen AA, Kilik U, Lowe CB, Camp JG. Human-specific genetics: new tools to explore the molecular and cellular basis of human evolution. Nat Rev Genet 2023; 24:687-711. [PMID: 36737647 PMCID: PMC9897628 DOI: 10.1038/s41576-022-00568-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Our ancestors acquired morphological, cognitive and metabolic modifications that enabled humans to colonize diverse habitats, develop extraordinary technologies and reshape the biosphere. Understanding the genetic, developmental and molecular bases for these changes will provide insights into how we became human. Connecting human-specific genetic changes to species differences has been challenging owing to an abundance of low-effect size genetic changes, limited descriptions of phenotypic differences across development at the level of cell types and lack of experimental models. Emerging approaches for single-cell sequencing, genetic manipulation and stem cell culture now support descriptive and functional studies in defined cell types with a human or ape genetic background. In this Review, we describe how the sequencing of genomes from modern and archaic hominins, great apes and other primates is revealing human-specific genetic changes and how new molecular and cellular approaches - including cell atlases and organoids - are enabling exploration of the candidate causal factors that underlie human-specific traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex A Pollen
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Umut Kilik
- Institute of Human Biology (IHB), Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Craig B Lowe
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
| | - J Gray Camp
- Institute of Human Biology (IHB), Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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23
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Park SHE, Kulkarni A, Konopka G. FOXP1 orchestrates neurogenesis in human cortical basal radial glial cells. PLoS Biol 2023; 21:e3001852. [PMID: 37540706 PMCID: PMC10431666 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During cortical development, human basal radial glial cells (bRGCs) are highly capable of sustained self-renewal and neurogenesis. Selective pressures on this cell type may have contributed to the evolution of the human neocortex, leading to an increase in cortical size. bRGCs have enriched expression for Forkhead Box P1 (FOXP1), a transcription factor implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) such as autism spectrum disorder. However, the cell type-specific roles of FOXP1 in bRGCs during cortical development remain unexplored. Here, we examine the requirement for FOXP1 gene expression regulation underlying the production of bRGCs using human brain organoids. We examine a developmental time point when FOXP1 expression is highest in the cortical progenitors, and the bRGCs, in particular, begin to actively produce neurons. With the loss of FOXP1, we show a reduction in the number of bRGCs, as well as reduced proliferation and differentiation of the remaining bRGCs, all of which lead to reduced numbers of excitatory cortical neurons over time. Using single-nuclei RNA sequencing and cell trajectory analysis, we uncover a role for FOXP1 in directing cortical progenitor proliferation and differentiation by regulating key signaling pathways related to neurogenesis and NDDs. Together, these results demonstrate that FOXP1 regulates human-specific features in early cortical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seon Hye E. Park
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
- Peter O’Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ashwinikumar Kulkarni
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
- Peter O’Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Genevieve Konopka
- Department of Neuroscience, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
- Peter O’Donnell Jr. Brain Institute, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
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24
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Bertucci T, Bowles KR, Lotz S, Qi L, Stevens K, Goderie SK, Borden S, Oja LM, Lane K, Lotz R, Lotz H, Chowdhury R, Joy S, Arduini BL, Butler DC, Miller M, Baron H, Sandhof CA, Silva MC, Haggarty SJ, Karch CM, Geschwind DH, Goate AM, Temple S. Improved Protocol for Reproducible Human Cortical Organoids Reveals Early Alterations in Metabolism with MAPT Mutations. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.11.548571. [PMID: 37503195 PMCID: PMC10369860 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.11.548571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral cortical-enriched organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are valuable models for studying neurodevelopment, disease mechanisms, and therapeutic development. However, recognized limitations include the high variability of organoids across hPSC donor lines and experimental replicates. We report a 96-slitwell method for efficient, scalable, reproducible cortical organoid production. When hPSCs were cultured with controlled-release FGF2 and an SB431542 concentration appropriate for their TGFBR1 / ALK5 expression level, organoid cortical patterning and reproducibility were significantly improved. Well-patterned organoids included 16 neuronal and glial subtypes by single cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), frequent neural progenitor rosettes and robust BCL11B+ and TBR1+ deep layer cortical neurons at 2 months by immunohistochemistry. In contrast, poorly-patterned organoids contain mesendoderm-related cells, identifiable by negative QC markers including COL1A2 . Using this improved protocol, we demonstrate increased sensitivity to study the impact of different MAPT mutations from patients with frontotemporal dementia (FTD), revealing early changes in key metabolic pathways.
