Synergistic effects of resveratrol and melatonin on in vitro maturation of porcine oocytes and subsequent embryo development

Mitochondria as therapeutic targets in assisted reproduction

Mitochondria are essential organelles with specialized functions, which play crucial roles in energy production, calcium homeostasis, and programmed cell death. In oocytes, mitochondrial populations are inherited maternally and are vital for developmental competence. Dysfunction in mitochondrial quality control mechanisms can lead to reproductive failure. Due to their central role in oocyte and embryo development, mitochondria have been investigated as potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets in assisted reproduction. Pharmacological agents that target mitochondrial function and show promise in improving assisted reproduction outcomes include antioxidant coenzyme Q10 and mitoquinone, mammalian target of rapamycin signaling pathway inhibitor rapamycin, and nicotinamide mononucleotide. Mitochondrial replacement therapies (MRTs) offer solutions for infertility and mitochondrial disorders. Autologous germline mitochondrial energy transfer initially showed promise but failed to demonstrate significant benefits in clinical trials. Maternal spindle transfer (MST) and pronuclear transfer hold potential for preventing mitochondrial disease transmission and improving oocyte quality. Clinical trials of MST have shown promising outcomes, but larger studies are needed to confirm safety and efficacy. However, ethical and legislative challenges complicate the widespread implementation of MRTs.

The potential effect of melatonin on in vitro oocyte maturation and embryo development in animals

Melatonin is a hormone mainly secreted by the pineal gland during the circadian cycle, with low levels during the daytime and prominent levels during the night. It is involved in numerous physiological functions including the immune system, circadian rhythm, reproduction, fertilization, and embryo development. In addition, melatonin exerts anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects inside the body by scavenging reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species, increasing antioxidant defenses, and blocking the transcription factors of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Its protective activity has been reported to be effective in various reproductive biotechnological processes, including in vitro maturation (IVM), embryo development, and survival rates. In this comprehensive review, our objective is to summarize and debate the potential mechanism and impact of melatonin on oocyte maturation and embryo development through various developmental routes in different mammalian species.

Factors affecting cryotolerance of mammalian oocytes

Cryopreservation of oocytes is an important tool for preserving genetic resources and for farm animals breeding. Processes taking place during vitrification affect oocytes and result in their reduced developmental capacity and lower fertilisation rates of cryopreserved oocytes. Further improvement in cryopreservation techniques is still required. Several authors already summarized the actual state and perspectives of oocyte cryopreservation as well as potential approaches to improve their development after thawing. The aim of this review is to specify factors affecting cryotolerance of mammalian oocytes, especially bovine in vitro matured oocytes, and to identify the areas, where more efforts were made to improve the success of oocyte cryopreservation. These factors include oocyte lipid content, membrane composition, mRNA protection, cytoskeleton stabilization and application of such potential stimulators of cell cryotolerance as antioxidants, growth factors or antifreeze proteins.

Exploring melatonin's multifaceted role in female reproductive health: From follicular development to lactation and its therapeutic potential in obstetric syndromes

BACKGROUND

Melatonin is mainly secreted by the pineal gland during darkness and regulates biological rhythms through its receptors in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus. In addition, it also plays a role in the reproductive system by affecting the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, and by acting as a free radical scavenger thus contributing to the maintenance of the optimal physiological state of the gonads. Besides, melatonin can freely cross the placenta to influence fetal development. However, there is still a lack of overall understanding of the role of melatonin in the reproductive cycle of female mammals.

AIM OF REVIEW

Here we focus the role of melatonin in female reproduction from follicular development to delivery as well as the relationship between melatonin and lactation. We further summarize the potential role of melatonin in the treatment of preeclampsia, polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis, and ovarian aging.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Understanding the physiological role of melatonin in female reproductive processes will contribute to the advancement of human fertility and reproductive medicine research.

Establishment and application of high throughput screening cell model for nutrient regulation of embryonic development

Embryo development exerts far-reaching influence on pregnancy outcome, postnatal development and lifelong health. Thereafter, to select functional nutrients to improve embryo development is of great importance. Herein, a stable porcine trophectoderm cell line expressing a luciferase reporter gene driven by a 1,009 bp PCNA gene promoter was constructed through lentiviral transduction and G418 selection. A high throughput screening assay was subsequently developed using the stable reporter cell line to screen a library of 225 nutrients. Seven nutrients with a minimum Z-score of 2.0 were initially identified to be capable of enhancing embryonic development. Among these nutrients, resveratrol, apigenin, and retinol palmitate were furtherly confirmed the beneficial effects for embryo development. Resveratrol significantly increased the expression of key genes involved in pTr cell proliferation and the number of S-phase cells. Resveratrol was furtherly confirmed to promote the expression of key genes in trophoblast development and increase embryo adhesion rate in vitro. Similarly, dietary 0.05% resveratrol supplementation significantly increased the number of embryo attachment and serum level of P4 and E2 in rats. Resveratrol could also improve maternal antioxidant levels and reduce intracellular ROS. Collectively, a high throughput screening cell model for nutrient regulation of embryonic development was established, which can be used to highly effectively select the potential candidates for embryo development. These findings have great implications for exploring optimal functional nutrients to improve embryo development, ultimately beneficial for pregnancy outcome, offspring postnatal development and lifelong health for human beings and mammalian animals.

