Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) oil processing and selected products

Linseed Oil-Based Oleogel Vehicles for Hydrophobic Drug Delivery-Physicochemical and Applicative Properties

In this study, a methodology for synthesizing oleogels based on linseed oil and emulsifiers, such as beeswax and Tween 20 and Tween 80, was developed. Linseed oil served as the main oil phase, while beeswax acted as a gelling and emulsifying agent. Tween compounds are non-ionic surfactants composed of hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts, allowing for the formation of a stable system with promising properties. Surface wetting analysis of the obtained oleogels, FT-IR spectroscopy, and determination of relative and absolute humidity over time, as well as optical microscope analysis and rheological analysis of the obtained oleogels, were conducted as part of the research. The results indicate that increasing the amount of Tween 20 decreases the hydrophilicity of the oleogel, while Tween 80 exhibits the opposite effect. Surface energy analysis suggests that a higher content of Tween 20 may lead to a reduction in the surface energy of the oleogels, which may indicate greater material stability. Changes in relative humidity and FT-IR spectral analysis confirm the influence of emulsifiers on the presence of characteristic functional groups in the structure of the oleogels. Additionally, microscopic analysis suggests that an emulsifier with a longer hydrophobic tail leads to a denser material structure.

Research note: Nutritive value of cold-pressed flaxseed meal for broiler chicken

A study was conducted to evaluate standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and N-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn) values of cold pressed flaxseed meal (CPFM) for broilers. One hundred and twenty broiler chicks were divided into 20 groups of 6 birds/group and fed 2 diets in a completely randomized design (10 groups/diet) from 14 to 21 d of age. The diets were cornstarch-based containing CPFM or conventional soybean meal (SBM; reference feedstuff) as the sole protein source. A N-free diet fed in another study conducted in the same facility and at the same time that the current study was conducted was used to estimate basal endogenous AA losses, and to calculate gross energy retention by difference method. The CPFM had greater neutral detergent fiber and ether extract contents (21.40 vs. 8.18% and 20.4 vs. 2.47% as is, respectively), but lower CP (20.47 vs. 48.28% as is) than SBM. The SID values of all indispensable AA (except for Leu, Phe and Trp) for CPFM were lower (P < 0.05) than those for SBM. The apparent retention of gross energy (65.95 vs. 44.24%) and N (55.53 vs. 9.79%), and AMEn (2,699 vs. 2,491 kcal/kg) for CPFM were lower (P < 0.05) than those for SBM. In conclusion, CPFM can serve as alternative oilseed co-product feedstuff for poultry. However, the CPFM has lower SID of AA and AMEn values than SBM likely due to the greater fiber content in the former than in the latter.

Unveiling the potential of linseed mucilage, its health benefits, and applications in food packaging

Industrial waste products derived from the oil industry often contain valuable substances and elements with great potential. These by-products can be used for various purposes, including as nutrients, bioactive compounds, fuels, and polymers. Linseed mucilage (LM) is one such example of a beneficial by-product obtained from linseed. It possesses favorable chemical and functional properties, depending on its method of extraction. Different pretreatments, such as enzymatic extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pulse electric field, and ultrasound-assisted extraction, have been explored by various researchers to enhance both the yield and quality of mucilage. Furthermore, LM has exhibited therapeutic effects in the treatment of obesity, diabetes, constipation, hyperlipidemia, cancer, and other lifestyle diseases. Additionally, it demonstrates favorable functional characteristics that make it suitable to be used in bioplastic production. These properties preserve food quality, prolong shelf life, and confer antimicrobial activity. It also has the potential to be used as a packaging material, especially considering the increasing demand for sustainable and biodegradable alternatives to plastics because of their detrimental impact on environmental health. This review primarily focuses on different extraction techniques used for linseed mucilage, its mechanism of action in terms of health benefits, and potential applications in food packaging.

Effects of different extraction methods on volatile profiles of flaxseed oils

To investigate the effects of different extraction methods on volatile compounds in flaxseed oil (FSO), we first carried out solvent extraction, cold pressing, and hot pressing treatments of flaxseed [Linum usitatissimum (L.)], then applied the headspace-gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry technology to identify the volatile substance compositions, and established flavor fingerprints of solvent-extracted FSO, cold-pressed FSO, and hot-pressed FSO. In total, 81 volatile compounds were detected, including 27 aldehydes, 14 alcohols, 13 ketones, 9 heterocycles, 8 esters, 5 acids, 4 hydrocarbons, and 1 sulfur compound (dimethyl disulfide). Extraction methods had a great influence on the volatile profile of FSO. Solvent-extracted FSO had more sweet, mild, floral, and sour volatile profiles, cold-pressed FSO had stronger volatile profiles of winey, spicy, and fatty, and hot-pressed FSO had green, grass, and plastic volatile profiles. Principal component analysis and Euclidean distance demonstrated that the volatile compounds of three FSO samples could be clearly distinguished. Of note, the cold-pressed FSO and hot-pressed FSO had similar volatile profiles, and they were different from solvent-extracted FSO. This study could provide some guidance for improving the flavor quality of FSO and selecting the proper extraction method for FSO productions. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Practical Application: This study shows extraction methods significantly affect the formation of aroma characteristics in flaxseed oil (FSO), and it provides theoretical guidance for production to use the appropriate extraction methods for high-quality FSO.

