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Siram K, Lathrop SK, Abdelwahab WM, Tee R, Davison CJ, Partlow HA, Evans JT, Burkhart DJ. Co-Delivery of Novel Synthetic TLR4 and TLR7/8 Ligands Adsorbed to Aluminum Salts Promotes Th1-Mediated Immunity against Poorly Immunogenic SARS-CoV-2 RBD. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 12:21. [PMID: 38250834 PMCID: PMC10818338 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of effective vaccines against COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) continues to spread worldwide, pressing the need for new vaccines with improved breadth and durability. We developed an adjuvanted subunit vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 using the recombinant receptor-binding domain (RBD) of spikes with synthetic adjuvants targeting TLR7/8 (INI-4001) and TLR4 (INI-2002), co-delivered with aluminum hydroxide (AH) or aluminum phosphate (AP). The formulations were characterized for the quantities of RBD, INI-4001, and INI-2002 adsorbed onto the respective aluminum salts. Results indicated that at pH 6, the uncharged RBD (5.73 ± 4.2 mV) did not efficiently adsorb to the positively charged AH (22.68 ± 7.01 mV), whereas it adsorbed efficiently to the negatively charged AP (-31.87 ± 0.33 mV). Alternatively, pre-adsorption of the TLR ligands to AH converted it to a negatively charged particle, allowing for the efficient adsorption of RBD. RBD could also be directly adsorbed to AH at a pH of 8.1, which changed the charge of the RBD to negative. INI-4001 and INI-2002 efficiently to AH. Following vaccination in C57BL/6 mice, both aluminum salts promoted Th2-mediated immunity when used as the sole adjuvant. Co-delivery with TLR4 and/or TLR7/8 ligands efficiently promoted a switch to Th1-mediated immunity instead. Measurements of viral neutralization by serum antibodies demonstrated that the addition of TLR ligands to alum also greatly improved the neutralizing antibody response. These results indicate that the addition of a TLR7/8 and/or TLR4 agonist to a subunit vaccine containing RBD antigen and alum is a promising strategy for driving a Th1 response and neutralizing antibody titers targeting SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - David J. Burkhart
- Center for Translational Medicine, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.S.); (S.K.L.); (W.M.A.); (R.T.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.T.E.)
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Miller SM, Crouse B, Hicks L, Amin H, Cole S, Bazin HG, Burkhart DJ, Pravetoni M, Evans JT. A lipidated TLR7/8 adjuvant enhances the efficacy of a vaccine against fentanyl in mice. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:97. [PMID: 37429853 PMCID: PMC10333387 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00694-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Opioid use disorders (OUD) and opioid-related fatal overdoses are a public health concern in the United States. Approximately 100,000 fatal opioid-related overdoses occurred annually from mid-2020 to the present, the majority of which involved fentanyl or fentanyl analogs. Vaccines have been proposed as a therapeutic and prophylactic strategy to offer selective and long-lasting protection against accidental or deliberate exposure to fentanyl and closely related analogs. To support the development of a clinically viable anti-opioid vaccine suitable for human use, the incorporation of adjuvants will be required to elicit high titers of high-affinity circulating antibodies specific to the target opioid. Here we demonstrate that the addition of a synthetic TLR7/8 agonist, INI-4001, but not a synthetic TLR4 agonist, INI-2002, to a candidate conjugate vaccine consisting of a fentanyl-based hapten, F1, conjugated to the diphtheria cross-reactive material (CRM), significantly increased generation of high-affinity F1-specific antibody concentrations, and reduced drug distribution to the brain after fentanyl administration in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon M Miller
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Bethany Crouse
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Linda Hicks
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Hardik Amin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Shelby Cole
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Helene G Bazin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - David J Burkhart
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT, USA
| | - Marco Pravetoni
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jay T Evans
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA.
- Inimmune Corporation, Missoula, MT, USA.