Improving the developmental competences of porcine parthenogenetic embryos by Notoginsenoside R1-induced enhancement of mitochondrial activity and alleviation of proapoptotic events

Notoginsenoside R1 (NGR1), derived from the Panax notoginseng root and rhizome, exhibits diverse pharmacological influences on the brain, neurons, and osteoblasts, such as antioxidant effects, mitochondrial function protection, energy metabolism regulation, and inhibition of oxygen radicals, apoptosis, and cellular autophagy. However, its effect on early porcine embryonic development remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated NGR1's effects on blastocyst quality, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, glutathione (GSH) levels, mitochondrial function, and embryonic development-related gene expression in porcine embryos by introducing NGR1 during the in vitro culture (IVC) of early porcine embryos. Our results indicate that an addition of 1 μM NGR1 significantly increased glutathione (GSH) levels, blastocyst formation rate, and total cell number and proliferation capacity; decreased ROS levels and apoptosis rates in orphan-activated porcine embryos; and improved intracellular mitochondrial distribution, enhanced membrane potential, and reduced autophagy. In addition, pluripotency-related factor levels were elevated (NANOG and octamer-binding transcription factor 4 [OCT4]), antioxidant-related genes were upregulated (nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 [NRF2]), and apoptosis- (caspase 3 [CAS3]) and autophagy-related genes (light chain 3 [LC3B]) were downregulated. These results indicate that NGR1 can enhance early porcine embryonic development by protecting mitochondrial function.

Melatonin Supplementation during In Vitro Maturation of Porcine Oocytes Alleviates Oxidative Stress and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced by Imidacloprid Exposure

Imidacloprid (IMI) is an endogenous neonicotinoid insecticide widely used in agriculture and has attracted researchers' attention because of its risks to the environment and human health. Melatonin (MT) is an antioxidant hormone produced by the pineal gland of the brain. Studies have shown that it has a variety of physiological functions and plays a crucial role in the development of animal germ cells and embryos. The potential protective effects of MT against oocyte damage caused by neonicotinoid pesticide toxicity remain unclear. In this study, we report the toxicity of IMI against, and its effects on the quality of, porcine oocytes and the protective effect of MT on IMI-exposed oocytes. The results show that IMI exposure adversely affected oocyte maturation, while MT supplementation ameliorated its toxic effects. Specifically, IMI exposure increased oxidative stress (OS), endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), and apoptosis, which may affect polar body expulsion rates and blastocyst formation. Also, IMI exposure reduced oocyte cleavage rates and the number of cells in blastocysts. However, all of these toxic effects can be restored after a melatonin supplementation treatment. In conclusion, these results suggest that melatonin has a protective effect on IMI-induced defects during porcine oocyte maturation.

Luteolin supplementation during porcine oocyte maturation improves the developmental competence of parthenogenetic activation and cloned embryos

Luteolin (Lut), a polyphenolic compound that belongs to the flavone subclass of flavonoids, possesses anti-inflammatory, cytoprotective, and antioxidant activities. However, little is known regarding its role in mammalian oocyte maturation. This study examined the effect of Lut supplementation during in vitro maturation (IVM) on oocyte maturation and subsequent developmental competence after somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) in pigs. Lut supplementation significantly increased the proportions of complete cumulus cell expansion and metaphase II (MII) oocytes, compared with control oocytes. After parthenogenetic activation or SCNT, the developmental competence of Lut-supplemented MII oocytes was significantly enhanced, as indicated by higher rates of cleavage, blastocyst formation, expanded or hatching blastocysts, and cell survival, as well as increased cell numbers. Lut-supplemented MII oocytes exhibited significantly lower levels of reactive oxygen species and higher levels of glutathione than control MII oocytes. Lut supplementation also activated lipid metabolism, assessed according to the levels of lipid droplets, fatty acids, and ATP. The active mitochondria content and mitochondrial membrane potential were significantly increased, whereas cytochrome c and cleaved caspase-3 levels were significantly decreased, by Lut supplementation. These results suggest that Lut supplementation during IVM improves porcine oocyte maturation through the reduction of oxidative stress and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.

The Influence of Melatonin Treatment in the Vinification of Feteasca Neagra and Cabernet Sauvignon Wines on the Profile of Polyphenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity

Until recently, the main antioxidant role among wine constituents was attributed to polyphenolic compounds, but once the presence of melatonin in wines was confirmed, an interesting new field of research opened up due to its possible synergistic effects with other antioxidants in the winemaking process, which may lead to a change in the profile of polyphenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. In order to investigate the evolution of active principles from the phenylpropanoid metabolism associated with the synergistic effects of melatonin, for the first time, a melatonin treatment was performed in the pre-stage of the different winemaking processes of Feteasca Neagra and Cabernet Sauvignon wines with different melatonin concentrations. After comparing the acquired results for the evolution of the polyphenolic compound profile and antioxidant activity of treated wines, we ascertained an increase in the antioxidant compound concentrations, especially in resveratrol, quercetin, and cyanidin-3-glucoside, directly proportional to the used melatonin concentration; an intensification in activity of PAL and C4H enzymes; and the modification in the expression of specific anthocyanin biosynthesis genes, especially UDP-D-glucose-flavonoid-3-O-glycosyltransferase. It was also shown that the application of melatonin in the pre-stage of the winemaking process can be successfully used to obtain red wines with increased antioxidant activity (almost 14%).

Dihydromyricetin supplementation during in vitro culture improves porcine oocyte developmental competence by regulating oxidative stress

Dihydromyricetin (DHM), a dihydroflavonoid compound, exhibits a variety of biological activities, including antitumor activity. However, the effects of DHM on mammalian reproductive processes, especially during early embryonic development, remain unclear. In this study, we added DHM to porcine zygotic medium to explore the influence and underlying mechanisms of DHM on the developmental competence of parthenogenetically activated porcine embryos. Supplementation with 5 μM DHM during in vitro culture (IVC) significantly improved blastocyst formation rate and increased the total number of cells in porcine embryos. Further, DHM supplementation also improved glutathione levels and mitochondrial membrane potential; reduced natural reactive oxygen species levels in blastomeres and apoptosis rate; upregulated Nanog, Oct4, SOD1, SOD2, Sirt1, and Bcl2 expression; and downregulated Beclin1, ATG12, and Bax expression. Collectively, DHM supplementation regulated oxidative stress during IVC and could act as a potential antioxidant during in vitro porcine oocytes maturation.