Trends and advances in pre- and post-harvest processing of linseed oil for quality food and health products

Linseed is an ancient crop used for diverse purposes since the beginning of civilization. In recent times, linseed has emerged as a superfood due to its high content of health-promoting omega-3 fatty acids and other bioactive compounds. Among primary health effects, it has potential to manage hypertension, diabetes, osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, cancer, arthritis, neurological, cardiovascular diseases including blood cholesterol levels, constipation, diarrhea, and autoimmune disorders etc. due to the presence of omega-3 fatty acid, lignans, high dietary fibers, and proteins, whereas, secondary health effects comprise of relieving from various skin disorders. Due to these health-beneficial properties, interest in linseed oil necessitates the intensification of research efforts on various aspects. These include cultivation technology, varietal and genetic improvement, post-harvest processing, profiling of nutrients and bioactive compounds, pre-clinical and clinical studies, etc. The present review discussed the advances in linseed research including pre- and post-harvest processing. However, focus on the bioactive compounds present in linseed oil and their health effects are also presented. Linseed cultivation, pre- and post-harvest processing aspects are covered including climatic, edaphic, agronomic factors, type of cultivar and storage conditions etc, which impact the overall oil yield and its nutritional quality. Various emerging applications of linseed oil in functional food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, and cosmeceutical preparations were also presented in detail. Further, recommendations were made on linseed oil research in the field of genetics, breeding germplasm resources and genome editing for exploring its full applications as a nutrition and health product.

The Effect of Ethyl Esters of Linseed Oil on the Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Hair Coat Sebum, Blood Serum and Erythrocyte Membranes in Healthy Dogs

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of supplementation with ethyl esters of linseed oil on the fatty acid profile in hair sebum, blood serum and erythrocyte membranes in healthy dogs. The material for the study included hair and blood samples of adult beagle dogs. The experiment was performed in two periods: summer and winter. Each time it lasted 16 weeks. During the first 8 weeks, the dogs received a supplement, the amount of which was determined individually so that the ratio of α-linolenic acid (ALA) to linoleic acid (LA) together in the feed and supplement was 1:1. Hair coat and blood samples were collected on days 0, 56 and 112; i.e., before the start of supplementation, after 8 weeks of supplementation and 8 weeks after supplementation was completed. The study included a determination of the fatty acid profile with a particular emphasis on polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in hair sebum, blood serum and erythrocyte membranes. As a result of supplementation, a significant decrease in saturated acids and an increase in unsaturated acids was observed in hair sebum both in summer and winter and especially in omega-3 fatty acids; i.e., α-linolenic (ALA) and its derivatives eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The same relationships were observed in blood serum and in erythrocyte cell membranes in all the studied periods. Additionally, 8 weeks after the end of supplementation, the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids was still higher compared to the period before supplementation. Moreover, the supplementation resulted in a favorable decrease in the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 acids in the tested samples, which persisted even after the withdrawal period.

Formulation and evaluation of a novel herbal trio gel containing flax seed extract, carbopol and carboxymethyl cellulose

It is of interest to formulate and evaluate herbal trio gel containing brown flax seed extract, carbopol, and carboxymethyl cellulose and to assess the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activity along with quality analysis using SEM and FTIR. The brown flax seeds were grinded into a fine powder and supercritical fluid was prepared which was mixed with CMC and carbopol. The formulation was checked for antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory activity, surface characteristics with SEM and FTIR. The results revealed that the activity of the trio gel was efficacious in hampering the growth of black pigmented anaerobes. The highest zone of inhibition for novel herbal trio gel was recorded at 100 µL measuring 14mm and for the standard chlorhexidine gel it was recorded at 100 µL measuring 23mm in diameter. The results proved that the zone of inhibition of novel herbal trio gel had a decent difference to that of standard chlorhexidine gel. The anti-inflammatory activity showed significant activity at 20 µL which accounted for 53% for the novel herbal trio gel and for the standard diclofenac gel it showed highest activity at 20 µL which accounted for 60%. However, there was not much difference between the herbal trio gel and standard diclofenac gel. SEM observations revealed that the components used in formulation of this trio gel have been bonded well to each other and exhibited appreciable surface characteristics. The lattice of the trio gel has been very well exhibited in SEM analysis. FTIR revealed high peaks showing the different components present in the trio gel. Within the limitations of the study, the results of our study concluded that novel herbal trio gel containing Linum usitatissimum extract, sorbitol, and carboxymethyl cellulose could be an efficient economic primeval substitute that is non-toxic, natural, and structured for clinical application.