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Development of a TLR7/8 agonist adjuvant formulation to overcome early life hyporesponsiveness to DTaP vaccination. Sci Rep 2022; 12:16860. [PMID: 36258023 PMCID: PMC9579132 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-20346-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Infection is the most common cause of mortality early in life, yet the broad potential of immunization is not fully realized in this vulnerable population. Most vaccines are administered during infancy and childhood, but in some cases the full benefit of vaccination is not realized in-part. New adjuvants are cardinal to further optimize current immunization approaches for early life. However, only a few classes of adjuvants are presently incorporated in vaccines approved for human use. Recent advances in the discovery and delivery of Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonist adjuvants have provided a new toolbox for vaccinologists. Prominent among these candidate adjuvants are synthetic small molecule TLR7/8 agonists. The development of an effective infant Bordetella pertussis vaccine is urgently required because of the resurgence of pertussis in many countries, contemporaneous to the switch from whole cell to acellular vaccines. In this context, TLR7/8 adjuvant based vaccine formulation strategies may be a promising tool to enhance and accelerate early life immunity by acellular B. pertussis vaccines. In the present study, we optimized (a) the formulation delivery system, (b) structure, and (c) immunologic activity of novel small molecule imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 adjuvants towards human infant leukocytes, including dendritic cells. Upon immunization of neonatal mice, this TLR7/8 adjuvant overcame neonatal hyporesponsiveness to acellular pertussis vaccination by driving a T helper (Th)1/Th17 biased T cell- and IgG2c-skewed humoral response to a licensed acellular vaccine (DTaP). This potent immunization strategy may represent a new paradigm for effective immunization against pertussis and other pathogens in early life.
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Short KK, Lathrop SK, Davison CJ, Partlow HA, Kaiser JA, Tee RD, Lorentz EB, Evans JT, Burkhart DJ. Using Dual Toll-like Receptor Agonism to Drive Th1-Biased Response in a Squalene- and α-Tocopherol-Containing Emulsion for a More Effective SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:1455. [PMID: 35890352 PMCID: PMC9318334 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A diversity of vaccines is necessary to reduce the mortality and morbidity of SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines must be efficacious, easy to manufacture, and stable within the existing cold chain to improve their availability around the world. Recombinant protein subunit vaccines adjuvanted with squalene-based emulsions such as AS03™ and MF59™ have a long and robust history of safe, efficacious use with straightforward production and distribution. Here, subunit vaccines were made with squalene-based emulsions containing novel, synthetic toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists, INI-2002 (TLR4 agonist) and INI-4001 (TLR7/8 agonist), using the recombinant receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 S protein as an antigen. The addition of the TLR4 and TLR7/8 agonists, alone or in combination, maintained the formulation characteristics of squalene-based emulsions, including a sterile filterable droplet size (<220 nm), high homogeneity, and colloidal stability after months of storage at 4, 25, and 40 °C. Furthermore, the addition of the TLR agonists skewed the immune response from Th2 towards Th1 in immunized C57BL/6 mice, resulting in an increased production of IgG2c antibodies and a lower antigen-specific production of IL-5 with a higher production of IFNγ by lymphocytes. As such, incorporating TLR4 and TLR7/8 agonists into emulsions leveraged the desirable formulation and stability characteristics of emulsions and can induce Th1-type humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to combat the continued threat of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristopher K. Short
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Stephanie K. Lathrop
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Clara J. Davison
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Haley A. Partlow
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Johnathan A. Kaiser
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Rebekah D. Tee
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Elizabeth B. Lorentz
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Jay T. Evans
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - David J. Burkhart
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; (K.K.S.); (S.K.L.); (C.J.D.); (H.A.P.); (J.A.K.); (R.D.T.); (E.B.L.); (J.T.E.)
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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Bazin HG, Bess LS, Livesay MT, Li Y, Cybulski V, Miller SM, Johnson DA, Evans JT. Optimization of 8-oxoadenines with toll-like-receptor 7 and 8 activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:126984. [PMID: 32001135 PMCID: PMC7050994 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.126984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors 7 and 8 (TLR7/8) agonists are potent immunostimulants that are attracting considerable interest as vaccine adjuvants. We recently reported the synthesis of a new series of 2-O-butyl-8-oxoadenines substituted at the 9-position with various linkers and N-heterocycles, and showed that TLR7/8 selectivity, potency and cytokine induction could be modulated by varying the alkyl linker length and the N-heterocyclic ring. In the present study, we further optimized the oxoadenine scaffold by investigating the effect of different substituents at the 2-position of the oxoadenine on TLR7/8 potency/selectivity, cytokine induction and DC maturation in human PBMCs. The results show that introducing a 1-(S)-methylbutoxy group at the 2-position of the oxoadenine significantly increased potency for TLR7/8 activity, cytokine induction and DC maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène G Bazin
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States.