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25
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Shabani K, Pigeon J, Benaissa Touil Zariouh M, Liu T, Saffarian A, Komatsu J, Liu E, Danda N, Becmeur-Lefebvre M, Limame R, Bohl D, Parras C, Hassan BA. The temporal balance between self-renewal and differentiation of human neural stem cells requires the amyloid precursor protein. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadd5002. [PMID: 37327344 PMCID: PMC10275593 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.add5002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Neurogenesis in the developing human cerebral cortex occurs at a particularly slow rate owing in part to cortical neural progenitors preserving their progenitor state for a relatively long time, while generating neurons. How this balance between the progenitor and neurogenic state is regulated, and whether it contributes to species-specific brain temporal patterning, is poorly understood. Here, we show that the characteristic potential of human neural progenitor cells (NPCs) to remain in a progenitor state as they generate neurons for a prolonged amount of time requires the amyloid precursor protein (APP). In contrast, APP is dispensable in mouse NPCs, which undergo neurogenesis at a much faster rate. Mechanistically, APP cell-autonomously contributes to protracted neurogenesis through suppression of the proneurogenic activator protein-1 transcription factor and facilitation of canonical WNT signaling. We propose that the fine balance between self-renewal and differentiation is homeostatically regulated by APP, which may contribute to human-specific temporal patterns of neurogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadijeh Shabani
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Julien Pigeon
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Marwan Benaissa Touil Zariouh
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Tengyuan Liu
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Azadeh Saffarian
- Scipio bioscience, iPEPS-ICM, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Jun Komatsu
- Scipio bioscience, iPEPS-ICM, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Elise Liu
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Natasha Danda
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Mathilde Becmeur-Lefebvre
- Genetics and Foetopathology, Centre Hospitalier Regional d’Orleans–Hôpital de la Source, Orleans, France
| | - Ridha Limame
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Bohl
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Carlos Parras
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Bassem A. Hassan
- Institut du Cerveau–Paris Brain Institute–ICM, Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Hôpital Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
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26
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Huang J, Zhang L, Lu A, Liang C. Organoids as Innovative Models for Bone and Joint Diseases. Cells 2023; 12:1590. [PMID: 37371060 DOI: 10.3390/cells12121590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone is one of the key components of the musculoskeletal system. Bone and joint disease are the fourth most widespread disease, in addition to cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes, which seriously affect people's quality of life. Bone organoids seem to be a great model by which to promote the research method, which further could improve the treatment of bone and joint disease in the future. Here, we introduce the various bone and joint diseases and their biology, and the conditions of organoid culture, comparing the in vitro models among 2D, 3D, and organoids. We summarize the differing potential methods for culturing bone-related organoids from pluripotent stem cells, adult stem cells, or progenitor cells, and discuss the current and promising bone disease organoids for drug screening and precision medicine. Lastly, we discuss the challenges and difficulties encountered in the application of bone organoids and look to the future in order to present potential methods via which bone organoids might advance organoid construction and application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Huang
- Department of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Institute of Integrated Bioinfomedicine and Translational Science (IBTS), School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Lingqiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Aiping Lu
- Institute of Integrated Bioinfomedicine and Translational Science (IBTS), School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
- Institute of Arthritis Research in Integrative Medicine, Shanghai Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200052, China
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Lab on Chinese Medicine and Immune Disease Research, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Chao Liang
- Department of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Institute of Integrated Bioinfomedicine and Translational Science (IBTS), School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR, China
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center for Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, Beijing 102206, China
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27
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Koo B, Lee KH, Ming GL, Yoon KJ, Song H. Setting the clock of neural progenitor cells during mammalian corticogenesis. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 142:43-53. [PMID: 35644876 PMCID: PMC9699901 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Radial glial cells (RGCs) as primary neural stem cells in the developing mammalian cortex give rise to diverse types of neurons and glial cells according to sophisticated developmental programs with remarkable spatiotemporal precision. Recent studies suggest that regulation of the temporal competence of RGCs is a key mechanism for the highly conserved and predictable development of the cerebral cortex. Various types of epigenetic regulations, such as DNA methylation, histone modifications, and 3D chromatin architecture, play a key role in shaping the gene expression pattern of RGCs. In addition, epitranscriptomic modifications regulate temporal pre-patterning of RGCs by affecting the turnover rate and function of cell-type-specific transcripts. In this review, we summarize epigenetic and epitranscriptomic regulatory mechanisms that control the temporal competence of RGCs during mammalian corticogenesis. Furthermore, we discuss various developmental elements that also dynamically regulate the temporal competence of RGCs, including biochemical reaction speed, local environmental changes, and subcellular organelle remodeling. Finally, we discuss the underlying mechanisms that regulate the interspecies developmental tempo contributing to human-specific features of brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonsang Koo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki-Heon Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Guo-Li Ming
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ki-Jun Yoon
- Department of Biological Sciences, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hongjun Song
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; The Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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28
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El-Danaf RN, Rajesh R, Desplan C. Temporal regulation of neural diversity in Drosophila and vertebrates. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 142:13-22. [PMID: 35623984 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The generation of neuronal diversity involves temporal patterning mechanisms by which a given progenitor sequentially produces multiple cell types. Several parallels are evident between the brain development programs of Drosophila and vertebrates, such as the successive emergence of specific cell types and the use of combinations of transcription factors to specify cell fates. Furthermore, cell-extrinsic cues such as hormones and signaling pathways have also been shown to be regulatory modules of temporal patterning. Recently, transcriptomic and epigenomic studies using large single-cell sequencing datasets have provided insights into the transcriptional dynamics of neurogenesis in the Drosophila and mammalian central nervous systems. We review these commonalities in the specification of neuronal identity and highlight the conserved or convergent strategies of brain development by discussing temporal patterning mechanisms found in flies and vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rana N El-Danaf
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology (CGSB), New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Raghuvanshi Rajesh
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology (CGSB), New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Claude Desplan
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology (CGSB), New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Department of Biology, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.