Effect of fat replacement by flaxseed flour on the quality parameters of pork meatballs

To improve the edible qualities of meatballs, various percentages of pork fat in meatballs were replaced by brown flaxseed flour (BFF) to decrease the fat contents and further optimize the fatty acid compositions. Five different meatball formulations that used 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% of flaxseed flour additions were used in which the corresponding amounts pork fat were replaced. The proximate compositions, water activity, pH levels, colors, textures, cooking losses, fatty acid compositions, sensory properties, flavors, and oxidation stabilities of these meatballs were analyzed. Increasing the BFF addition amounts improved the protein and dietary fiber contents, pH levels, fatty acid profiles and oxidation stabilities, but decreased the fat contents, moisture levels, cooking losses, n6/n3 ratios, hardness, and lightness. The volatile flavors of meatballs with different BFF replacement levels were significantly different. According to the sensory evaluation, the use of 5% BFF increased the odor of meatballs without significantly affecting the other sensory scores. This work demonstrated that BFF may be a healthier alternative as pork fat replacer for preparing meatballs.

New research development on trans fatty acids in food: Biological effects, analytical methods, formation mechanism, and mitigating measures

The trans fatty acids (TFAs) in food are mainly generated from the ruminant animals (meat and milk) and processed oil or oil products. Excessive intake of TFAs (>1% of total energy intake) caused more than 500,000 deaths from coronary heart disease and increased heart disease risk by 21% and mortality by 28% around the world annually, which will be eliminated in industrially-produced trans fat from the global food supply by 2023. Herein, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the biological effects, analytical methods, formation and mitigation measures of TFAs in food. Especially, the research progress on the rapid, easy-to-use, and newly validated analytical methods, new formation mechanism, kinetics, possible mitigation mechanism, and new or improved mitigation measures are highlighted. We also offer perspectives on the challenges, opportunities, and new directions for future development, which will contribute to the advances in TFAs research.

A review of flaxseed lignan and the extraction and refinement of secoisolariciresinol diglucoside

Lignan is a class of diphenolic compounds that arise from the condensation of two phenylpropanoid moieties. Oilseed and cereal crops (e.g., flaxseed, sesame seed, wheat, barley, oats, rye, etc.) are major sources of plant lignan. Methods for commercial isolation of the lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) are not well reported, as most publications describing the detection, extraction, and enrichment of SDG use methods that have not been optimized for commercial scale lignan recovery. Simply scaling up laboratory methods would require expensive infrastructure to achieve a marketable yield and reproducible product quality. Therefore, establishing standard protocols to produce SDG and its derivatives on an industrial scale is critical to decrease lignan cost and increase market opportunities. This review summarizes the human health benefits of flaxseed lignan consumption, lignan physicochemical properties, and mammalian lignan metabolism, and describes methods for detecting, extracting, and enriching flaxseed lignan. Refining and optimization of these methods could lead to the development of inexpensive lignan sources for application as an ingredient in medicines, dietary supplements, and other healthy ingredients.

Characterization of the Oxylipin Pattern and Other Fatty Acid Oxidation Products in Freshly Pressed and Stored Plant Oils

Enzymatic and nonenzymatic oxidation of linoleic (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) during pressing and storage of plant oils leads to a variety of oxylipins. We pressed oils from flaxseeds, rapeseeds, and sunflower seeds and analyzed the oxylipin pattern in freshly pressed oils. 9-/13-Hydro(pero)xy-LA/-ALA occurred in high concentration resulting probably from lipoxygenase-catalyzed reactions as well as autoxidation and photooxidation. However, in flaxseed and rapeseed oil, the highest concentrations were found for the terminal epoxy-ALA (15(16)-EpODE) and the hardly known 15-hydroxy-LA (15-HODE, 80 mg/100 g in flaxseed oil). Oils were stored for 6 months and the peroxide value (PV) as well as oxylipin and secondary volatile aldehyde concentrations were determined. While lipid peroxidation in flaxseed oil was surprisingly low, the oxylipin concentration and PV massively increased in rapeseed oil dependent on oxygen availability. Oxylipin concentrations correlated well with the PV, while secondary volatile aldehydes did not reflect the changes of oxylipins and PVs. The comprehensive analysis of hydroxy-, epoxy-, and dihydroxy-LA/-ALA reveals new and unique insights into the composition of plant oils and ongoing oxidation processes.

Health benefits of flaxseed and its peptides (linusorbs)

Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) has been associated with numerous health benefits. The flax plant synthesizes an array of biologically active compounds including peptides or linusorbs (LOs, a.k.a., cyclolinopeptides), lignans, soluble dietary fiber and omega-3 fatty acids. The LOs arise from post-translational modification of four or more ribosome-derived precursors. These compounds exhibit an array of biological activities, including suppression of T-cell proliferation, excessive inflammation, and osteoclast replication as well as induction of apoptosis in some cancer cell lines. The mechanisms of LO action are only now being elucidated but these compounds might interact with other active compounds in flaxseed and contribute to biological activity attributed to other flax compounds. This review focuses on both the biological interaction of LOs with proteins and other molecules and comprehensive knowledge of LO pharmacological and biological properties. The physicochemical and nutraceutical properties of LOs, as well as the biological effects of certain LOs, and their underlying mechanisms of action, are reviewed. Finally, strategies for producing LOs by either peptide synthesis or recombinant organisms are presented. This review will be the first to describe LOs as a versatile scaffold for the action of compounds to deliver physiochemically/biologically active molecules for developing novel nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals.