| | - Laura S Bess
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
| | - Mark T Livesay
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
| | - Yufeng Li
- GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
| | - Van Cybulski
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
| | - Shannon M Miller
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States
| | - David A Johnson
- GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
| | - Jay T Evans
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, United States; GSK Vaccines, 553 Old Corvallis Road, Hamilton, MT 59840, United States
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Miller SM, Cybulski V, Whitacre M, Bess LS, Livesay MT, Walsh L, Burkhart D, Bazin HG, Evans JT. Novel Lipidated Imidazoquinoline TLR7/8 Adjuvants Elicit Influenza-Specific Th1 Immune Responses and Protect Against Heterologous H3N2 Influenza Challenge in Mice. Front Immunol 2020; 11:406. [PMID: 32210973 PMCID: PMC7075946 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Most licensed seasonal influenza vaccines are non-adjuvanted and rely primarily on vaccine-induced antibody titers for protection. As such, seasonal antigenic drift and suboptimal vaccine strain selection often results in reduced vaccine efficacy. Further, seasonal H3N2 influenza vaccines demonstrate poor efficacy compared to H1N1 and influenza type B vaccines. New vaccines, adjuvants, or delivery technologies that can induce broader or cross-seasonal protection against drifted influenza virus strains, likely through induction of protective T cell responses, are urgently needed. Here, we report novel lipidated TLR7/8 ligands that act as strong adjuvants to promote influenza-virus specific Th1-and Th17-polarized T cell responses and humoral responses in mice with no observable toxicity. Further, the adjuvanted influenza vaccine provided protection against a heterologous H3N2 influenza challenge in mice. These responses were further enhanced when combined with a synthetic TLR4 ligand adjuvant. Despite differences between human and mouse TLR7/8, these novel lipidated imidazoquinolines induced the production of cytokines required to polarize a Th1 and Th17 immune response in human PBMCs providing additional support for further development of these compounds as novel adjuvants for the induction of broad supra-seasonal protection from influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon M. Miller
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Van Cybulski
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Margaret Whitacre
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Laura S. Bess
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Mark T. Livesay
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Lois Walsh
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - David Burkhart
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Hélène G. Bazin
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
| | - Jay T. Evans
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States
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Short KK, Miller SM, Walsh L, Cybulski V, Bazin H, Evans JT, Burkhart D. Co-encapsulation of synthetic lipidated TLR4 and TLR7/8 agonists in the liposomal bilayer results in a rapid, synergistic enhancement of vaccine-mediated humoral immunity. J Control Release 2019; 315:186-196. [PMID: 31654684 PMCID: PMC6980726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
To increase vaccine immunogenicity, modern vaccines incorporate adjuvants, which serve to enhance immune cross-protection, improve humoral and cell-mediated immunity, and promote antigen dose sparing. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), including the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family are promising targets for development of agonist formulations for use as vaccine adjuvants. Combinations of co-delivered TLR4 and TLR7/8 ligands have been demonstrated to have synergistic effects on innate and adaptive immune response. Here, we create liposomes that stably co-encapsulate CRX-601, a synthetic TLR4 agonist, and UM-3004, a lipidated TLR7/8 agonist, within the liposomal bilayer in order to achieve co-delivery, allow tunable physical properties, and induce in vitro and in vivo immune synergy. Co-encapsulation demonstrates a synergistic increase in IL-12p70 cytokine output in vitro from treated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs). Further, co-encapsulated formulations give significant improvement of early IgG2a antibody titers in BALB/c mice following primary vaccination when compared to single agonist or dual agonists delivered in separate liposomes. This work demonstrates that co-encapsulation of TLR4 and lipidated TLR7/8 agonists within the liposomal bilayer leads to innate and adaptive immune synergy which biases a Th1 immune response. Thus, liposomal co-encapsulation may be a useful and flexible tool for vaccine adjuvant formulation containing multiple TLR agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristopher K Short
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Shannon M Miller
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Lois Walsh
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Van Cybulski
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Hélène Bazin
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Jay T Evans
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Division of Biological Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - David Burkhart
- Center for Translational Medicine, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA; Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812, USA.
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Bazin HG, Bess LS, Livesay MT. Synthesis and Applications of Imidazoquinolines: A Review. ORG PREP PROCED INT 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/00304948.2018.1433427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hélène G. Bazin
- Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Science, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive #1552, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Laura S. Bess
- Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Science, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive #1552, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
| | - Mark T. Livesay
- Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Science, University of Montana, 32 Campus Drive #1552, Missoula, MT 59812, USA
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