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29
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Xu Z, Yang J, Xin X, Liu C, Li L, Mei X, Li M. Merits and challenges of iPSC-derived organoids for clinical applications. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1188905. [PMID: 37305682 PMCID: PMC10250752 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1188905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have entered an unprecedented state of development since they were first generated. They have played a critical role in disease modeling, drug discovery, and cell replacement therapy, and have contributed to the evolution of disciplines such as cell biology, pathophysiology of diseases, and regenerative medicine. Organoids, the stem cell-derived 3D culture systems that mimic the structure and function of organs in vitro, have been widely used in developmental research, disease modeling, and drug screening. Recent advances in combining iPSCs with 3D organoids are facilitating further applications of iPSCs in disease research. Organoids derived from embryonic stem cells, iPSCs, and multi-tissue stem/progenitor cells can replicate the processes of developmental differentiation, homeostatic self-renewal, and regeneration due to tissue damage, offering the potential to unravel the regulatory mechanisms of development and regeneration, and elucidate the pathophysiological processes involved in disease mechanisms. Herein, we have summarized the latest research on the production scheme of organ-specific iPSC-derived organoids, the contribution of these organoids in the treatment of various organ-related diseases, in particular their contribution to COVID-19 treatment, and have discussed the unresolved challenges and shortcomings of these models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziran Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Lequn Branch, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jiaxu Yang
- Department of Neonatology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xianyi Xin
- Department of Pediatric Cardiovascular Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Chengrun Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Lisha Li
- The Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Xianglin Mei
- Department of pathology, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Meiying Li
- The Key Laboratory of Pathobiology, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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30
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Guo Q, Wu S, Geschwind DH. Characterization of Gene Regulatory Elements in Human Fetal Cortical Development: Enhancing Our Understanding of Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Evolution. Dev Neurosci 2023; 46:69-83. [PMID: 37231806 DOI: 10.1159/000530929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The neocortex is the region that most distinguishes human brain from other mammals and primates [Annu Rev Genet. 2021 Nov;55(1):555-81]. Studying the development of human cortex is important in understanding the evolutionary changes occurring in humans relative to other primates, as well as in elucidating mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders. Cortical development is a highly regulated process, spatially and temporally coordinated by expression of essential transcriptional factors in response to signaling pathways [Neuron. 2019 Sep;103(6):980-1004]. Enhancers are the most well-understood cis-acting, non-protein-coding regulatory elements that regulate gene expression [Nat Rev Genet. 2014 Apr;15(4):272-86]. Importantly, given the conservation of both DNA sequence and molecular function of the majority of proteins across mammals [Genome Res. 2003 Dec;13(12):2507-18], enhancers [Science. 2015 Mar;347(6226):1155-9], which are far more divergent at the sequence level, likely account for the phenotypes that distinguish the human brain by changing the regulation of gene expression. In this review, we will revisit the conceptual framework of gene regulation during human brain development, as well as the evolution of technologies to study transcriptional regulation, with recent advances in genome biology that open a window allowing us to systematically characterize cis-regulatory elements in developing human brain [Hum Mol Genet. 2022 Oct;31(R1):R84-96]. We provide an update on work to characterize the suite of all enhancers in the developing human brain and the implications for understanding neuropsychiatric disorders. Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic ideas that utilize our emerging knowledge of enhancer function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuyu Guo
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Sarah Wu
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Institute of Precision Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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31
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Pandey S, Moyer AJ, Thyme SB. A single-cell transcriptome atlas of the maturing zebrafish telencephalon. Genome Res 2023; 33:658-671. [PMID: 37072188 PMCID: PMC10234298 DOI: 10.1101/gr.277278.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
The zebrafish telencephalon is composed of highly specialized subregions that regulate complex behaviors such as learning, memory, and social interactions. The transcriptional signatures of the neuronal cell types in the telencephalon and the timeline of their emergence from larva to adult remain largely undescribed. Using an integrated analysis of single-cell transcriptomes of approximately 64,000 cells obtained from 6-day-postfertilization (dpf), 15-dpf, and adult telencephalon, we delineated nine main neuronal cell types in the pallium and eight in the subpallium and nominated novel marker genes. Comparing zebrafish and mouse neuronal cell types revealed both conserved and absent types and marker genes. Mapping of cell types onto a spatial larval reference atlas created a resource for anatomical and functional studies. Using this multiage approach, we discovered that although most neuronal subtypes are established early in the 6-dpf fish, some emerge or expand in number later in development. Analyzing the samples from each age separately revealed further complexity in the data, including several cell types that expand substantially in the adult forebrain and do not form clusters at the larval stages. Together, our work provides a comprehensive transcriptional analysis of the cell types in the zebrafish telencephalon and a resource for dissecting its development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shristi Pandey
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, USA;
| | - Anna J Moyer
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35924, USA
| | - Summer B Thyme
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35924, USA
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32
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Lozano D, López JM, Jiménez S, Morona R, Ruíz V, Martínez A, Moreno N. Expression of SATB1 and SATB2 in the brain of bony fishes: what fish reveal about evolution. Brain Struct Funct 2023; 228:921-945. [PMID: 37002478 PMCID: PMC10147777 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-023-02632-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
AbstractSatb1 and Satb2 belong to a family of homeodomain proteins with highly conserved functional and regulatory mechanisms and posttranslational modifications in evolution. However, although their distribution in the mouse brain has been analyzed, few data exist in other non-mammalian vertebrates. In the present study, we have analyzed in detail the sequence of SATB1 and SATB2 proteins and the immunolocalization of both, in combination with additional neuronal markers of highly conserved populations, in the brain of adult specimens of different bony fish models at key evolutionary points of vertebrate diversification, in particular including representative species of sarcopterygian and actinopterygian fishes. We observed a striking absence of both proteins in the pallial region of actinopterygians, only detected in lungfish, the only sarcopterygian fish. In the subpallium, including the amygdaloid complex, or comparable structures, we identified that the detected expressions of SATB1 and SATB2 have similar topologies in the studied models. In the caudal telencephalon, all models showed significant expression of SATB1 and SATB2 in the preoptic area, including the acroterminal domain of this region, where the cells were also dopaminergic. In the alar hypothalamus, all models showed SATB2 but not SATB1 in the subparaventricular area, whereas in the basal hypothalamus the cladistian species and the lungfish presented a SATB1 immunoreactive population in the tuberal hypothalamus, also labeled with SATB2 in the latter and colocalizing with the gen Orthopedia. In the diencephalon, all models, except the teleost fish, showed SATB1 in the prethalamus, thalamus and pretectum, whereas only lungfish showed also SATB2 in prethalamus and thalamus. At the midbrain level of actinopterygian fish, the optic tectum, the torus semicircularis and the tegmentum harbored populations of SATB1 cells, whereas lungfish housed SATB2 only in the torus and tegmentum. Similarly, the SATB1 expression in the rhombencephalic central gray and reticular formation was a common feature. The presence of SATB1 in the solitary tract nucleus is a peculiar feature only observed in non-teleost actinopterygian fishes. At these levels, none of the detected populations were catecholaminergic or serotonergic. In conclusion, the protein sequence analysis revealed a high degree of conservation of both proteins, especially in the functional domains, whereas the neuroanatomical pattern of SATB1 and SATB2 revealed significant differences between sarcopterygians and actinopterygians, and these divergences may be related to the different functional involvement of both in the acquisition of various neural phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lozano