The effects of resveratrol and melatonin on biochemical and molecular parameters in diabetic old female rat hearts

The roles of melatonin and resveratrol-enhanced activation of SIRT1 (silent information regulator 1), GLUT4 (glucose transporter type 4), and PGC-1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha) in mediating the protective effects on the heart in aged female rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes were investigated. 16-month-old 48 Wistar female rats were separated into 8 groups with equal numbers. Group 1: Control, Group 2: Resveratrol Control, Group 3: Melatonin Control, Group 4: Resveratrol and Melatonin Control, Group 5: Diabetes, Group 6: Diabetes Resveratrol, Group 7: Diabetes Melatonin, Group 8: Diabetes Resveratrol and Melatonin. A single dose of 40 mg/kg intraperitoneal streptozotocin was injected into the rats of Groups 5, 6, 7, and 8 to induce experimental diabetes. Blood glucose levels were measured from the tail veins of the animals six days after the injections, using a diagnostic glucose kit. Rats with a blood glucose levels ≥300 mg/dl were considered diabetic. 5 mg/kg/day of resveratrol (intraperitoneal) and melatonin (subcutaneous) were administered for four weeks. At the end of the applications, SIRT1, GLUT4, PGC-1α gene expression as well as MDA and GSH levels in the heart tissues were determined by the PCR method from heart tissue samples taken under general anesthesia. The findings of our study show that suppressed antioxidant activity and decreased GLUT4, SIRT1, and PGC-1α gene expression in heart tissue can be reversed by the combination of resveratrol, melatonin, and resveratrol + melatonin in a diabetic aged female rat model. Resveratrol and melatonin supplementation may have a protective effect on cardiac functions in the diabetic aged female rat model.

The Antioxidant Auraptene Improves Aged Oocyte Quality and Embryo Development in Mice

Decrease in quality of postovulatory aged oocytes occurs due to oxidative stress and leads to low fertilization and development competence. It is one of the main causes that exerting detrimental effect on the success rate in assisted reproductive technology (ART). Auraptene (AUR), a citrus coumarin, has been reported to possess an antioxidant effects in other tissues. In this study, we aimed to confirm the potential of AUR to delay the oocyte aging process by alleviating oxidative stress. Superovulated mouse oocytes in metaphase of second meiosis (MII) were exposed to 0, 1 or 10 μM AUR for 12 h of in vitro aging. AUR addition to the culture medium recovered abnormal spindle and chromosome morphology and mitigated mitochondrial distribution and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ) in aged oocytes. AUR-treated aged oocytes also showed suppressed oxidative stress, with lower reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, higher glutathione (GSH) levels and increased expression of several genes involved in antioxidation. Furthermore, AUR significantly elevated the fertilization and embryo developmental rates. Oocytes aged with 1 μM AUR exhibited morphokinetics that were very similar to those of the control group. Altogether, these data allowed us to conclude that AUR improved the quality of aged oocytes and suggest AUR as an effective clinical supplement candidate to prevent postovulatory aging.

Plant-derived polyphenols in sow nutrition: An update

Oxidative stress is a potentially critical factor that affects productive performance in gestating and lactating sows. Polyphenols are a large class of plant secondary metabolites that possess robust antioxidant capacity. All polyphenols are structurally characterized by aromatic rings with multiple hydrogen hydroxyl groups; those make polyphenols perfect hydrogen atoms and electron donors to neutralize free radicals and other reactive oxygen species. In the past decade, increasing attention has been paid to polyphenols as functional feed additives for sows. Polyphenols have been found to alleviate inflammation and oxidative stress in sows, boost their reproductivity, and promote offspring growth and development. In this review, we provided a systematical summary of the latest research advances in plant-derived polyphenols in sow nutrition, and mainly focused on the effects of polyphenols on the (1) antioxidant and immune functions of sows, (2) placental functions and the growth and development of fetal piglets, (3) mammary gland functions and the growth and development of suckling piglets, and (4) the long-term growth and development of progeny pigs. The output of this review provides an important foundation, from more than 8,000 identified plant phenols, to screen potential polyphenols (or polyphenol-enriched plants) as functional feed additives suitable for gestating and lactating sows.

Exogenous Melatonin in the Culture Medium Does Not Affect the Development of In Vivo-Derived Pig Embryos but Substantially Improves the Quality of In Vitro-Produced Embryos

Cloned and transgenic pigs are relevant human disease models and serve as potential donors for regenerative medicine and xenotransplantation. These technologies demand oocytes and embryos of good quality. However, the current protocols for in vitro production (IVP) of pig embryos give reduced blastocyst efficiency and embryo quality compared to in vivo controls. This is likely due to culture conditions jeopardizing embryonic homeostasis including the effect of reactive oxygen species (ROS) influence. In this study, the antioxidant melatonin (1 nM) in the maturation medium, fertilization medium, or both media was ineffective in enhancing fertilization or embryonic development parameters of in vitro fertilized oocytes. Supplementation of melatonin in the fertilization medium also had no effect on sperm function. In contrast, the addition of melatonin to the embryo culture medium accelerated the timing of embryonic development and increased the percentages of cleaved embryos and presumed zygotes that developed to the blastocyst stage. Furthermore, it increased the number of inner mass cells and the inner mass cell/total cell number ratio per blastocyst while increasing intracellular glutathione and reducing ROS and DNA damage levels in embryos. Contrarily, the addition of melatonin to the embryo culture medium had no evident effect on in vivo-derived embryos, including the developmental capacity and the quality of in vivo-derived 4-cell embryos or the percentage of genome-edited in vivo-derived zygotes achieving the blastocyst stage. In conclusion, exogenous melatonin in the embryo culture medium enhances the development and quality of in vitro-derived embryos but not in in vivo-derived embryos. Exogenous melatonin is thus recommended during embryo culture of oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro for improving porcine IVP efficiency.