Integrated omics approaches for flax improvement under abiotic and biotic stress: Current status and future prospects

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) or linseed is one of the important industrial crops grown all over the world for seed oil and fiber. Besides oil and fiber, flax offers a wide range of nutritional and therapeutic applications as a feed and food source owing to high amount of α-linolenic acid (omega-3 fatty acid), lignans, protein, minerals, and vitamins. Periodic losses caused by unpredictable environmental stresses such as drought, heat, salinity-alkalinity, and diseases pose a threat to meet the rising market demand. Furthermore, these abiotic and biotic stressors have a negative impact on biological diversity and quality of oil/fiber. Therefore, understanding the interaction of genetic and environmental factors in stress tolerance mechanism and identification of underlying genes for economically important traits is critical for flax improvement and sustainability. In recent technological era, numerous omics techniques such as genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, phenomics, and ionomics have evolved. The advancements in sequencing technologies accelerated development of genomic resources which facilitated finer genetic mapping, quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and genomic selection in major cereal and oilseed crops including flax. Extensive studies in the area of genomics and transcriptomics have been conducted post flax genome sequencing. Interestingly, research has been focused more for abiotic stresses tolerance compared to disease resistance in flax through transcriptomics, while the other areas of omics such as metabolomics, proteomics, ionomics, and phenomics are in the initial stages in flax and several key questions remain unanswered. Little has been explored in the integration of omic-scale data to explain complex genetic, physiological and biochemical basis of stress tolerance in flax. In this review, the current status of various omics approaches for elucidation of molecular pathways underlying abiotic and biotic stress tolerance in flax have been presented and the importance of integrated omics technologies in future research and breeding have been emphasized to ensure sustainable yield in challenging environments.

Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Behavior of Bioactive Compounds of Miracle Oilseeds: An Overview

India plays an important role in the production of oilseeds, which are mainly cultivated for future extraction of their oil. In addition to the energic and nutritional contribution of these seeds, oilseeds are rich sources of bioactive compounds (e.g., phenolic compounds, proteins, minerals). A regular and moderate dietary supplementation of oilseeds promotes health, prevents the appearance of certain diseases (e.g., cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), cancers) and delays the aging process. Due to their relevant content in nutraceutical molecules, oilseeds and some of their associated processing wastes have raised interest in food and pharmaceutical industries searching for innovative products whose application provides health benefits to consumers. Furthermore, a circular economy approach could be considered regarding the re-use of oilseeds’ processing waste. The present article highlights the different oilseed types, the oilseeds-derived bioactive compounds as well as the health benefits associated with their consumption. In addition, the different types of extractive techniques that can be used to obtain vegetable oils rich from oilseeds, such as microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), are reported. We conclude that the development and improvement of oilseed markets and their byproducts could offer even more health benefits in the future, when added to other foods.

Microencapsulation of Flaxseed Oil by Lentil Protein Isolate-κ-Carrageenan and -ι-Carrageenan Based Wall Materials through Spray and Freeze Drying

Lentil protein isolate (LPI)-κ-carrageenan (κ-C) and -ι-carrageenan (ι-C) based microcapsules were prepared through spray-drying and freeze-drying to encapsulate flaxseed oil in order to reach final oil levels of 20% and 30%. Characteristics of the corresponding emulsions and their dried microcapsules were determined. For emulsion properties, all LPI-κ-C and LPI-ι-C emulsions remained 100% stable after 48 h, while the LPI emulsions destabilized quickly (p < 0.05) after homogenization mainly due to low emulsion viscosity. For spray-dried microcapsules, the highest yield was attributed to LPI-ι-C with 20% oil, followed by LPI-κ-C 20% and LPI-ι-C 30% (p < 0.05). Flaxseed oil was oxidized more significantly among the spray-dried capsules compared to untreated oil (p < 0.05) due to the effect of heat. Flaxseed oil was more stable in all the freeze-dried capsules and showed significantly lower oil oxidation than the untreated oil after 8 weeks of storage (p < 0.05). As for in vitro oil release profile, a higher amount of oil was released for LPI-κ-C powders under simulated gastric fluid (SGF), while more oil was released for LPI-ι-C powders under simulated gastric fluid and simulated intestinal fluid (SGF + SIF) regardless of drying method and oil content. This study enhanced the emulsion stability by applying carrageenan to LPI and showed the potential to make plant-based microcapsules to deliver omega-3 oils.