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús M López
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara Jiménez
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ruth Morona
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Víctor Ruíz
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Martínez
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nerea Moreno
- Department of Cell Biology, Faculty of Biology, University Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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33
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Fair T, Pollen AA. Genetic architecture of human brain evolution. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2023; 80:102710. [PMID: 37003107 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2023.102710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Comparative studies of hominids have long sought to identify mutational events that shaped the evolution of the human nervous system. However, functional genetic differences are outnumbered by millions of nearly neutral mutations, and the developmental mechanisms underlying human nervous system specializations are difficult to model and incompletely understood. Candidate-gene studies have attempted to map select human-specific genetic differences to neurodevelopmental functions, but it remains unclear how to contextualize the relative effects of genes that are investigated independently. Considering these limitations, we discuss scalable approaches for probing the functional contributions of human-specific genetic differences. We propose that a systems-level view will enable a more quantitative and integrative understanding of the genetic, molecular and cellular underpinnings of human nervous system evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Fair
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Biomedical Sciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. https://twitter.com/@TylerFair_
| | - Alex A Pollen
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Li B, Zhao H, Tu Z, Yang W, Han R, Wang L, Luo X, Pan M, Chen X, Zhang J, Xu H, Guo X, Yan S, Yin P, Zhao Z, Liu J, Luo Y, Li Y, Yang Z, Zhang B, Tan Z, Xu H, Jiang T, Jiang YH, Li S, Zhang YQ, Li XJ. CHD8 mutations increase gliogenesis to enlarge brain size in the nonhuman primate. Cell Discov 2023; 9:27. [PMID: 36878905 PMCID: PMC9988832 DOI: 10.1038/s41421-023-00525-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects social interaction and behavior. Mutations in the gene encoding chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 8 (CHD8) lead to autism symptoms and macrocephaly by a haploinsufficiency mechanism. However, studies of small animal models showed inconsistent findings about the mechanisms for CHD8 deficiency-mediated autism symptoms and macrocephaly. Using the nonhuman primate as a model system, we found that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated CHD8 mutations in the embryos of cynomolgus monkeys led to increased gliogenesis to cause macrocephaly in cynomolgus monkeys. Disrupting CHD8 in the fetal monkey brain prior to gliogenesis increased the number of glial cells in newborn monkeys. Moreover, knocking down CHD8 via CRISPR/Cas9 in organotypic monkey brain slices from newborn monkeys also enhanced the proliferation of glial cells. Our findings suggest that gliogenesis is critical for brain size in primates and that abnormal gliogenesis may contribute to ASD.
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Grants
- UL1 TR001863 NCATS NIH HHS
- This work was supported by Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province (2021ZT09Y007; 2020B121201006, 2018B030337001, X.J. Li), Guangzhou Key Research Program on Brain Science (202007030008, X.J. Li)the National Science Foundation of China to X.J. Li (81830032, 31872779).
- the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence Fund (2019018, B. Li), the Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (2019M653275, B. Li)
- the National Science Foundation of China to H. Zhao (32100783)
- the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (21619104, L. Wang)
- the Strategic Priority Research Program B of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDBS1020100 to Y.Q. Zhang), the National Key Research and Development Program (2019YFA0707100 and 2021ZD0203901 to Y.Q. Zhang),the National Science Foundation of China to Y.Q. Zhang (31830036 and 31921002).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang Li
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhuchi Tu
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weili Yang
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Rui Han
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lu Wang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University & Institute of Molecular and Functional Imaging, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaopeng Luo
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Mingtian Pan
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiusheng Chen
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiawei Zhang
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huijuan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiangyu Guo
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Sen Yan
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Peng Yin
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiguang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianrong Liu
- Yuanxi Biotech Inc., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yafeng Luo
- Yuanxi Biotech Inc., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuefeng Li
- Guangdong Landau Biotechnology Co. Ltd., Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhengyi Yang
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Baogui Zhang
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhiqiang Tan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University & Institute of Molecular and Functional Imaging, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Hao Xu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University & Institute of Molecular and Functional Imaging, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Tianzi Jiang
- Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yong-Hui Jiang
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Shihua Li
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yong Q Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Xiao-Jiang Li
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education CNS Regeneration Collaborative Joint Laboratory, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
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35
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Kim H, Jang EJ, Sankpal NV, Patel M, Patel R. Recent Development of Brain Organoids for Biomedical Application. Macromol Biosci 2023; 23:e2200346. [PMID: 36469016 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Over the years, scientists have studied the behavior and anatomy of many animals to understand the own species. However, despite the continuous efforts, it is often difficult to know for certain how the brain works due to the differences between the brains of animals and the human brain. While the use of animal models for research continues, the origin of human cognition and neurological disorders needs further elucidation. To that end, in vitro organoids that exhibit in vivo characteristics of the human brain have been recently developed. These brain-like organoids enable researchers to dive deeper into understanding the human brain, its neurological structures, and the causes of neurological pathologies. This paper reviews the recent developments in the regeneration of brain-like organoids using Matrigel and other alternatives. Further, gel-free methods that may enhance the regeneration process of organoids are discussed. Finally, the vascularized brain organoid growth and development in both in vitro and in vivo conditions are detailed.