Resveratrol and Reproductive Health

Resveratrol (RSV), a plant-derived polyphenol, demonstrates broad-spectrum health benefits, including anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-ischemic and antioxidant effects. The aim of this review is to give an important heads-up regarding the influence of RSV as a phytoestrogen, RSV effects on most common pregnancy-related complications, as well as its impact on the embryogenesis, spermatogenesis, and women’s reproductive health. Considering the important implications of RSV on human reproductive health, this overview could provide a groundwork, encouraging more detailed research at the clinical level.

Meta-analysis of melatonin treatment and porcine somatic cell nuclear transfer embryo development

Porcine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) plays an important role in many areas of research. However, the low efficiency of SCNT in porcine embryos limits its applications. Porcine embryos contain high concentrations of lipid, which makes them vulnerable to oxidative stress. Some studies have used melatonin to reduce reactive oxygen species damage. At present there are many reports concerning the effect of exogenous melatonin on porcine SCNT. Some studies suggest that the addition of melatonin can increase the number of blastocyst cells, while others indicate that melatonin can reduce the number of blastocyst cells. Therefore, a meta-analysis was carried out to resolve the contradiction. In this study, a total of 63 articles from the past 30 years were analyzed, and six papers were finally selected. Through the analysis, it was found that the blastocyst rate was increased by adding exogenous melatonin. Melatonin had no effect on cleavage rate or the number of blastocyst cells, but did decrease the number of apoptotic cells. This result is crucial for future research on embryo implantation.

Enhanced Synergistic-Antioxidant Activity of Melatonin and Tretinoin by Co-encapsulation into Amphiphilic Chitosan Nanocarriers: During Mice In Vitro Matured Oocyte/Morula-Compact Stage Embryo Culture Model

The use of exogenous antioxidants or the combination of them during in vitro oocyte/embryo culture media is reasonable. Co-delivery by nanocarrier has been designed to overcome the limitations of combining them traditionally. In this work, amphiphilic chitosan nanocarrier (ACN) was applied to co-encapsulate melatonin (Mel) and tretinoin (TTN) by the self-assembled method and evaluate their synergistic antioxidant efficacy in mice oocytes/embryos. The formation of single/dual-ACN was confirmed by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The average particle diameter, size distribution, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential of them were measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS), and the morphology was evaluated by TEM and SEM technologies. Also, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) and drug loading content (DL%) of the nanocapsules were determined by UV-vis spectrophotometry. Studies of the in vitro release showed a continued drug release without any bursting effect of Mel+TTN-ACNs compared with single Mel/TTN-ACNs. Then, in both experiments, nuclear staining (Aceto-orcein and Hoechst 33342), fluorescent staining of H2DCFDA, chemiluminescence test, and qRT-PCR technique were performed as in vitro toxicity studies. The results of all these evaluations demonstrated that the dual delivery of Mel and TTN could accumulate a safety (without high-dose toxicity) synergistic anti-oxidative effect in oocyte/embryo by passive controlled, and inhibit intra/extracellular ROS levels by an enhanced intracellular penetration.

Co-encapsulation of tertinoin and resveratrol by solid lipid nanocarrier (SLN) improves mice in vitro matured oocyte/ morula-compact stage embryo development

As a promising strategy in overcoming drug resistance, the nano drug co-delivery system (NDCDS) can transport two or more drugs into the cell. In this study, we sought to compare the dual and single drug-delivery system, to deliver the optimal dose of Resveratrol (RES) and Tretinoin (TTN) into the in vitro matured oocyte and morula-compact stage embryonic cells. The formation of single (RES/TTN) and dual-drug (RES + TTN)-SLN were confirmed by Uv-vis spectrophotometery, dynamic light scattering (DLS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technologies. In two experiments, the oocytes/presumptive zygotes were cultured under various concentrations of the single (RES/TTN) and dual-drug (RES + TTN)-SLN. In vitro toxicity studies, including nuclear staining (Aceto-orcein and Hoechst 33342), H2DCFDA fluorescent staining, chemiluminescence assay, and quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (qRT-PCR) techniques, indicated an excellent oocyte/embryo internalization of RES and TTN. Moreover, when oocytes/embryos were treated with the lowest concentration of RES + TTN-SLN, antioxidants-related genes were upregulated, apoptotic-related genes were downregulated, and intra/extracellular ROS production was reduced. In vitro cytotoxicity studies also demonstrated that single/dual-encapsulation of RES or TTN were safe even at the highest concentration (10 and 5 μM) compared to the control group. To sum it up, both delivery systems of RES and TTN by SLN (dual or single encapsulation) can deliver the optimal dose of RES and TTN into the oocyte/embryo. Where the dual-delivery of RES and TTN even at the lowest concentration (0.25 μM + 0.1 μm) showed a synergistic anti-oxidative effect in oocyte/embryo with a better inhibition of intra/extra-cellular ROS production by an enhanced/controlled intracellular penetration.

