Derivation of Peripheral Nociceptive, Mechanoreceptive, and Proprioceptive Sensory Neurons from the same Culture of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Advances and challenges in modeling inherited peripheral neuropathies using iPSCs

Inherited peripheral neuropathies (IPNs) are a group of diseases associated with mutations in various genes with fundamental roles in the development and function of peripheral nerves. Over the past 10 years, significant advances in identifying molecular disease mechanisms underlying axonal and myelin degeneration, acquired from cellular biology studies and transgenic fly and rodent models, have facilitated the development of promising treatment strategies. However, no clinical treatment has emerged to date. This lack of treatment highlights the urgent need for more biologically and clinically relevant models recapitulating IPNs. For both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a particularly powerful platform for disease modeling and preclinical studies. In this review, we provide an update on different in vitro human cellular IPN models, including traditional two-dimensional monoculture iPSC derivatives, and recent advances in more complex human iPSC-based systems using microfluidic chips, organoids, and assembloids.

Molecular and cellular neurocardiology in heart disease

This paper updates and builds on a previous White Paper in this journal that some of us contributed to concerning the molecular and cellular basis of cardiac neurobiology of heart disease. Here we focus on recent findings that underpin cardiac autonomic development, novel intracellular pathways and neuroplasticity. Throughout we highlight unanswered questions and areas of controversy. Whilst some neurochemical pathways are already demonstrating prognostic viability in patients with heart failure, we also discuss the opportunity to better understand sympathetic impairment by using patient specific stem cells that provides pathophysiological contextualization to study 'disease in a dish'. Novel imaging techniques and spatial transcriptomics are also facilitating a road map for target discovery of molecular pathways that may form a therapeutic opportunity to treat cardiac dysautonomia.

Parasympathetic neurons derived from human pluripotent stem cells model human diseases and development

Autonomic parasympathetic neurons (parasymNs) control unconscious body responses, including "rest-and-digest." ParasymN innervation is important for organ development, and parasymN dysfunction is a hallmark of autonomic neuropathy. However, parasymN function and dysfunction in humans are vastly understudied due to the lack of a model system. Human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived neurons can fill this void as a versatile platform. Here, we developed a differentiation paradigm detailing the derivation of functional human parasymNs from Schwann cell progenitors. We employ these neurons (1) to assess human autonomic nervous system (ANS) development, (2) to model neuropathy in the genetic disorder familial dysautonomia (FD), (3) to show parasymN dysfunction during SARS-CoV-2 infection, (4) to model the autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome (SS), and (5) to show that parasymNs innervate white adipocytes (WATs) during development and promote WAT maturation. Our model system could become instrumental for future disease modeling and drug discovery studies, as well as for human developmental studies.

How to differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells into sensory neurons for disease modelling: a functional assessment

BACKGROUND

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived peripheral sensory neurons present a valuable tool to model human diseases and are a source for applications in drug discovery and regenerative medicine. Clinically, peripheral sensory neuropathies can result in maladies ranging from a complete loss of pain to severe painful neuropathic disorders. Sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglion and are comprised of functionally diverse neuronal types. Low efficiency, reproducibility concerns, variations arising due to genetic factors and time needed to generate functionally mature neuronal populations from iPSCs remain key challenges to study human nociception in vitro. Here, we report a detailed functional characterization of iPSC-derived sensory neurons with an accelerated differentiation protocol ("Anatomic" protocol) compared to the most commonly used small molecule approach ("Chambers" protocol). Anatomic's commercially available RealDRG™ were further characterized for both functional and expression phenotyping of key nociceptor markers.

METHODS

Multiple iPSC clones derived from different reprogramming methods, genetics, age, and somatic cell sources were used to generate sensory neurons. Manual patch clamp was used to functionally characterize both control and patient-derived neurons. High throughput techniques were further used to demonstrate that RealDRGs™ derived from the Anatomic protocol are amenable to high throughput technologies for disease modelling.

RESULTS

The Anatomic protocol rendered a purer culture without the use of mitomycin C to suppress non-neuronal outgrowth, while Chambers differentiations yielded a mix of cell types. Chambers protocol results in predominantly tonic firing when compared to Anatomic protocol. Patient-derived nociceptors displayed higher frequency firing compared to control subject with both, Chambers and Anatomic differentiation approaches, underlining their potential use for clinical phenotyping as a disease-in-a-dish model. RealDRG™ sensory neurons show heterogeneity of nociceptive markers indicating that the cells may be useful as a humanized model system for translational studies.