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Affiliation(s)
- HanSol Kim
- Bio-Convergence (BC), Integrated Science and Engineering Division (ISED), Underwood International College, Yonsei University, 85 Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Eun Jo Jang
- Nano Science and Engineering, Integrated Science and Engineering Division (ISED), Underwood International College, Yonsei University, Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21983, South Korea
| | - Narendra V Sankpal
- Norton Thoracic Institute St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, 85013, USA
| | - Madhumita Patel
- Department of Chemistry and Nanoscience, Ewha Womans University, 52 Ewhayeodae-gil, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03760, South Korea
| | - Rajkumar Patel
- Energy & Environmental Science and Engineering (EESE), Integrated Science and Engineering Division (ISED), Underwood International College, Yonsei University, 85 Songdogwahak-ro, Yeonsugu, Incheon, 21938, South Korea
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36
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He C, Kalafut NC, Sandoval SO, Risgaard R, Sirois CL, Yang C, Khullar S, Suzuki M, Huang X, Chang Q, Zhao X, Sousa AM, Wang D. BOMA, a machine-learning framework for comparative gene expression analysis across brains and organoids. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100409. [PMID: 36936070 PMCID: PMC10014309 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
Our machine-learning framework, brain and organoid manifold alignment (BOMA), first performs a global alignment of developmental gene expression data between brains and organoids. It then applies manifold learning to locally refine the alignment, revealing conserved and specific developmental trajectories across brains and organoids. Using BOMA, we found that human cortical organoids better align with certain brain cortical regions than with other non-cortical regions, implying organoid-preserved developmental gene expression programs specific to brain regions. Additionally, our alignment of non-human primate and human brains reveals highly conserved gene expression around birth. Also, we integrated and analyzed developmental single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data of human brains and organoids, showing conserved and specific cell trajectories and clusters. Further identification of expressed genes of such clusters and enrichment analyses reveal brain- or organoid-specific developmental functions and pathways. Finally, we experimentally validated important specific expressed genes through the use of immunofluorescence. BOMA is open-source available as a web tool for community use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenfeng He
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Noah Cohen Kalafut
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Computer Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Soraya O. Sandoval
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Ryan Risgaard
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Carissa L. Sirois
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Chen Yang
- Department of Mathematics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Saniya Khullar
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Marin Suzuki
- Department of Computer Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xiang Huang
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Qiang Chang
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Departments of Medical Genetics and Neurology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xinyu Zhao
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Andre M.M. Sousa
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Daifeng Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Computer Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
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37
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Li S, Hannenhalli S, Ovcharenko I. De novo human brain enhancers created by single-nucleotide mutations. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadd2911. [PMID: 36791193 PMCID: PMC9931207 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.add2911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Advanced human cognition is attributed to increased neocortex size and complexity, but the underlying evolutionary and regulatory mechanisms are largely unknown. Using human and macaque embryonic neocortical H3K27ac data coupled with a deep learning model of enhancers, we identified ~4000 enhancer gains in humans, which, per our model, can often be attributed to single-nucleotide essential mutations. Our analyses suggest that functional gains in embryonic brain development are associated with de novo enhancers whose putative target genes exhibit increased expression in progenitor cells and interneurons and partake in critical neural developmental processes. Essential mutations alter enhancer activity through altered binding of key transcription factors (TFs) of embryonic neocortex, including ISL1, POU3F2, PITX1/2, and several SOX TFs, and are associated with central nervous system disorders. Overall, our results suggest that essential mutations lead to gain of embryonic neocortex enhancers, which orchestrate expression of genes involved in critical developmental processes associated with human cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Li
- Computational Biology Branch, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Cancer Data Science Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Sridhar Hannenhalli
- Cancer Data Science Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Ivan Ovcharenko
- Computational Biology Branch, National Center for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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38
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Vanderhaeghen P, Polleux F. Developmental mechanisms underlying the evolution of human cortical circuits. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023; 24:213-232. [PMID: 36792753 PMCID: PMC10064077 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00675-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
The brain of modern humans has evolved remarkable computational abilities that enable higher cognitive functions. These capacities are tightly linked to an increase in the size and connectivity of the cerebral cortex, which is thought to have resulted from evolutionary changes in the mechanisms of cortical development. Convergent progress in evolutionary genomics, developmental biology and neuroscience has recently enabled the identification of genomic changes that act as human-specific modifiers of cortical development. These modifiers influence most aspects of corticogenesis, from the timing and complexity of cortical neurogenesis to synaptogenesis and the assembly of cortical circuits. Mutations of human-specific genetic modifiers of corticogenesis have started to be linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, providing evidence for their physiological relevance and suggesting potential relationships between the evolution of the human brain and its sensitivity to specific diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Vanderhaeghen
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium.
- Department of Neurosciences, Leuven Brain Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Franck Polleux
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA.
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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39
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A Systematic Review of the Human Accelerated Regions in Schizophrenia and Related Disorders: Where the Evolutionary and Neurodevelopmental Hypotheses Converge. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043597. [PMID: 36835010 PMCID: PMC9962562 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that results from genetic and environmental factors interacting and disrupting neurodevelopmental trajectories. Human Accelerated Regions (HARs) are evolutionarily conserved genomic regions that have accumulated human-specific sequence changes. Thus, studies on the impact of HARs in the context of neurodevelopment, as well as with respect to adult brain phenotypes, have increased considerably in the last few years. Through a systematic approach, we aim to offer a comprehensive review of HARs' role in terms of human brain development, configuration, and cognitive abilities, as well as whether HARs modulate the susceptibility to neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. First, the evidence in this review highlights HARs' molecular functions in the context of the neurodevelopmental regulatory genetic machinery. Second, brain phenotypic analyses indicate that HAR genes' expression spatially correlates with the regions that suffered human-specific cortical expansion, as well as with the regional interactions for synergistic information processing. Lastly, studies based on candidate HAR genes and the global "HARome" variability describe the involvement of these regions in the genetic background of schizophrenia, but also in other neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders. Overall, the data considered in this review emphasise the crucial role of HARs in human-specific neurodevelopment processes and encourage future research on this evolutionary marker for a better understanding of the genetic basis of schizophrenia and other neurodevelopmental-related psychiatric disorders. Accordingly, HARs emerge as interesting genomic regions that require further study in order to bridge the neurodevelopmental and evolutionary hypotheses in schizophrenia and other related disorders and phenotypes.