Supplementation with Niacin during in vitro maturation improves the quality of porcine embryos

Niacin, also known as vitamin B3, has a pivotal role in energy metabolism, cellular signaling cascades regulating gene expression, and apoptosis. However, the effect of Niacin on porcine early embryo developmental competence remains to be elucidated. The present study aimed to assess the effects of Niacin treatment during in vitro maturation (IVM) on the nuclear maturation of porcine oocytes and subsequent development of in vitro embryos. In addition, the expression profiles of selected genes related to lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and apoptosis were assessed. The IVM medium was supplemented with different concentrations of Niacin (0, 300, 600, and 900 μM). The results showed that a high concentration of Niacin (900 μM) significantly decreased cumulus expansion compared to the other groups (p < 0.05). No significant difference was observed among the experimental groups for nuclear maturation rate. Niacin treatments (300, 600, and 900 μM) during IVM significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced glutathione levels. Treatment with 300 and 600 μM significantly (p < 0.05) lowered the reactive oxygen species levels compared to treatment with 900 μM and the control group. Niacin supplementation to the IVM media significantly improved the cleavage and blastocyst rates compared to the control group. Supplementation with 300 and 600 μM of Niacin significantly increased the total cell number of blastocysts compared to supplementation with 900 μM or the control groups. Cytoplasmic lipid droplets were significantly reduced after 600 μM treatment. Supplementation of Niacin to IVM media positively affected the relative expression of genes related to energy and oxidative status (SIRT1), pro-apoptosis (BAX), anti-apoptosis (BCL2), and lipid metabolism (ACACA and PNPLA2) in cumulus cells and oocytes. Taken together, Niacin supplementation to porcine IVM media improved the developmental competence of early embryos mainly through protection against oxidative stress and its influence on energy metabolism and apoptosis pathways.

Pig Cloning Using Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer

Porcine cloning technology can be used to produce progenies genetically identical to the donor cells from high-quality breeding pigs. In addition, genetically modified pigs have been produced by somatic cell nuclear transfer using genetically modified porcine fetal fibroblasts. The method of preparing genetically modified pigs is critical for establishing pig models for human diseases, and for generating donor animals for future xenotransplantation. This chapter describes detailed procedures for generating cloned pigs using fetal fibroblasts as nuclear donors.

Mitochondria: emerging therapeutic strategies for oocyte rescue

As the vital organelles for cell energy metabolism, mitochondria are essential for oocyte maturation, fertilization, and embryo development. Abnormalities in quantity, quality, and function of mitochondria are closely related to poor fertility and disorders, such as decreased ovarian reserve (DOR), premature ovarian aging (POA), and ovarian aging, as well as maternal mitochondrial genetic disease caused by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations or deletions. Mitochondria have begun to become a therapeutic target for infertility caused by factors such as poor oocyte quality, oocyte aging, and maternal mitochondrial genetic diseases. Mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) has attempted to use heterologous or autologous mitochondria to rebuild healthy state of oocyte by increasing the amount of mitochondria (e.g., partial ooplasm transfer, autologous mitochondrial transfer), or to stop the transmission of mtDNA diseases by replacing abnormal maternal mitochondria (e.g., pronuclei transfer, spindle transfer, polar body transfer). Among them, autologous mitochondrial transfer is the most promising therapeutic technology as of today which does not involve using a third party, but its clinical efficacy is controversial due to many factors such as the aging phenomenon of germ line cells, the authenticity of the existence of ovarian stem cells (OSC), and secondary damage caused by invasive surgery to patients with poor ovarian function. Therefore, the research of optimal autologous cell type that can be applied in autologous mitochondrial transfer is an area worthy of further exploration. Besides, the quality of germ cells can also be probably improved by the use of compounds that enhance mitochondrial activity (e.g., coenzyme Q10, resveratrol, melatonin), or by innovative gene editing technologies which have shown capability in reducing the risk of mtDNA diseases (e.g., CRISPR/Cas9, TALENTs). Though the current evidences from animal and clinical trials are not sufficient, and some solutions of technical problems are still needed, we believe this review will guide a new direction in the possible clinical applied mitochondrial-related therapeutic strategies in reproductive medicine.

Effect of antioxidants on preimplantation embryo development in vitro: a review

In vitro culture of the embryo is a useful method to treat infertility that shows embryo potential for selecting the best one to transfer and successfully implantation. However, embryo development in vitro is affected by oxidative stresses such as reactive oxygen species that may damage embryo development. Antioxidants are molecules found in fruits, vegetables, and fish that play an important role in reducing oxidative processes. In the natural environment, there is a physiological antioxidant system that protects embryos against oxidative damage. This antioxidant system does not exist in vitro. Antioxidants act as free radical scavengers and protect cells or repair damage done by free radicals. Various studies have shown that adding antioxidants into embryo culture medium improves embryo development in vitro. This review article emphasizes different aspects of various antioxidants, including types, functions and mechanisms, on the growth improvement of different species of embryos in vitro.

Failure to maintain full-term pregnancies in pig carrying klotho monoallelic knockout fetuses

Background

Small animals that show a deficiency in klotho exhibit extremely shortened life span with multiple aging-like phenotypes. However, limited information is available on the function of klotho in large animals such as pigs.