CONCLUSIONS

We validated the efficiency of two differentiation protocols and their potential application for functional assessment and thus understanding the disease mechanisms from patients suffering from pain disorders. We propose that both differentiation methods can be further exploited for understanding mechanisms and development of novel treatments in pain disorders.

A modular platform to generate functional sympathetic neuron-innervated heart assembloids

The technology of human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-based 3D organoid/assembloid cultures has become a powerful tool for the study of human embryonic development, disease modeling and drug discovery in recent years. The autonomic sympathetic nervous system innervates and regulates almost all organs in the body, including the heart. Yet, most reported organoids to date are not innervated, thus lacking proper neural regulation, and hindering reciprocal tissue maturation. Here, we developed a simple and versatile sympathetic neuron (symN)-innervated cardiac assembloid without the need for bioengineering. Our human sympathetic cardiac assembloids (hSCAs) showed mature muscle structures, atrial to ventricular patterning, and spontaneous beating. hSCA-innervating symNs displayed neurotransmitter synthesis and functional regulation of the cardiac beating rate, which could be manipulated pharmacologically or optogenetically. We modeled symN-mediated cardiac development and myocardial infarction. This hSCAs provides a tool for future neurocardiotoxicity screening approaches and is highly versatile and modular, where the types of neuron (symN or parasympathetic or sensory neuron) and organoid (heart, lung, kidney) to be innervated may be interchanged.

Characterization of human iPSC-derived sensory neurons and their functional assessment using multi electrode array

Sensory neurons are afferent neurons in sensory systems that convert stimuli and transmit information to the central nervous system as electrical signals. Primary afferent neurons that are affected by non-noxious and noxious stimuli are present in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), and the DRG sensory neurons are used as an in vitro model of the nociceptive response. However, DRG derived from mouse or rat give a low yield of neurons, and they are difficult to culture. To help alleviate this problem, we characterized human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) derived sensory neurons. They can solve the problems of interspecies differences and supply stability. We investigated expressions of sensory neuron related proteins and genes, and drug responses by Multi-Electrode Array (MEA) to analyze the properties and functions of sensory neurons. They expressed nociceptor, mechanoreceptor and proprioceptor related genes and proteins. They constitute a heterogeneous population of their subclasses. We confirmed that they could respond to both noxious and non-noxious stimuli. We showed that histamine inhibitors reduced histamine-induced neuronal excitability. Furthermore, incubation with a ProTx-II and Nav1.7 inhibitor reduced the spontaneous neural activity in hiPSC-derived sensory neurons. Their responsiveness was different from each drug. We have demonstrated that hiPSC-derived sensory neurons combined with MEA are good candidates for drug discovery studies where DRG in vitro modeling is necessary.

Expression pattern analysis and characterization of the hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy 2 A (HSAN2A) gene with no lysine kinase (WNK1) in human dorsal root ganglion

Inherited painless neuropathies arise due to genetic insults that either block the normal signaling of or destroy the sensory afferent neurons in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) responsible for transducing noxious stimuli. Complete loss of these neurons leads to profound insensitivity to all sensory modalities including pain. Hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy type 2 (HSNAII) is a rare genetic neuropathy characterized by a progressive distal early onset sensory loss. This syndrome is caused by autosomal recessive mutations in the with-no-lysine protein kinase 1 (WNK1) serine-threonine kinase gene. Of interest, disease-associated mutations are found in the large exon, termed "HSN2," which encodes a 498 amino acid domain C-terminal to the kinase domain. These mutations lead to truncation of the HSN2-containing proteins through the addition of an early stop codon (nonsense mutation) leading to loss of the C-terminal domains of this large protein. The present study evaluates the transcripts, gene structure, and protein structure of HSN2-containing WNK1 splice variants in DRG and spinal cord in order to establish the basal expression patterns of WNK1 and HSN2-containing WNK1 splice variants using multiplex fluorescent situ hybridization. We hypothesized that these transcripts would be enriched in pain-sensing DRG neurons, and, potentially, that enrichment in nociceptive neurons was responsible for the painless phenotypes observed. However, our in-depth analyses revealed that the HSN2-WNK1 splice variants were ubiquitously expressed but were not enriched in tachykinin 1-expressing C-fiber neurons, a class of neurons with a highly nociceptive character. We subsequently identified other subpopulations of DRG neurons with higher levels of HSN2-WNK1 expression, including mechanosensory large fibers. These data are inconsistent with the hypothesis that this transcript is enriched in nociceptive fibers, and instead suggest it may be related to general axon maintenance, or that nociceptive fibers are more sensitive to the genetic insult. These findings clarify the molecular and cellular expression pattern of this painless neuropathy gene in human tissue.