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40
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Lafferty MJ, Aygün N, Patel NK, Krupa O, Liang D, Wolter JM, Geschwind DH, de la Torre-Ubieta L, Stein JL. MicroRNA-eQTLs in the developing human neocortex link miR-4707-3p expression to brain size. eLife 2023; 12:e79488. [PMID: 36629315 PMCID: PMC9859047 DOI: 10.7554/elife.79488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) data have proven important for linking non-coding loci to protein-coding genes. But eQTL studies rarely measure microRNAs (miRNAs), small non-coding RNAs known to play a role in human brain development and neurogenesis. Here, we performed small-RNA sequencing across 212 mid-gestation human neocortical tissue samples, measured 907 expressed miRNAs, discovering 111 of which were novel, and identified 85 local-miRNA-eQTLs. Colocalization of miRNA-eQTLs with GWAS summary statistics yielded one robust colocalization of miR-4707-3p expression with educational attainment and brain size phenotypes, where the miRNA expression increasing allele was associated with decreased brain size. Exogenous expression of miR-4707-3p in primary human neural progenitor cells decreased expression of predicted targets and increased cell proliferation, indicating miR-4707-3p modulates progenitor gene regulation and cell fate decisions. Integrating miRNA-eQTLs with existing GWAS yielded evidence of a miRNA that may influence human brain size and function via modulation of neocortical brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Lafferty
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Nil Aygün
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Niyanta K Patel
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Oleh Krupa
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Dan Liang
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Justin M Wolter
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, The University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
| | - Daniel H Geschwind
- Neurogenetics Program, Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
- Center for Autism Research and Treatment, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Luis de la Torre-Ubieta
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Semel Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los AngelesLos AngelesUnited States
| | - Jason L Stein
- Department of Genetics, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, The University of North Carolina at Chapel HillChapel HillUnited States
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41
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Cremisi F, Vignali R. Translational control in cortical development. Front Neuroanat 2023; 16:1087949. [PMID: 36699134 PMCID: PMC9868627 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2022.1087949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Differentiation of specific neuronal types in the nervous system is worked out through a complex series of gene regulation events. Within the mammalian neocortex, the appropriate expression of key transcription factors allocates neurons to different cortical layers according to an inside-out model and endows them with specific properties. Precise timing is required to ensure the proper sequential appearance of key transcription factors that dictate the identity of neurons within the different cortical layers. Recent evidence suggests that aspects of this time-controlled regulation of gene products rely on post-transcriptional control, and point at micro-RNAs (miRs) and RNA-binding proteins as important players in cortical development. Being able to simultaneously target many different mRNAs, these players may be involved in controlling the global expression of gene products in progenitors and post-mitotic cells, in a gene expression framework where parallel to transcriptional gene regulation, a further level of control is provided to refine and coordinate the appearance of the final protein products. miRs and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), by delaying protein appearance, may play heterochronic effects that have recently been shown to be relevant for the full differentiation of cortical neurons and for their projection abilities. Such heterochronies may be the base for evolutionary novelties that have enriched the spectrum of cortical cell types within the mammalian clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Cremisi
- Laboratory of Biology, Department of Sciences, Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy,*Correspondence: Robert Vignali Federico Cremisi
| | - Robert Vignali
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy,*Correspondence: Robert Vignali Federico Cremisi
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42
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Current advances in primate genomics: novel approaches for understanding evolution and disease. Nat Rev Genet 2023; 24:314-331. [PMID: 36599936 DOI: 10.1038/s41576-022-00554-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Primate genomics holds the key to understanding fundamental aspects of human evolution and disease. However, genetic diversity and functional genomics data sets are currently available for only a few of the more than 500 extant primate species. Concerted efforts are under way to characterize primate genomes, genetic polymorphism and divergence, and functional landscapes across the primate phylogeny. The resulting data sets will enable the connection of genotypes to phenotypes and provide new insight into aspects of the genetics of primate traits, including human diseases. In this Review, we describe the existing genome assemblies as well as genetic variation and functional genomic data sets. We highlight some of the challenges with sample acquisition. Finally, we explore how technological advances in single-cell functional genomics and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids will facilitate our understanding of the molecular foundations of primate biology.
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43
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Whye D, Wood D, Saber WA, Norabuena EM, Makhortova NR, Sahin M, Buttermore ED. A Robust Pipeline for the Multi-Stage Accelerated Differentiation of Functional 3D Cortical Organoids from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells. Curr Protoc 2023; 3:e641. [PMID: 36633423 PMCID: PMC9839317 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Disordered cellular development, abnormal neuroanatomical formations, and dysfunction of neuronal circuitry are among the pathological manifestations of cortical regions in the brain that are often implicated in complex neurodevelopmental disorders. With the advancement of stem cell methodologies such as cerebral organoid generation, it is possible to study these processes in vitro using 3D cellular platforms that mirror key developmental stages occurring throughout embryonic neurogenesis. Patterning-based stem cell models of directed neuronal development offer one approach to accomplish this, but these protocols often require protracted periods of cell culture to generate diverse cell types and current methods are plagued by a lack of specificity, reproducibility, and temporal control over cell derivation. Although ectopic expression of transcription factors offers another avenue to rapidly generate neurons, this process of direct lineage conversion bypasses critical junctures of neurodevelopment during which disease-relevant manifestations may occur. Here, we present a directed differentiation approach for generating human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived cortical organoids with accelerated lineage specification to generate functionally mature cortical neurons in a shorter timeline than previously established protocols. This novel protocol provides precise guidance for the specification of neuronal cell type identity as well as temporal control over the pace at which cortical lineage trajectories are established. Furthermore, we present assays that can be used as tools to interrogate stage-specific developmental signaling mechanisms. By recapitulating major components of embryonic neurogenesis, this protocol allows for improved in vitro modeling of cortical development while providing a platform that can be utilized to uncover disease-specific mechanisms of disordered development at various stages across the differentiation timeline. © 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: 3D hPSC neural induction Support Protocol 1: Neural rosette formation assay Support Protocol 2: Neurosphere generation Support Protocol 3: Enzymatic dissociation, NSC expansion, and cryopreservation Basic Protocol 2: 3D neural progenitor expansion Basic Protocol 3: 3D accelerated cortical lineage patterning and terminal differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dosh Whye