Results

In an attempt to produce klotho knockout pigs, an sgRNA specific for klotho (targeting exon 3) was designed and Cas9-sgRNA ribonucleoproteins were transfected into porcine fibroblasts. Transfected fibroblasts were cultured for one to 2 days and then directly used for nuclear transfer without selection. The cloned embryos were cultured in vitro for 7 days and analyzed to detect modifications of the klotho gene by both T7E1 and deep sequencing analysis. Modification succeeded in 13 of 20 blastocysts (65%), 8 of which (40.0%) were monoallelic modifications and 5 (25.0%) were biallelic modifications. Based on high mutation rates in blastocysts, we transferred the cloned embryos to 5 recipient pigs; 1 recipient was pregnant and 16 fetuses were recovered at Day 28 post transfer. Of the 16 fetuses, 9 were resorbing and 7 were viable. Four of 9 (44.4%) resorbing fetuses and 3 of the 7 (42.9%) viable fetuses had monoallelic modifications. Thus, 3 klotho monoallelic knockout cell lines were established by primary culture. A total of 2088 cloned embryos reconstructed with 2 frame-shifted cell lines were transferred to 11 synchronized recipients. Of the recipients, 7 of 11 eleven (63.6%) became pregnant. However, none of the pregnancies was maintained to term. To discover why klotho monoallelic knockout fetuses were aborted, expression of aging- and apoptosis-related genes and klotho protein in placentas from klotho monoallelic knockout and wild-type fetuses was investigated. Placentas from klotho monoallelic knockout fetuses showed negatively changed expression of aging- and apoptosis-related genes with lower relative expression of klotho protein. These results indicated that the reason why klotho monoallelic knockout fetuses were not maintained to term was possibly due to decreased klotho expression in placentas, negatively affecting aging- and apoptosis-related genes.

Conclusions

Klotho monoallelic knockout porcine fetal fibroblasts were successfully established. However, pigs carrying klotho monoallelic knockout fetuses failed to maintain full-term pregnancy and a decrease in klotho expression in placenta likely leads to pregnancy loss.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12896-020-00660-9.

Enhanced Cryoprotective Effect of Melatonin and Resveratrol by Coencapsulation: Improved In Vitro Development of Vitrified-Warmed Mouse Germinal Vesicle Oocytes

Oocyte vitrification, as a vital step in reproductive medicine, is strongly associated with lower development caused by cryodamaging factors, such as oxidative stress. In this study, we evaluated the antioxidative synergistic effects of Melatonin (Mel) and Resveratrol (RES) coencapsulated by solid lipid nanocarriers (SLNs) against the pure antioxidant combination (Mel+RES). In this research, the formation of Mel+RES-SLN was confirmed by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy. The average mean diameter, size distribution, polydispersity index, and zeta potential of particles were measured by Zetasizer, and the morphology was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. In addition, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%) or drug loading capacity (DL%) of the nanocapsule was determined by spectrophotometric methods. Germinal vesicle (GV)-stage oocytes harvested from 6- to 12-week-old female NMRI mice were randomly divided into seven groups for in vitro studies. In these groups, (0, 10^-12 M + 0.5 μM, 10^-9 M + 2 μM, or 10^-6 M + 10 μM) of Mel+RES/Mel+RES-SLN were added into vitrification media. After thawing, oocytes were matured, fertilized, and cultured for 3 days. Extra/intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured in in vitro maturation medium after 24 hours. Our results revealed a significant improvement in the normal morphology of warmed GV-stage oocytes, GV breakdown (GVBD) rate, Metaphase II (MII)-stage oocyte formation, fertilization rate, early embryo development, and a significant reduction in intra/extracellular ROS level when vitrification media was supplemented with the lowest Mel+RES-SLN concentration. In vitro studies also demonstrated that the highest concentration of Mel+RES-SLN was safe, without a detrimental effect on embryonic development upon treatment. In conclusion, the lowest concentration of Mel+RES-SLN supplementation in GV-stage oocyte vitrification media improved maturation, fertilization, and embryo development rate and decreased extra/intracellular ROS level through an enhanced/controlled intracellular penetration compared to the pure Mel+RES.

Procyanidin B1 promotes in vitro maturation of pig oocytes by reducing oxidative stress

Oxidative stress negatively affects the in vitro maturation (IVM) of oocytes. Procyanidin B1 (PB1) is a natural polyphenolic compound that has antioxidant properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of PB1 supplementation during IVM of porcine oocytes. Treatment with 100 μM PB1 significantly increased the MII oocytes rate (p <0.05), the parthenogenetic (PA) blastocyst rate (p <0.01) and the total cell number in the PA blastocyst (p < 0.01) which were cultured in regular in vitro culture (IVC) medium. The PA blastocyst rate of regular MII oocytes activated and cultured in IVC medium supplemented with 100 and 150 μM PB1 significantly increased compared with control (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05). We also evaluated the reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) levels, glutathione (GSH) levels, and apoptotic levels in MII oocytes and cumulus cells following 100 μM PB1 treatment. The results showed that the PB1 supplementation decreased ROS production and apoptotic levels. In addition, PB1 was found to increase Δψm levels and GSH levels. In conclusion, PB1 inhibited apoptosis of oocytes and cumulus cells by reducing oxidative stress. Moreover, PB1 improved the quality of oocytes and promoted PA embryo development. Taken together, our results suggest that PB1 is a promising antioxidant additive for IVM of oocytes.

Carnosic acid improves porcine early embryonic development by inhibiting the accumulation of reactive oxygen species

Carnosic acid (CA), a natural catechol rosin diterpene, is used as an additive in animal feeds and human foods. However, the effects of CA on mammalian reproductive processes, especially early embryonic development, are unclear. In this study, we added CA to parthenogenetically activated porcine embryos in an in vitro culture medium to explore the influence of CA on apoptosis, proliferation, blastocyst formation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, glutathione (GSH) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential, and embryonic development-related gene expression. The results showed that supplementation with 10 μM CA during in vitro culture significantly improved the cleavage rates, blastocyst formation rates, hatching rates, and total numbers of cells of parthenogenetically activated porcine embryos compared with no supplementation. More importantly, supplementation with CA also improved GSH levels and mitochondrial membrane potential, reduced natural ROS levels in blastomeres, upregulated Nanog, Sox2, Gata4, Cox2, Itga5, and Rictor expression, and downregulated Birc5 and Caspase3 expression. These results suggest that CA can improve early porcine embryonic development by regulating oxidative stress. This study elucidates the effects of CA on early embryonic development and their potential mechanisms, and provides new applications for improving the quality of in vitro-developed embryos.