How to differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells into sensory neurons for disease modelling: a comparison of two protocols

Background

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived peripheral sensory neurons present a valuable tool to model human diseases and are a source for applications in drug discovery and regenerative medicine. Clinically, peripheral sensory neuropathies can result in maladies ranging from a complete loss of pain to severe painful neuropathic symptoms. Sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglion and are comprised of functionally diverse neuronal types. Low efficiency, reproducibility concerns, variations arising due to genetic factors and time needed to generate functionally mature neuronal populations from iPSCs for disease modelling remain key challenges to study human nociception in vitro. Here, we report a detailed characterization of iPSC-derived sensory neurons with an accelerated differentiation protocol ("Anatomic" protocol) compared to the most commonly used small molecule approach ("Chambers" protocol).

Methods

Multiple iPSC clones derived from different reprogramming methods, genetics, age, and somatic cell sources were used to generate sensory neurons. Expression profiling of sensory neurons was performed with Immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridization techniques. Manual patch clamp and high throughput cellular screening systems (Fluorescence imaging plate reader, automated patch clamp and multi-well microelectrode arrays recordings) were applied to functionally characterize the generated sensory neurons.

Results

The Anatomic protocol rendered a purer culture without the use of mitomycin C to suppress non-neuronal outgrowth, while Chambers differentiations yielded a mix of cell types. High throughput systems confirmed functional expression of Na+ and K+ ion channels. Multi-well microelectrode recordings display spontaneously active neurons with sensitivity to increased temperature indicating expression of heat sensitive ion channels. Patient-derived nociceptors displayed higher frequency firing compared to control subject with both, Chambers and Anatomic differentiation approaches, underlining their potential use for clinical phenotyping as a disease-in-a-dish model.

Conclusions

We validated the efficiency of two differentiation protocols and their potential application for understanding the disease mechanisms from patients suffering from pain disorders. We propose that both differentiation methods can be further exploited for understanding mechanisms and development of novel treatments in pain disorders.

Isolation of human pluripotent stem cell-derived sensory neuron subtypes by immunopanning

Sensory neurons (SNs) detect a wide range of information from the body and the environment that is critical for homeostasis. There are three main subtypes of SNs: nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and proprioceptors, which express different membrane proteins, such as TRKA, TRKB, or TRKC, respectively. Human pluripotent stem cell technology provides an ideal platform to study development and diseases of SNs, however there is not a viable method to isolate individual SN subtype for downstream analysis available. Here, we employ the method immunopanning to isolate each SN subtype. This method is very gentle and allows proper survival after the isolation. We use antibodies against TRKA, TRKB, and TRKC to isolate nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and proprioceptors, respectively. We show that our cultures are enriched for each subtype and express their respective subtype markers. Furthermore, we show that the immunopanned SNs are electrically active and respond to specific stimuli. Thus, our method can be used to purify viable neuronal subtypes using respective membrane proteins for downstream studies.

Scalable generation of sensory neurons from human pluripotent stem cells

Development of new non-addictive analgesics requires advanced strategies to differentiate human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into relevant cell types. Following principles of developmental biology and translational applicability, here we developed an efficient stepwise differentiation method for peptidergic and non-peptidergic nociceptors. By modulating specific cell signaling pathways, hPSCs were first converted into SOX10+ neural crest, followed by differentiation into sensory neurons. Detailed characterization, including ultrastructural analysis, confirmed that the hPSC-derived nociceptors displayed cellular and molecular features comparable to native dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons, and expressed high-threshold primary sensory neuron markers, transcription factors, neuropeptides, and over 150 ion channels and receptors relevant for pain research and axonal growth/regeneration studies (e.g., TRPV1, NAV1.7, NAV1.8, TAC1, CALCA, GAP43, DPYSL2, NMNAT2). Moreover, after confirming robust functional activities and differential response to noxious stimuli and specific drugs, a robotic cell culture system was employed to produce large quantities of human sensory neurons, which can be used to develop nociceptor-selective analgesics.