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Delaney Wood
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Wardiya Afshar Saber
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Erika M. Norabuena
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Nina R. Makhortova
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Mustafa Sahin
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Elizabeth D. Buttermore
- Human Neuron Core, Rosamund Stone Zander Translational Neuroscience Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
- F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Department, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
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44
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Ma C, Li C, Ma H, Yu D, Zhang Y, Zhang D, Su T, Wu J, Wang X, Zhang L, Chen CL, Zhang YE. Pan-cancer surveys indicate cell cycle-related roles of primate-specific genes in tumors and embryonic cerebrum. Genome Biol 2022; 23:251. [PMID: 36474250 PMCID: PMC9724437 DOI: 10.1186/s13059-022-02821-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite having been extensively studied, it remains largely unclear why humans bear a particularly high risk of cancer. The antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis predicts that primate-specific genes (PSGs) tend to promote tumorigenesis, while the molecular atavism hypothesis predicts that PSGs involved in tumors may represent recently derived duplicates of unicellular genes. However, these predictions have not been tested. RESULTS By taking advantage of pan-cancer genomic data, we find the upregulation of PSGs across 13 cancer types, which is facilitated by copy-number gain and promoter hypomethylation. Meta-analyses indicate that upregulated PSGs (uPSGs) tend to promote tumorigenesis and to play cell cycle-related roles. The cell cycle-related uPSGs predominantly represent derived duplicates of unicellular genes. We prioritize 15 uPSGs and perform an in-depth analysis of one unicellular gene-derived duplicate involved in the cell cycle, DDX11. Genome-wide screening data and knockdown experiments demonstrate that DDX11 is broadly essential across cancer cell lines. Importantly, non-neutral amino acid substitution patterns and increased expression indicate that DDX11 has been under positive selection. Finally, we find that cell cycle-related uPSGs are also preferentially upregulated in the highly proliferative embryonic cerebrum. CONCLUSIONS Consistent with the predictions of the atavism and antagonistic pleiotropy hypotheses, primate-specific genes, especially those PSGs derived from cell cycle-related genes that emerged in unicellular ancestors, contribute to the early proliferation of the human cerebrum at the cost of hitchhiking by similarly highly proliferative cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenyu Ma
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Chunyan Li
- grid.64939.310000 0000 9999 1211School of Engineering Medicine, Key Laboratory of Big Data-Based Precision Medicine (Ministry of Industry and Information Technology), and Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191 China
| | - Huijing Ma
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Daqi Yu
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Yufei Zhang
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China ,grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XSchool of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093 China
| | - Dan Zhang
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China
| | - Tianhan Su
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China
| | - Jianmin Wu
- grid.412474.00000 0001 0027 0586Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research (Ministry of Education/Beijing), Center for Cancer Bioinformatics, Peking University Cancer Hospital & Institute, Beijing, 100142 China
| | - Xiaoyue Wang
- grid.506261.60000 0001 0706 7839State Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, School of Basic Medicine Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Li Zhang
- grid.510934.a0000 0005 0398 4153Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, 102206 China
| | - Chun-Long Chen
- grid.462584.90000 0004 0367 1475Institut Curie, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, CNRS UMR3244, Dynamics of Genetic Information, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Yong E. Zhang
- grid.458458.00000 0004 1792 6416Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution & State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101 China ,grid.410726.60000 0004 1797 8419University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049 China ,grid.510934.a0000 0005 0398 4153Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, 102206 China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309CAS Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223 China
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Andrews MG, Subramanian L, Salma J, Kriegstein AR. How mechanisms of stem cell polarity shape the human cerebral cortex. Nat Rev Neurosci 2022; 23:711-724. [PMID: 36180551 PMCID: PMC10571506 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-022-00631-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Apical-basal progenitor cell polarity establishes key features of the radial and laminar architecture of the developing human cortex. The unique diversity of cortical stem cell populations and an expansion of progenitor population size in the human cortex have been mirrored by an increase in the complexity of cellular processes that regulate stem cell morphology and behaviour, including their polarity. The study of human cells in primary tissue samples and human stem cell-derived model systems (such as cortical organoids) has provided insight into these processes, revealing that protein complexes regulate progenitor polarity by controlling cell membrane adherence within appropriate cortical niches and are themselves regulated by cytoskeletal proteins, signalling molecules and receptors, and cellular organelles. Studies exploring how cortical stem cell polarity is established and maintained are key for understanding the features of human brain development and have implications for neurological dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline G Andrews
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Lakshmi Subramanian
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Ideaya Biosciences, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jahan Salma
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, The Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan
| | - Arnold R Kriegstein
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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46
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Zhao J, Feng C, Wang W, Su L, Jiao J. Human SERPINA3 induces neocortical folding and improves cognitive ability in mice. Cell Discov 2022; 8:124. [DOI: 10.1038/s41421-022-00469-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractNeocortex expansion and folding are related to human intelligence and cognition, but the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying cortical folding remain poorly understood. Here, we report that the human gene SERPINA3 is linked to gyrification. Specifically, the overexpression of SERPINA3 induced neocortical folding, increased the abundance of neurons, and improved cognitive abilities. Further, SERPINA3 promoted proliferation of the outer radial glia (oRG, also referred to as the basal radial glia) and increased the number of upper-layer neurons. The downstream target Glo1 was determined to be involved in SERPINA3-induced gyrification. Moreover, SERPINA3 increased the proliferation of oRG by binding to the Glo1 promoter. Assessment of behavior performance showed enhanced cognitive abilities in SERPINA3 knock-in mice. Our findings will enrich the understanding of neocortical expansion and gyrification and provide insights into possible treatments for intellectual disability and lissencephaly syndrome.