The Role of Resveratrol in Mammalian Reproduction

Resveratrol is one of the most investigated natural polyphenolic compounds and is contained in more than 70 types of plants and in red wine. The widespread interest in this polyphenol derives from its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-aging properties. Several studies have established that resveratrol regulates animal reproduction. However, the mechanisms of action and the potential therapeutic effects are still unclear. This review aims to clarify the role of resveratrol in male and female reproductive functions, with a focus on animals of veterinary interest. In females, resveratrol has been considered as a phytoestrogen due to its capacity to modulate ovarian function and steroidogenesis via sirtuins, SIRT1 in particular. Resveratrol has also been used to enhance aged oocyte quality and as a gametes cryo-protectant with mainly antioxidant and anti-apoptotic effects. In males, resveratrol enhances testes function and spermatogenesis through activation of the AMPK pathway. Furthermore, resveratrol has been supplemented to semen extenders, improving the preservation of sperm quality. In conclusion, resveratrol has potentially beneficial effects for ameliorating ovarian and testes function.

Simultaneous determination of melatonin and trans-resveratrol in wine by dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by HPLC-FLD

The discovery of melatonin (Mel) in wines triggered a new interest in the paradigm of health benefits and wine consumption, usually ascribed to trans-resveratrol (trans-RSV). In this context, a dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the analysis of Mel and trans-RSV in wines by LC-FLD was developed. A 2^6-1 factorial design was used to identify the significant variables (p < 0.05) and Central Composite Design was used to achieve the optimal conditions: 300 µL of chloroform (extracting solvent), 1500 µL of acetonitrile (disperser solvent) and 1500 mg of NaCl (ionic strength). Excellent linearity (R² > 0.9999), repeatability (<3.55%), and accuracy (<7.18%) were obtained using a blank matrix and recoveries (>91.9%) using wines. The method was successfully applied to the analyses of Mel (0.63-7.44 ng mL^-1) and trans-RSV (169-2616 ng mL^-1) in different wine varieties. Comparison with literature point the overall advantages of the new method.

In vitro Production of Porcine Embryos: Current Status and Possibilities – A Review

This paper presents the current possibilities, state of knowledge and prospects of in vitro production (IVP) of pig embryos, which consists of in vitro oocyte maturation, in vitro fertilization and in vitro embryo culture. In pigs, oocyte maturation is one of the most important stages in the embryo IVP process. It determines the oocyte’s fertilization ability as well as its embryonic development. Through many research studies of the proper selection of oocytes and appropriate maturation medium composition (especially the addition of various supplements), the in vitro maturation of pig oocytes has been significantly improved. Recent studies have demonstrated that modifications of the diluents and in vitro fertilization media can reduce polyspermy. Furthermore, several adjustments of the porcine culture media with the addition of some supplements have enhanced the embryo quality and developmental competence. These updates show the progress of IVP in pigs that has been achieved; however, many problems remain unsolved.

DNA damage and repair in the female germline: contributions to ART

BACKGROUND

DNA integrity and stability are critical determinants of cell viability. This is especially true in the female germline, wherein DNA integrity underpins successful conception, embryonic development, pregnancy and the production of healthy offspring. However, DNA is not inert; rather, it is subject to assault from various environment factors resulting in chemical modification and/or strand breakage. If structural alterations result and are left unrepaired, they have the potential to cause mutations and propagate disease. In this regard, reduced genetic integrity of the female germline ranks among the leading causes of subfertility in humans. With an estimated 10% of couples in developed countries taking recourse to ART to achieve pregnancy, the need for ongoing research into the capacity of the oocyte to detect DNA damage and thereafter initiate cell cycle arrest, apoptosis or DNA repair is increasingly more pressing.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

This review documents our current knowledge of the quality control mechanisms utilised by the female germline to prevent and remediate DNA damage during their development from primordial follicles through to the formation of preimplantation embryos.

SEARCH METHODS

The PubMed database was searched using the keywords: primordial follicle, primary follicle, secondary follicle, tertiary follicle, germinal vesical, MI, MII oocyte, zygote, preimplantation embryo, DNA repair, double-strand break and DNA damage. These keywords were combined with other phrases relevant to the topic. Literature was restricted to peer-reviewed original articles in the English language (published 1979-2018) and references within these articles were also searched.

OUTCOMES

In this review, we explore the quality control mechanisms utilised by the female germline to prevent, detect and remediate DNA damage. We follow the trajectory of development from the primordial follicle stage through to the preimplantation embryo, highlighting findings likely to have important implications for fertility management, age-related subfertility and premature ovarian failure. In addition, we survey the latest discoveries regarding DNA repair within the metaphase II (MII) oocyte and implicate maternal stores of endogenous DNA repair proteins and mRNA transcripts as a primary means by which they defend their genomic integrity. The collective evidence reviewed herein demonstrates that the MII oocyte can engage in the activation of major DNA damage repair pathway(s), therefore encouraging a reappraisal of the long-held paradigm that oocytes are largely refractory to DNA repair upon reaching this late stage of their development. It is also demonstrated that the zygote can exploit a number of protective strategies to mitigate the risk and/or effect the repair, of DNA damage sustained to either parental germline; affirming that DNA protection is largely a maternally driven trait but that some aspects of repair may rely on a collaborative effort between the male and female germlines.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

The present review highlights the vulnerability of the oocyte to DNA damage and presents a number of opportunities for research to bolster the stringency of the oocyte's endogenous defences, with implications extending to improved diagnostics and novel therapeutic applications to alleviate the burden of infertility.