Neuro-mesodermal assembloids recapitulate aspects of peripheral nervous system development in vitro

Here we describe a novel neuro-mesodermal assembloid model that recapitulates aspects of peripheral nervous system (PNS) development such as neural crest cell (NCC) induction, migration, and sensory as well as sympathetic ganglion formation. The ganglia send projections to the mesodermal as well as neural compartment. Axons in the mesodermal part are associated with Schwann cells. In addition, peripheral ganglia and nerve fibers interact with a co-developing vascular plexus, forming a neurovascular niche. Finally, developing sensory ganglia show response to capsaicin indicating their functionality. The presented assembloid model could help to uncover mechanisms of human NCC induction, delamination, migration, and PNS development. Moreover, the model could be used for toxicity screenings or drug testing. The co-development of mesodermal and neuroectodermal tissues and a vascular plexus along with a PNS allows us to investigate the crosstalk between neuroectoderm and mesoderm and between peripheral neurons/neuroblasts and endothelial cells.

Genipin Crosslinks the Extracellular Matrix to Rescue Developmental and Degenerative Defects, and Accelerates Regeneration of Peripheral Neurons

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is essential for proper body function. A high percentage of the population suffer nerve degeneration or peripheral damage. For example, over 40% of patients with diabetes or undergoing chemotherapy develop peripheral neuropathies. Despite this, there are major gaps in the knowledge of human PNS development and therefore, there are no available treatments. Familial Dysautonomia (FD) is a devastating disorder that specifically affects the PNS making it an ideal model to study PNS dysfunction. FD is caused by a homozygous point mutation in ELP1 leading to developmental and degenerative defects in the sensory and autonomic lineages. We previously employed human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) to show that peripheral sensory neurons (SNs) are not generated efficiently and degenerate over time in FD. Here, we conducted a chemical screen to identify compounds able to rescue this SN differentiation inefficiency. We identified that genipin, a compound prescribed in Traditional Chinese Medicine for neurodegenerative disorders, restores neural crest and SN development in FD, both in the hPSC model and in a FD mouse model. Additionally, genipin prevented FD neuronal degeneration, suggesting that it could be offered to patients suffering from PNS neurodegenerative disorders. We found that genipin crosslinks the extracellular matrix, increases the stiffness of the ECM, reorganizes the actin cytoskeleton, and promotes transcription of YAP-dependent genes. Finally, we show that genipin enhances axon regeneration in an in vitro axotomy model in healthy sensory and sympathetic neurons (part of the PNS) and in prefrontal cortical neurons (part of the central nervous system, CNS). Our results suggest genipin can be used as a promising drug candidate for treatment of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, and as a enhancer of neuronal regeneration.

Emergence of nociceptive functionality and opioid signaling in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived sensory neurons

ABSTRACT

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have enabled the generation of various difficult-to-access cell types such as human nociceptors. A key challenge associated with human iPSC-derived nociceptors (hiPSCdNs) is their prolonged functional maturation. While numerous studies have addressed the expression of classic neuronal markers and ion channels in hiPSCdNs, the temporal development of key signaling cascades regulating nociceptor activity has remained largely unexplored. In this study, we used an immunocytochemical high-content imaging approach alongside electrophysiological staging to assess metabotropic and ionotropic signaling of large scale-generated hiPSCdNs across 70 days of in vitro differentiation. During this period, the resting membrane potential became more hyperpolarized, while rheobase, action potential peak amplitude, and membrane capacitance increased. After 70 days, hiPSCdNs exhibited robust physiological responses induced by GABA, pH shift, ATP, and capsaicin. Direct activation of protein kinase A type II (PKA-II) through adenylyl cyclase stimulation with forskolin resulted in PKA-II activation at all time points. Depolarization-induced activation of PKA-II emerged after 35 days of differentiation. However, effective inhibition of forskolin-induced PKA-II activation by opioid receptor agonists required 70 days of in vitro differentiation. Our results identify a pronounced time difference between early expression of functionally important ion channels and emergence of regulatory metabotropic sensitizing and desensitizing signaling only at advanced stages of in vitro cultivation, suggesting an independent regulation of ionotropic and metabotropic signaling. These data are relevant for devising future studies into the development and regulation of human nociceptor function and for defining time windows suitable for hiPSCdN-based drug discovery.