Bio-Refinery of Oilseeds: Oil Extraction, Secondary Metabolites Separation towards Protein Meal Valorisation—A Review

Edible oil extraction is a large and well-developed sector based on solvent assisted extraction using volatile organic compounds such as hexane. The extraction of oil from oilseeds generates large volumes of oilseed by-products rich in proteins, fibres, minerals and secondary metabolites that can be valued. This work reviews the current status and the bio-macro-composition of oilseeds, namely soybean, rapeseed, sunflower and flaxseed, and the refining process, comprising the extraction of oil, the valorisation and separation of valuable secondary metabolites such as phenolic compounds, and the removal of anti-nutritional factors such as glucosinolates, while retaining the protein in the oilseed meal. It also provides an overview of alternative solvents and some of the unconventional processes used as a replacement to the conventional extraction of edible oil, as well as the solvents used for the extraction of secondary metabolites and anti-nutritional factors. These biologically active compounds, including oils, are primordial raw materials for several industries such as food, pharmaceutical or cosmetics.

A comprehensive review on recent novel food and industrial applications of flaxseed: 2014 onwards

Flaxseed or linseed is an oilseed obtained from a plant, known as the flax (Linum usitatissimum). It is a valuable source of various bioactive components such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, lignans, dietary fibres and phytochemicals. The in-vivo, in-vitro studies and research on human subjects and in animal models, conducted throughout the globe, on health benefits associated with the consumption of various forms of flaxseed are discussed in this review. It provides an insight into recent developments and potential applications of flaxseeds in the form of whole seeds, meals, flour or oil in an array of food and feed products and non-food industrial applications. The details about novel health benefits associated with flaxseeds and information related to commercially available flaxseed-based i.e. enriched products are also the salient feature of the review. Here, we have provided the state of the art of most recent comprehensive information post the first detailed review on flaxseed as a modern food released in 2014.

Influence of dry air and infrared pre-treatments on oxidative stability, Maillard reaction products and other chemical properties of linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) oil

In this study, the influence of dry air and infrared pre-treatments on linseed oil (LO) yield, chemical properties, colour, pigment content, total phenolic content (TPC), Maillard reaction products (MRPs), fatty acid composition (FAC), radical scavenging activity (RSA), and oxidative stability index (OSI) were investigated. An increase in dry air and infrared roasting temperature had increased the LO yield, pigment content, a* value, TPC, RSA, OSI, and browning index (BI) while lowered the L* and b* values of LO. Higher OSI (2.24 h), chlorophylls (2.29 mg/kg), carotenoids (3.87 mg/kg), TPC (63.67 mg GAE/100 g), RSA (62.53%), BI (0.330), and MRPs (2.10 mg/kg) were detected in LO by dry air roasting at 180°C for 10 min. Dry air and infrared roasting had slightly affected the FAC of LO. Both dry air and infrared pre-treatments had influenced the LO quality characteristics. However, dry air roasting of linseed at 180°C for 10 min proved more effective in improving oxidative stability, antioxidant activity and other quality characteristics of LO.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version of this article at 10.1007/s13197-021-05023-6.

A comprehensive review on recent novel food and industrial applications of flaxseed: 2014 onwards

Flaxseed or linseed is an oilseed obtained from a plant, known as the flax (Linum usitatissimum). It is a valuable source of various bioactive components such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, lignans, dietary fibres and phytochemicals. The in-vivo, in-vitro studies and research on human subjects and in animal models, conducted throughout the globe, on health benefits associated with the consumption of various forms of flaxseed are discussed in this review. It provides an insight into recent developments and potential applications of flaxseeds in the form of whole seeds, meals, flour or oil in an array of food and feed products and non-food industrial applications. The details about novel health benefits associated with flaxseeds and information related to commercially available flaxseed-based i.e. enriched products are also the salient feature of the review. Here, we have provided the state of the art of most recent comprehensive information post the first detailed review on flaxseed as a modern food released in 2014.

Structure conformation, physicochemical and rheological properties of flaxseed gums extracted under alkaline and acidic conditions

The present work aimed at investigating an extraction protocol based on consecutive steps of isoelectric point (pH ~ 4.25) mediated gum swelling and deproteinisation as an alternative method to produce flaxseed gum extracts of enhanced techno-functional characteristics. The osidic and proximate composition, structure conformation, flow behaviour, dynamic rheological and thermal properties of gums isolated from brown and golden flaxseeds were assessed. Gum extraction under near-to-isoelectric point conditions did not impair the extraction yield, residual protein and ash content, whilst it resulted in minor changes in the sugar composition of the flaxseed gum extracts. The deconvolution of the GPC/SEC chromatographs revealed the presence of four major polysaccharidic populations corresponding to arabinoxylans, rhamnogalacturonan-I and two AX-RG-I composite fractions. The latter appeared to minimise the intra- and interchain polymer non-covalent interactions (hydrogen bonding) leading to a better solvation affinity in water and lyotropic solvents. Golden flaxseed gums exerted higher molecular weight (M_w = 1.34-1.15 × 10⁶ Da) and intrinsic viscosities (6.63-5.13 dL g^-1) as well as better thickening and viscoelastic performance than the brown flaxseed gum exemplars. Golden flaxseed gums exhibited a better thermal stability compared to the brown flaxseed counterparts and therefore, they are suitable for product applications involving severe heat treatments.