Effect of Melatonin on the In Vitro Maturation of Porcine Oocytes, Development of Parthenogenetically Activated Embryos, and Expression of Genes Related to the Oocyte Developmental Capability

Simple Summary

Exogenous melatonin has beneficial effects on improving cumulus oophorus expansion; mitochondrial distribution; intracellular level of glutathione; and first polar body extrusion rate of porcine oocytes derived from in vitro maturation. Moreover; melatonin supplementation increases relative abundances of BMP15 and CAT mRNA; and decreases intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species; and expression values of P53 and BAX genes; which are related to in vitro development of porcine oocytes.

Abstract

Melatonin treatment can improve quality and in vitro development of porcine oocytes, but the mechanism of improving quality and developmental competence is not fully understood. In this study, porcine cumulus–oocyte complexes were cultured in TCM199 medium with non-treated (control), 10⁻⁵ M luzindole (melatonin receptor antagonist), 10⁻⁵ M melatonin, and melatonin + luzindole during in vitro maturation, and parthenogenetically activated (PA) embryos were treated with nothing (control), or 10⁻⁵ M melatonin. Cumulus oophorus expansion, oocyte survival rate, first polar body extrusion rate, mitochondrial distribution, and intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione of oocytes, and cleavage rate and blastocyst rate of the PA embryos were assessed. In addition, expression of growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9), tumor protein p53 (P53), BCL2 associated X protein (BAX), catalase (CAT), and bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15) were analyzed by real-time quantitative PCR. The results revealed that melatonin treatment not only improved the first polar body extrusion rate and cumulus expansion of oocytes via melatonin receptors, but also enhanced the rates of cleavage and blastocyst formation of PA embryos. Additionally, melatonin treatment significantly increased intraooplasmic level of glutathione independently of melatonin receptors. Furthermore, melatonin supplementation not only significantly enhanced mitochondrial distribution and relative abundances of BMP15 and CAT mRNA, but also decreased intracellular level of ROS and relative abundances of P53 and BAX mRNA of the oocytes. In conclusion, melatonin enhanced the quality and in vitro development of porcine oocytes, which may be related to antioxidant and anti-apoptotic mechanisms.

Resveratrol addition to in vitro maturation and in vitro culture media enhances developmental competence of sheep embryos

The present study aimed to examine the effects of adding different concentrations of resveratrol during in vitro culture (IVC) alone and during both in vitro maturation (IVM) and IVC on ovine blastocyst yield and quality. Therefore, this study was conducted in two separate experiments. The first experiment was carried out to test the effect of different concentrations of resveratrol (0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 2.0, and 5.0 μM) in the IVC medium on cleavage, morula, developmental potential of blastocyst, and total cell number (TCN) of the embryos. Addition of 0.25 and 0.5 μM of resveratrol during IVC significantly enhanced morula and blastocyst rates as compared with other groups (P < 0.05). Also, supplementation of the IVC medium with 0.5 μM of resveratrol had beneficial effects on trophectoderm cells (TE), inner cell mass (ICM), and TCN of blastocysts. In the second experiment, the same concentrations of resveratrol (0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 2.0, and 5.0 μM) were applied during IVM and IVC. Therefore, oocytes were matured in vitro in the presence of different concentrations of resveratrol for 22-24 h. After in vitro fertilization, presumptive zygotes were cultured in media containing 0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 2.0, and 5.0 μM of resveratrol for 8 d. No significant difference was found in the percentage of oocytes developed to MII (0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, and 2.0 μM of resveratrol), but the percentage of oocytes developed to MII were significantly lower in 5.0 μM of resveratrol in comparison with other groups. Addition of 0.5 μM of resveratrol to the maturation and culture media significantly increased morula and blastocyst rates compared with other groups (P < 0.05). However, a too high concentration of resveratrol (5.0 μM) during IVM and IVC decreased cleavage, morula, and blastocyst rates compared with low concentrations (P < 0.05). Treatment with 0.5/0.5 μM of resveratrol during IVM/IVC significantly improved the TE, ICM, and TCN of blastocysts. In conclusion, sequential treatment with 0.5 μM of resveratrol during IVM and IVC and during IVC alone improved the developmental competence of oocytes, which was reflected in higher blastocyst rates and TCN of blastocysts.

Enhancement of epigenetic reprogramming status of porcine cloned embryos with zebularine, a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor

Aberrant epigenetic reprogramming is known to be a major cause of inefficient somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) in pigs, and use of epigenetic modification agents, such as DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (DNMTis), is a promising approach for enhancing SCNT efficacy. Here, we attempted to find the optimal condition of zebularine (Zb), a DNMTi, treatment on porcine SCNT embryos during in vitro culture (IVC). As results, treatment with 5 nM Zb for 24 hr showed the highest rate of embryo development to blastocyst compared to other groups (p < .05). Also, the relative intensities of global DNA methylation levels of anti-5-methylcytosine in pseudo-pronuclear (PNC), 2-cell and 4-cell stages were significantly lower in the Zb-treated group (p < .05), however, changes in methylation levels of centromeric satellite repeat were noted only in PNC and blastocyst stages. In addition, significant positive alterations in the relative expression of genes related to pluripotency (OCT4 and SOX2), histone acetylation (HAT1, HDAC1, HDAC2, and HDAC3) and DNA methylation (DNMT1 and DNMT3a) were observed compared to the control (p < .05). In conclusion, we found that Zb could modify DNA methylation levels in the early stages of porcine SCNT embryos and promote their developmental competence.