Norepinephrine transporter defects lead to sympathetic hyperactivity in Familial Dysautonomia models

Familial dysautonomia (FD), a rare neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorder affects the sympathetic and sensory nervous system. Although almost all patients harbor a mutation in ELP1, it remains unresolved exactly how function of sympathetic neurons (symNs) is affected; knowledge critical for understanding debilitating disease hallmarks, including cardiovascular instability or dysautonomic crises, that result from dysregulated sympathetic activity. Here, we employ the human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) system to understand symN disease mechanisms and test candidate drugs. FD symNs are intrinsically hyperactive in vitro, in cardiomyocyte co-cultures, and in animal models. We report reduced norepinephrine transporter expression, decreased intracellular norepinephrine (NE), decreased NE re-uptake, and excessive extracellular NE in FD symNs. SymN hyperactivity is not a direct ELP1 mutation result, but may connect to NET via RAB proteins. We found that candidate drugs lowered hyperactivity independent of ELP1 modulation. Our findings may have implications for other symN disorders and may allow future drug testing and discovery.

In vitro models for investigating itch

Itch (pruritus) is a sensation that drives a desire to scratch, a behavior observed in many animals. Although generally short-lasting and not causing harm, there are several pathological conditions where chronic itch is a hallmark symptom and in which prolonged scratching can induce damage. Finding medications to counteract the sensation of chronic itch has proven difficult due to the molecular complexity that involves a multitude of triggers, receptors and signaling pathways between skin, immune and nerve cells. While much has been learned about pruritus from in vivo animal models, they have limitations that corroborate the necessity for a transition to more human disease-like models. Also, reducing animal use should be encouraged in research. However, conducting human in vivo experiments can also be ethically challenging. Thus, there is a clear need for surrogate models to be used in pre-clinical investigation of the mechanisms of itch. Most in vitro models used for itch research focus on the use of known pruritogens. For this, sensory neurons and different types of skin and/or immune cells are stimulated in 2D or 3D co-culture, and factors such as neurotransmitter or cytokine release can be measured. There are however limitations of such simplistic in vitro models. For example, not all naturally occurring cell types are present and there is also no connection to the itch-sensing organ, the central nervous system (CNS). Nevertheless, in vitro models offer a chance to investigate otherwise inaccessible specific cell–cell interactions and molecular pathways. In recent years, stem cell-based approaches and human primary cells have emerged as viable alternatives to standard cell lines or animal tissue. As in vitro models have increased in their complexity, further opportunities for more elaborated means of investigating itch have been developed. In this review, we introduce the latest concepts of itch and discuss the advantages and limitations of current in vitro models, which provide valuable contributions to pruritus research and might help to meet the unmet clinical need for more refined anti-pruritic substances.

Recent advances for using human induced-pluripotent stem cells as pain-in-a-dish models of neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain is amongst the most common non-communicable disorders and the poor effectiveness of current treatment is an unmet need. Although pain is a universal experience, there are significant inter-individual phenotypic differences. Developing models that can accurately recapitulate the clinical pain features is crucial to better understand underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and find innovative treatments. Current data from heterologous expression systems that investigate properties of specific molecules involved in pain signaling, and from animal models, show limited success with their translation into the development of novel treatments for pain. This is in part because they do not recapitulate the native environment in which a particular molecule functions, and due to species-specific differences in the properties of several key molecules that are involved in pain signaling. The limited availability of post-mortem tissue, in particular dorsal root ganglia (DRG), has hampered research using human cells in pre-clinical studies. Human induced-pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have emerged as an exciting alternative platform to study patient-specific diseases. Sensory neurons that are derived from iPSCs (iPSC-SNs) have provided new avenues towards elucidating peripheral pathophysiological mechanisms, the potential for development of personalized treatments, and as a cell-based system for high-throughput screening for discovering novel analgesics. Nevertheless, reprogramming and differentiation protocols to obtain nociceptors have mostly yielded immature homogenous cell populations that do not recapitulate the heterogeneity of native sensory neurons. To close the gap between native human tissue and iPSCs, alternative strategies have been developed. We will review here recent developments in differentiating iPSC-SNs and their use in pre-clinical translational studies. Direct conversion of stem cells into the cells of interest has provided a more cost- and time-saving method to improve reproducibility and diversity of sensory cell types. Furthermore, multi-cellular strategies that mimic in vivo microenvironments for cell maturation, by improving cell contact and communication (co-cultures), reproducing the organ complexity and architecture (three-dimensional organoid), and providing iPSCs with the full spatiotemporal context and nutrients needed for acquiring a mature phenotype (xenotransplantation), have led to functional sensory neuron-like systems. Finally, this review touches on novel prospective strategies, including fluorescent-tracking to select the differentiated neurons of relevance, and dynamic clamp, an electrophysiological method that allows direct manipulation of ionic conductances that are missing in iPSC-SNs.