Bioactive components from Moringa oleifera seeds: production, functionalities and applications - a critical review

A readily distinguishable and indigenous member of the plant kingdom in the Indian subcontinent is the 'drumstick tree', i.e. Moringa oleifera Lam. In addition to India, this drought-tolerant and rapidly evolving tree is currently extensively disseminated across the globe, including subtropical and tropical areas. The plant boasts a high nutritional, nutraceutical and therapeutic profile, mainly attributing to its significant repertoire of the biologically active components in different parts: protein, flavonoids, saponins, phenolic acids, tannin, isothiocyanate, lipids, minerals, vitamins, amongst others. M. oleifera seeds have been shown to elicit a myriad of pharmacological potential and health benefits, including: antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. Additionally, the seed cakes obtained from post-extraction process are utilized for: coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation purposes, benefiting effluent management and the purification of water, mainly because of their capability in eliminating microbes and organic matter. Despite the extraordinary focus on other parts of the plant, especially the foliage, the beneficial aspects of the seeds have not been sufficiently highlighted. The health benefits of bioactive components in the seeds are promising and demonstrate enough potential to facilitate the development of functional foods. In this review, we present a critical account of the types, characteristics, production and isolation of bioactive components from M. oleifera seeds. Furthermore, we appraise the: pharmacological activities, cosmetic, biodiesel, lubricative, modern farming, nutritive and wastewater treatment applications of these functional ingredients. We infer that there is a need for further human/clinical studies and evaluation, despite their health benefits. Additionally, the safety issues need to be adequately clarified and assessed, in order to establish a conventional therapeutic profile.

Food Puree for Seniors: The Effects of XanFlax as a New Thickener on Physicochemical and Antioxidant Properties

With the increasing number of older adults, the elderly-friendly food market has been rapidly growing. The physicochemical and antioxidant properties of soymilk-based banana-blueberry-puree with and without flaxseed-based (XanFlax) and xanthan-gum-based (brand G) thickeners were compared as a potential senior food. Samples included a control, three treatments with XanFlax (1%, 3%, and 5%), and three treatments with brand G (1.35%, 2.7%, and 5.4%). The physicochemical (color, sugar, salinity, pH, viscosity, and hardness) and antioxidant properties [DPPH, ABTS, reducing power (RP), and total polyphenol content (TPC)] were compared. The chromaticity values (L*, a*, and b*) and pHs were similar among all treatments and the control, but the salinity of brand G showed statistical differences (p < 0.05). All samples met the Korean Industrial Standards for senior foods in terms of viscosity and hardness, while samples with brand G were harder and more viscous than those with XanFlax and the control (p < 0.001). XanFlax samples had greater ABTS radical scavenging activities than the control and brand G samples (p < 0.001). Although, the developed puree can be a possible senior food product without the addition of thickeners, XanFlax might be applied as a non-xanthan gum-based viscosity thickener with antioxidant functions for senior-friendly foods.

A practical and fast isolation of 12 cyclolinopeptides (linusorbs) from flaxseed oil via preparative HPLC with phenyl-hexyl column

Linusorbs, known as cyclolinopeptides, are a group of cyclic hydrophobic peptides derived from flaxseed oil with various health benefits. However, the current research efforts on both the biological activities and antioxidant capacities of linusorbs are limited because of existing issues with their purification and characterization. A practical method based on preparative HPLC for isolating 12 linusorbs simultaneously was developed and factors such as the solvent selection, gradient elution program, flow rate, loaded mass, and loading concentration, were optimized. The optimum conditions were an initial acetonitrile (ACN) to water ratio of 40%, final ACN ratio of 80%, eluting time of 21 min, a flow rate of 16 mL/min, sample load of 12.5 mg, and concentration of 80 mg/mL (in methanol). The 12 linusorbs obtained were verified using off-line MS/MS, recording purities of above 95.5%. The method could serve as a practical and fast isolation method enabling further investigation of minor linusorbs.

Production of Organic Fertilizers from Rocket Seed (Eruca Sativa L.), Chicken Peat and Moringa Oleifera Leaves for Growing Linseed under Water Deficit Stress