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47
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Linker SB, Narvaiza I, Hsu JY, Wang M, Qiu F, Mendes APD, Oefner R, Kottilil K, Sharma A, Randolph-Moore L, Mejia E, Santos R, Marchetto MC, Gage FH. Human-specific regulation of neural maturation identified by cross-primate transcriptomics. Curr Biol 2022; 32:4797-4807.e5. [PMID: 36228612 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Unique aspects of human behavior are often attributed to differences in the relative size and organization of the human brain: these structural aspects originate during early development. Recent studies indicate that human neurodevelopment is considerably slower than that in other nonhuman primates, a finding that is termed neoteny. One aspect of neoteny is the slow onset of action potentials. However, which molecular mechanisms play a role in this process remain unclear. To examine the evolutionary constraints on the rate of neuronal maturation, we have generated transcriptional data tracking five time points, from the neural progenitor state to 8-week-old neurons, in primates spanning the catarrhine lineage, including Macaca mulatta, Gorilla gorilla, Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, and Homo sapiens. Despite finding an overall similarity of many transcriptional signatures, species-specific and clade-specific distinctions were observed. Among the genes that exhibited human-specific regulation, we identified a key pioneer transcription factor, GATA3, that was uniquely upregulated in humans during the neuronal maturation process. We further examined the regulatory nature of GATA3 in human cells and observed that downregulation quickened the speed of developing spontaneous action potentials, thereby modulating the human neotenic phenotype. These results provide evidence for the divergence of gene regulation as a key molecular mechanism underlying human neoteny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara B Linker
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Iñigo Narvaiza
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Jonathan Y Hsu
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Meiyan Wang
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Fan Qiu
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Ana P D Mendes
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Ruth Oefner
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kalyani Kottilil
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Amandeep Sharma
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Lynne Randolph-Moore
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Eunice Mejia
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Renata Santos
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Université Paris Cité, Institute of Psychiatry and Neuroscience of Paris (IPNP), INSERM U1266, Laboratory of Dynamics of Neuronal Structure in Health and Disease, 102 rue de la Santé, 75014 Paris, France; Institut des Sciences Biologiques, CNRS, 16 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Maria C Marchetto
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Fred H Gage
- Laboratory of Genetics, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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Fischer J, Fernández Ortuño E, Marsoner F, Artioli A, Peters J, Namba T, Eugster Oegema C, Huttner WB, Ladewig J, Heide M. Human-specific ARHGAP11B ensures human-like basal progenitor levels in hominid cerebral organoids. EMBO Rep 2022; 23:e54728. [PMID: 36098218 PMCID: PMC9646322 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202254728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The human-specific gene ARHGAP11B has been implicated in human neocortex expansion. However, the extent of ARHGAP11B's contribution to this expansion during hominid evolution is unknown. Here we address this issue by genetic manipulation of ARHGAP11B levels and function in chimpanzee and human cerebral organoids. ARHGAP11B expression in chimpanzee cerebral organoids doubles basal progenitor levels, the class of cortical progenitors with a key role in neocortex expansion. Conversely, interference with ARHGAP11B's function in human cerebral organoids decreases basal progenitors down to the chimpanzee level. Moreover, ARHGAP11A or ARHGAP11B rescue experiments in ARHGAP11A plus ARHGAP11B double-knockout human forebrain organoids indicate that lack of ARHGAP11B, but not of ARHGAP11A, decreases the abundance of basal radial glia-the basal progenitor type thought to be of particular relevance for neocortex expansion. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that ARHGAP11B is necessary and sufficient to ensure the elevated basal progenitor levels that characterize the fetal human neocortex, suggesting that this human-specific gene was a major contributor to neocortex expansion during human evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Fischer
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and GeneticsPfotenhauerstrasse 108DresdenGermany
- Present address:
Institute for Clinical GeneticsUniversity Hospital Carl Gustav CarusDresdenGermany
| | | | - Fabio Marsoner
- Central Institute of Mental HealthUniversity of Heidelberg/Medical Faculty MannheimMannheimGermany
- Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research (HITBR gGmbH)MannheimGermany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ)HeidelbergGermany
| | - Annasara Artioli
- Central Institute of Mental HealthUniversity of Heidelberg/Medical Faculty MannheimMannheimGermany
- Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research (HITBR gGmbH)MannheimGermany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ)HeidelbergGermany
| | - Jula Peters
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and GeneticsPfotenhauerstrasse 108DresdenGermany
| | - Takashi Namba
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and GeneticsPfotenhauerstrasse 108DresdenGermany
- Present address:
Neuroscience Center, HiLIFE ‐ Helsinki Institute of Life ScienceUniversity of HelsinkiHelsinkiFinland
| | | | - Wieland B. Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and GeneticsPfotenhauerstrasse 108DresdenGermany
| | - Julia Ladewig
- Central Institute of Mental HealthUniversity of Heidelberg/Medical Faculty MannheimMannheimGermany
- Hector Institute for Translational Brain Research (HITBR gGmbH)MannheimGermany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ)HeidelbergGermany
| | - Michael Heide
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and GeneticsPfotenhauerstrasse 108DresdenGermany
- German Primate CenterLeibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
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49
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Ding J, Pollen AA. Filling an ARHGAP in our knowledge of human brain evolution. EMBO Rep 2022; 23:e56076. [PMID: 36161459 PMCID: PMC9638863 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202256076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The human cerebral cortex has tripled in size since our divergence from a common ancestor with chimpanzees. This cortical expansion is driven by the increased proliferative capacity of radial glia (RG), a neural progenitor cell (NPC) population that generates cortical neurons. RG along the ventricular zone (VZ) produce neurons and also give rise to basal progenitors (BPs), which migrate to the embryonic subventricular zone (SVZ). Comparative studies suggest that the increased proliferative capacity of human NPCs involves cell-intrinsic mechanisms (Otani et al, 2016), and a number of human-specific genetic changes have recently been linked to NPC proliferation. In particular, overexpression studies in model organisms indicate that the human-specific gene ARHGAP11B is sufficient to increase BP abundance when introduced into the developing brain of non-human model organisms (Florio et al, 2015; Kalebic et al, 2018; Heide et al, 2020). However, studying human-specific mutations in a hominid genetic and developmental context, rather than in more divergent model organisms, could provide further insight into the evolutionary consequences and effect size of human mutations. Fischer et al (2022) now developed a novel organoid electroporation technique to establish the necessity and sufficiency of ARHGAP11B for BP proliferation in cells from humans and our closest living relative, chimpanzees (Fig 1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Ding
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
| | - Alex A Pollen
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell ResearchUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
- Department of NeurologyUniversity of California, San FranciscoSan FranciscoCAUSA
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50
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Nakai R, Hamazaki Y, Ito H, Imamura M. Early neurogenic properties of iPSC-derived neurosphere formation in Japanese macaque monkeys. Differentiation 2022; 128:33-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diff.2022.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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