Towards bridging the translational gap by improved modeling of human nociception in health and disease

Despite numerous studies which have explored the pathogenesis of pain disorders in preclinical models, there is a pronounced translational gap, which is at least partially caused by differences between the human and rodent nociceptive system. An elegant way to bridge this divide is the exploitation of human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) reprogramming into human iPSC-derived nociceptors (iDNs). Several protocols were developed and optimized to model nociceptive processes in health and disease. Here we provide an overview of the different approaches and summarize the knowledge obtained from such models on pain pathologies associated with monogenetic sensory disorders so far. In addition, novel perspectives offered by increasing the complexity of the model systems further to better reflect the natural environment of nociceptive neurons by involving other cell types in 3D model systems are described.

Anatomical Analysis of Transient Potential Vanilloid Receptor 1 (Trpv1+) and Mu-Opioid Receptor (Oprm1+) Co-expression in Rat Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons

Primary afferent neurons of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) transduce peripheral nociceptive signals and transmit them to the spinal cord. These neurons also mediate analgesic control of the nociceptive inputs, particularly through the μ-opioid receptor (encoded by Oprm1). While opioid receptors are found throughout the neuraxis and in the spinal cord tissue itself, intrathecal administration of μ-opioid agonists also acts directly on nociceptive nerve terminals in the dorsal spinal cord resulting in marked analgesia. Additionally, selective chemoaxotomy of cells expressing the TRPV1 channel, a nonselective calcium-permeable ion channel that transduces thermal and inflammatory pain, yields profound pain relief in rats, canines, and humans. However, the relationship between Oprm1 and Trpv1 expressing DRG neurons has not been precisely determined. The present study examines rat DRG neurons using high resolution multiplex fluorescent in situ hybridization to visualize molecular co-expression. Neurons positive for Trpv1 exhibited varying levels of expression for Trpv1 and co-expression of other excitatory and inhibitory ion channels or receptors. A subpopulation of densely labeled Trpv1+ neurons did not co-express Oprm1. In contrast, a population of less densely labeled Trpv1+ neurons did co-express Oprm1. This finding suggests that the medium/low Trpv1 expressing neurons represent a specific set of DRG neurons subserving the opponent processes of both transducing and inhibiting nociceptive inputs. Additionally, the medium/low Trpv1 expressing neurons co-expressed other markers implicated in pathological pain states, such as Trpa1 and Trpm8, which are involved in chemical nociception and cold allodynia, respectively, as well as Scn11a, whose mutations are implicated in familial episodic pain. Conversely, none of the Trpv1+ neurons co-expressed Spp1, which codes for osteopontin, a marker for large diameter proprioceptive neurons, validating that nociception and proprioception are governed by separate neuronal populations. Our findings support the hypothesis that the population of Trpv1 and Oprm1 coexpressing neurons may explain the remarkable efficacy of opioid drugs administered at the level of the DRG-spinal synapse, and that this subpopulation of Trpv1+ neurons is responsible for registering tissue damage.

A protocol to differentiate nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and proprioceptors from human pluripotent stem cells

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) show promise for studying diseases affecting cell populations that are not easily available, including sensory neurons (SNs). Here, we present a differentiation protocol in chemically defined conditions to generate peripheral SNs from hPSCs. We describe four main steps: expansion of hPSCs, neural crest cell (NCC) differentiation, NCC dissociation and replating, and sensory neuron (SN) differentiation. This protocol enables generation of a mechanoreceptor-enriched culture or a population containing all three SN subtypes (nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and proprioceptors).

For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Saito-Diaz et al. (2021).