Linseed is an important industrial crop cultivated for its edible seeds and fiber linen. Organic fertilizers have beneficial effects on soil properties and quality of crops. Therefore, we conducted two field experiments during 2018–2019 and 2019–2020 to determine the effect of organic fertilizers on soil fertility, yield and fiber quality of linseed varieties Roshni, BL1 and Chandni under low soil moisture conditions. We prepared organic fertilizers from seed cake of Eruca sativa, leaves of Moringa oleifera and chicken peat in various combinations by composting method. The various formulations of organic fertilizers included OF1(1 kg seed cake of Eruca sativa), OF2 (1 kg seed cake of Eruca sativa + 1 kg chicken peat), OF3 (1 kg seed cake of Eruca sativa + 0.5 kg chicken peat + 0.25 kg Moringa oliefera leaves) and OF4 (1 kg seed cake of Eruca sativa + 0.250 kg chicken peat + 0.5 kg Moringa oliefera leaves). Compositional analysis of organic fertilizers indicated that OF3 and OF4 had higher and may potentially sufficient quantities of NPK and organic matter. Both of these fertilizers significantly improved soil total N, available P, K, Zn and Fe contents. Growth response of linseed varieties to organic fertilizers was evaluated under water deficit stress (40% field capacity of soil) at tillering stage for one month. Water stress had significantly adverse effects on plant height, production of tillers per plant, leaf relative water content (LRWC), number of capsules per plant, thousand seed weight, total seed yield, straw yield, fiber length and fiber weight of linseed varieties. However, the application of OF3 and OF4 significantly enhanced plant height, tillers production, LRWC, seed yield, straw yield, fiber length and fiber weight under water deficit stress. Water deficit stress also resulted in a significant increase in the content of phenolics of both the leaves and roots. For each measured quality parameter of linseed varieties, organic fertilizer treatments resulted in higher values than untreated and irrigated control. We concluded that organic fertilizers particularly OF3 and OF4 significantly improved soil fertility and minimized negative effect of water deficit stress on plant height, tillers production, LRWC, seed yield, straw yield, fiber length and fiber weight of linseed varieties.

Inhibitory activity of flaxseed oil against CdCl2 induced liver and kidney damage: Histopathology, genotoxicity, and gene expression study

The present work evaluated the effect of flaxseed oil (FO) against toxicity induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2) in the mouse liver and kidney. Male Swiss albino mice were treated with CdCl2 (4.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) with or without FO at three concentrations (4, 8, 12 mL/kg, orally) for two consecutive weeks. To analyze the effects of FO, we used the following techniques: (1) histopathological examination; (2) comet assay; (3) RT-PCR gene expression analysis of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and tumor suppressor protein (p53); and (4) immunohistochemical analysis of caspase-9 protein expression. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry results showed that FO had a high content of unsaturated fatty acids including, oleic acid, linolenic acid, and linoleic acid. Oral supplementation with FO (12 mL/kg) resulted in a normal histological appearance without alteration in the DNA integrity and gene expression of TNF-α, p53, and caspase-9 in liver and kidney tissues. As expected, CdCl2 remarkably induced loss of histological integrity, increased DNA comet formation, increased TNF-α and p53 mRNA expression levels and increased the immunoreactivity of caspase-9 expression. When FO was given before administration of CdCl2, these histopathological defects were reversed; necrosis, degeneration, inflammatory cell infiltration, hemorrhage, Kupffer cells, and pyknotic cells were all reduced. These histological improvements induced by FO were accompanied by reduced DNA breakage, downregulated mRNA expression of TNF-α and p53, and downregulated immunohistochemical expression of caspase-9 protein. In conclusion, FO and its constituents may act as signaling molecules and modify the expression of genes involved in proinflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α), cell cycle arrest (p53), and apoptosis (caspase-9), thereby improving biological activities and health.

Influence of flaxseed flour as a partial replacement for wheat flour on the characteristics of Chinese steamed bread

This study investigated the effects of partially replacing wheat flour with flaxseed flour (FF) on the quality parameters of Chinese Steamed Bread (CSB). FF was utilized as a functional ingredient of CSB at varying levels. The pasting properties of flour blends, the rheological and microstructural characteristics of dough, the textural and quality characteristics and functional group structure of CSB were analyzed. Results showed that FF addition influenced the pasting characteristics of wheat flour by decreasing the final viscosity, breakdown and setback values, but had little effect on the rheological properties of the dough. The microstructure of the dough indicated that the disruption degree of the gluten matrix increased with the increase of FF. Besides, FF addition increased the hardness and chewiness of CSB, while decreasing the cohesiveness and springiness. Additional characteristic peaks were observed at 1745, 2854, and 3006 cm^-1 and associated with -C[double bond, length as m-dash]O, -CH₂, and cis-C[double bond, length as m-dash]CH bond stretching vibrations of flaxseed. Results suggested 12% FF exhibited the best acceptability.

Flaxseed Gum Solution Functional Properties

Flaxseed gum (FG) is a by-product of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) meal production that is useful as a food thickener, emulsifier, and foaming agent. FG is typically recovered by hot-water extraction from flaxseed hull or whole seed. However, FG includes complex polymer structures that contain bioactive compounds. Therefore, extraction temperature can play an important role in determining its functional properties, solution appearance, and solution stability during storage. These characteristics of FG, including FG quality, determine its commercial value and utility. In this study, FG solution functional properties and storage stability were investigated for solutions prepared at 70 and 98 °C. Solutions of FG prepared at 98 °C had lower initial viscosity than solutions extracted at 70 °C; though the viscosity of these solutions was more stable during storage. Solutions prepared by extraction at both tested temperatures exhibited similar tolerance to 0.1 mol/L salt addition and freeze-thaw cycles. Moreover, the higher extraction temperature produced a FG solution with superior foaming and emulsification properties, and these properties were more stable with storage. Foams and emulsions produced from FG extracted at higher temperatures also had better stability. FG extracted at 98 °C displayed improved stability and consistent viscosity, foamability, and emulsification properties in comparison to solutions prepared at 70 °C. Therefore, the FG solution extracted at 98 °C had more stable properties and, potentially, higher commercial value. This result indicates that FG performance as a commercial food additive can influence food product quality.