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Protocol for differentiation of hPSCs into different types of SNs from one culture

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Step-by-step protocol for in vitro differentiation of NCCs

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In vitro differentiation into mechanoreceptor-enriched culture

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Differentiation of three main SN subtypes that mimic in vivo composition

Structural Variation at a Disease Mutation Hotspot: Strategies to Investigate Gene Regulation and the 3D Genome

A rare form of X-linked Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy, CMTX3, is caused by an interchromosomal insertion occurring at chromosome Xq27.1. Interestingly, eight other disease phenotypes have been associated with insertions (or insertion-deletions) occurring at the same genetic locus. To date, the pathogenic mechanism underlying most of these diseases remains unsolved, although local gene dysregulation has clearly been implicated in at least two phenotypes. The challenges of accessing disease-relevant tissue and modelling these complex genomic rearrangements has led to this research impasse. We argue that recent technological advancements can overcome many of these challenges, particularly induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) and their capacity to provide access to patient-derived disease-relevant tissue. However, to date these valuable tools have not been utilized to investigate the disease-associated insertions at chromosome Xq27.1. Therefore, using CMTX3 as a reference disease, we propose an experimental approach that can be used to explore these complex mutations, as well as similar structural variants located elsewhere in the genome. The mutational hotspot at Xq27.1 is a valuable disease paradigm with the potential to improve our understanding of the pathogenic consequences of complex structural variation, and more broadly, refine our knowledge of the multifaceted process of long-range gene regulation. Intergenic structural variation is a critically understudied class of mutation, although it is likely to contribute significantly to unsolved genetic disease.

Shaping axial identity during human pluripotent stem cell differentiation to neural crest cells

The neural crest (NC) is a multipotent cell population which can give rise to a vast array of derivatives including neurons and glia of the peripheral nervous system, cartilage, cardiac smooth muscle, melanocytes and sympathoadrenal cells. An attractive strategy to model human NC development and associated birth defects as well as produce clinically relevant cell populations for regenerative medicine applications involves the in vitro generation of NC from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). However, in vivo, the potential of NC cells to generate distinct cell types is determined by their position along the anteroposterior (A-P) axis and, therefore the axial identity of hPSC-derived NC cells is an important aspect to consider. Recent advances in understanding the developmental origins of NC and the signalling pathways involved in its specification have aided the in vitro generation of human NC cells which are representative of various A-P positions. Here, we explore recent advances in methodologies of in vitro NC specification and axis patterning using hPSCs.

OUP accepted manuscript

In vitro models of the peripheral nervous system would benefit from further refinements to better support studies on neuropathies. In particular, the assessment of pain-related signals is still difficult in human cell cultures. Here, we harnessed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to generate peripheral sensory neurons enriched in nociceptors. The objective was to generate a culture system with signaling endpoints suitable for pharmacological and toxicological studies. Neurons generated by conventional differentiation protocols expressed moderate levels of P2X3 purinergic receptors and only low levels of TRPV1 capsaicin receptors, when maturation time was kept to the upper practically useful limit of 6 weeks. As alternative approach, we generated cells with an inducible NGN1 transgene. Ectopic expression of this transcription factor during a defined time window of differentiation resulted in highly enriched nociceptor cultures, as determined by functional (P2X3 and TRPV1 receptors) and immunocytochemical phenotyping, complemented by extensive transcriptome profiling. Single cell recordings of Ca²⁺-indicator fluorescence from >9000 cells were used to establish the “fraction of reactive cells” in a stimulated population as experimental endpoint, that appeared robust, transparent and quantifiable. To provide an example of application to biomedical studies, functional consequences of prolonged exposure to the chemotherapeutic drug oxaliplatin were examined at non-cytotoxic concentrations. We found (i) neuronal (allodynia-like) hypersensitivity to otherwise non-activating mechanical stimulation that could be blocked by modulators of voltage-gated sodium channels; (ii) hyper-responsiveness to TRPV1 receptor stimulation. These findings and several other measured functional alterations indicate that the model is suitable for pharmacological and toxicological studies related to peripheral neuropathies.