Probiotics and prebiotics potential for the care of skin, female urogenital tract, and respiratory tract

The prebiotics and probiotics market is constantly growing due to the positive effects of its consumption on human health, which extends beyond the digestive system. In addition, the synbiotic products market is also expanding due to the synergistic effects between pre- and probiotics that provide additional benefits to consumers. Pre- and probiotics are being evaluated for their effectiveness to treat and prevent infectious diseases in other parts of the human body where microbial communities exist. This review examines the scientific data related to the effects of pre- and probiotics on the treatment of diseases occurring in the skin, female urogenital tract, and respiratory tract. The evidence suggests that probiotics consumption can decrease the presence of eczema in children when their mothers have consumed probiotics during pregnancy and lactation. In women, probiotics consumption can effectively prevent recurrent urinary tract infections. The consumption of synbiotic products can reduce respiratory tract infections and their duration and severity. However, the outcomes of the meta-analyses are still limited and not sufficiently conclusive to support the use of probiotics to treat infectious diseases. This is largely a result of the limited number of studies, lack of standardization of the studies, and inconsistencies between the reported results. Therefore, it is advisable that future studies consider these shortcomings and include the evaluation of the combined use of pre- and probiotics.

Bioprocessing of Functional Ingredients from Flaxseed

Flaxseeds (Linum usitatissimum L.) are oilseeds endowed with nutritional constituents such as lignans, lipids, proteins, fibre, carbohydrates, and micronutrients. Owing to their established high nutritional profile, flaxseeds have gained an established reputation as a dietary source of high value functional ingredients. Through the application of varied bioprocessing techniques, these essential constituents in flaxseeds can be made bioavailable for different applications such as nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food industry. However, despite their food and health applications, flaxseeds contain high levels of phytotoxic compounds such as linatine, phytic acids, protease inhibitors, and cyanogenic glycosides. Epidemiological studies have shown that the consumption of these compounds can lead to poor bioavailability of essential nutrients and/or health complications. As such, these components must be removed or inactivated to physiologically undetectable limits to render flaxseeds safe for consumption. Herein, critical description of the types, characteristics, and bioprocessing of functional ingredients in flaxseed is presented.

Plant growth-promoting bacteria elevate the nutritional and functional properties of black cumin and flaxseed fixed oil

BACKGROUND

In order to study the influence of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) belonging to Streptomyces sp., Paenibacillus sp., and Hymenobacter sp. on fixed oil content of flaxseed and black cumin, 2-year field experiments were conducted. PGPB was applied during seedtime of plants. The extraction of oil from seeds was performed using supercritical CO₂ .

RESULTS

The addition of PGPB significantly increases the content of C18:1 (from 16.06 ± 0.03% to 16.97 ± 0.03%) and C18:3 (from 42.97 ± 0.2% to 45.42 ± 0.5%) in flaxseed oil and C18:2 (from 52.68 ± 0.50% to 57.11 ± 0.40%) and C20:2 (from 4.34 ± 0.02% to 4.54 ± 0.03%) in black cumin seed oil. The contents of total polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids, as well as antioxidant activity measured by ferric-reducing ability of plasma assay, were found to be greater in the oil from the seeds of plants treated with the PGPB, compared with the respective non-treated samples.

CONCLUSION

The use of PGPB enhances plant nutritive properties; these represent a great source for obtaining valuable functional food ingredients. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Case Study of Somaclonal Variation in Resistance Genes Mlo and Pme3 in Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) Induced by Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles influence on genome is investigated worldwide. The appearance of somaclonal variation is a cause of great concern for any micropropagation system. Somaclonal variation describes the tissue-culture-induced phenotypic and genotypic variations. This paper shows the results of somaclonal variation in two resistance genes pectin methylesterase and Mlo-like protein in all tissue culture development stages, as donor plant, calluses, and regenerants of Linum usitatissimum induced by gold and silver nanoparticles. In this paper, it was essential to obtain DNA material from all tissue culture development stages from one donor plant to record changes in each nucleotide sequence. Gene region specific primers were developed for resistance genes such as Mlo and Pme3 to define the genetic variability in tissue culture of L. usitatissimum. In recent years, utilization of gold and silver nanoparticles in tissue culture is increased and the mechanisms of changes in genome induced by nanoparticles still remain unclear. Obtained data show the somaclonal variation increase in calluses obtained from one donor plant and grown on medium supplemented by gold nanoparticles (Mlo 14.68 ± 0.98; Pme3 2.07 ± 0.87) or silver nanoparticles (Mlo 12.01 ± 0.43; Pme3 10.04 ± 0.46) and decrease in regenerants. Morphological parameters of calluses showed a number of differences between each investigated culture group.