Varicella Zoster Virus Neuronal Latency and Reactivation Modeled in Vitro

Latency and reactivation in neurons are critical aspects of VZV pathogenesis that have historically been difficult to investigate. Viral genomes are retained in many human ganglia after the primary infection, varicella; and about one-third of the naturally infected VZV seropositive population reactivates latent virus, which most often clinically manifests as herpes zoster (HZ or Shingles). HZ is frequently complicated by acute and chronic debilitating pain for which there remains a need for more effective treatment options. Understanding of the latent state is likely to be essential in the design of strategies to reduce reactivation. Experimentally addressing VZV latency has been difficult because of the strict human species specificity of VZV and the fact that until recently, experimental reactivation had not been achieved. We do not yet know the neuron subtypes that harbor latent genomes, whether all can potentially reactivate, what the drivers of VZV reactivation are, and how immunity interplays with the latent state to control reactivation. However, recent advances have enabled a picture of VZV latency to start to emerge. The first is the ability to detect the latent viral genome and its expression in human ganglionic tissues with extraordinary sensitivity. The second, the subject of this chapter, is the development of in vitro human neuron systems permitting the modeling of latent states that can be experimentally reactivated. This review will summarize recent advances of in vitro models of neuronal VZV latency and reactivation, the limitations of the current systems, and discuss outstanding questions and future directions regarding these processes using these and yet to be developed models. Results obtained from the in vitro models to date will also be discussed in light of the recent data gleaned from studies of VZV latency and gene expression learned from human cadaver ganglia, especially the discovery of VZV latency transcripts that seem to parallel the long-studied latency-associated transcripts of other neurotropic alphaherpesviruses.

Developing nociceptor-selective treatments for acute and chronic pain

Despite substantial efforts dedicated to the development of new, nonaddictive analgesics, success in treating pain has been limited. Clinically available analgesic agents generally lack efficacy and may have undesirable side effects. Traditional target-based drug discovery efforts that generate compounds with selectivity for single targets have a high rate of attrition because of their poor clinical efficacy. Here, we examine the challenges associated with the current analgesic drug discovery model and review evidence in favor of stem cell–derived neuronal-based screening approaches for the identification of analgesic targets and compounds for treating diverse forms of acute and chronic pain.

Generation of hiPSC-derived low threshold mechanoreceptors containing axonal termini resembling bulbous sensory nerve endings and expressing Piezo1 and Piezo2

Somatosensory low threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs) sense innocuous mechanical forces, largely through specialized axon termini termed sensory nerve endings, where the mechanotransduction process initiates upon activation of mechanotransducers. In humans, a subset of sensory nerve endings is enlarged, forming bulb-like expansions, termed bulbous nerve endings. There is no in vitro human model to study these neuronal endings. Piezo2 is the main mechanotransducer found in LTMRs. Recent evidence shows that Piezo1, the other mechanotransducer considered absent in dorsal root ganglia (DRG), is expressed at low level in somatosensory neurons. We established a differentiation protocol to generate, from iPSC-derived neuronal precursor cells, human LTMR recapitulating bulbous sensory nerve endings and heterogeneous expression of Piezo1 and Piezo2. The derived neurons express LTMR-specific genes, convert mechanical stimuli into electrical signals and have specialized axon termini that morphologically resemble bulbous nerve endings. Piezo2 is concentrated within these enlarged axon termini. Some derived neurons express low level Piezo1, and a subset co-express both channels. Thus, we generated a unique, iPSCs-derived human model that can be used to investigate the physiology of bulbous sensory nerve endings, and the role of Piezo1 and 2 during mechanosensation.

Cellular models of pain: New technologies and their potential to progress preclinical research

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Human sensory neurons can reduce the translational gap in analgesic development.

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Access to dorsal root ganglion (hDRG) neurons is increasing.

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Diverse sensory neuron subtypes can now be generated via stem cell technology.

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Advances of these technologies will improve our understanding of human nociception.

In vitro models fill a vital niche in preclinical pain research, allowing detailed study of molecular pathways, and in the case of humanised systems, providing a translational bridge between in vivo animal models and human patients. Significant advances in cellular technology available to basic pain researchers have occurred in the last decade, including developing protocols to differentiate sensory neuron-like cells from stem cells and greater access to human dorsal root ganglion tissue. In this review, we discuss the use of both models in preclinical pain research: What can a human sensory neuron in a dish tell us that rodent in vivo models cannot? How similar are these models to their endogenous counterparts, and how should we judge them? What limitations do we need to consider? How can we leverage cell models to improve translational success? In vitro human sensory neuron models equip pain researchers with a valuable tool to investigate human nociception. With continual development, consideration for their advantages and limitations, and effective integration with other experimental strategies, they could become a driving force for the pain field's advancement.