Neonatal exposure to benzo[a]pyrene decreases the levels of serum testosterone and histone H3K14 acetylation of the StAR promoter in the testes of SD rats

Proteomic analysis reveals the difference between the spermatozoa of young and old Sus scrofa

The Wannan black pig is a superior local breed in Anhui province, renowned for its exceptional meat quality and remarkable adaptability to various environmental conditions. Semen, being a crucial indicator of male sexual maturity and fertility, significantly influences the performance of breeding boars. The molecular basis for comprehending the fecundity of boars in practical production lies in understanding the disparities in sperm proteins among boars of varying ages. In this investigation, spermatozoa from three one-year-old and three seven-year-old Wannan black pigs were individually chosen. Employing a tandem mass tag (TMT)-based quantitative proteomics approach, a total of 4050 proteins were identified, out of which 130 proteins exhibited significant differences between the two groups. GO enrichment analysis revealed that these proteins primarily participated in energy metabolism, spermatogenesis, fertilization, and reproduction. KEGG enrichment analysis demonstrated that the differential proteins predominantly resided within the ribosome pathway. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed to identify core proteins such as Small ribosomal subunit protein uS7 (RPS5). Ultimately, parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) was conducted on the selected differential proteins to validate result accuracy. The findings of this study establish a foundation for elucidating the molecular mechanism underlying variations in spermatozoa protein levels among Wannan Black Pig with different age.

Oral exposure to phenanthrene during gestation disorders endocrine and spermatogenesis in F1 adult male mice

Phenanthrene (Phe), a typical low-molecular-weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) of three benzene rings, is one of the most abundant PAHs detected in daily diets. Pregnant women and infants are at great risk of Phe exposure. In the present study, Phe was administered to pregnant mice at a dose of 0, 60, or 600 μg/kg body weight six times, and the F1 male mice showed significant reproductive disorders: the testicular weight and testis somatic index were significantly reduced; the levels of serum testosterone, GnRH and SHBG were increased, while the FSH levels were reduced; histological analysis showed that the amount of Sertoli cells and primary spermatocytes in seminiferous tubules was increased, while the amount of secondary spermatocytes and spermatids were decreased in Phe groups. The protein levels of PCNA and androgen receptor were reduced. Differently expressed genes in the testis screened by RNA sequence were enriched in antioxidant capacity, reproduction et al.. Further biochemical tests confirmed that the antioxidant capacity in the F1 testis was significantly inhibited by treatment with Phe during pregnancy. Those results suggested that gestational Phe exposure disordered hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) hormones on the one hand, and on the other hand reduced testicular antioxidant capacity and further arrested cell cycle in F1 adult male mice, which co-caused the inhibition of spermatogenesis.

The detoxification ability of sex-role reversed seahorses determines the sexual dimorphism in immune responses to benzo[a]pyrene exposure

Sexual dimorphism in immune responses is an essential factor in environmental adaptation. However, the mechanisms involved remain obscure owing to the scarcity of data from sex-role-reversed species in stressed conditions. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is one of the most pervasive and carcinogenic organic pollutants in coastal environments. In this study, we evaluated the potential effects on renal immunotoxicity of the sex-role-reversed lined seahorse (Hippocampus erectus) toward environmental concentrations BaP exposure. Our results discovered the presence of different energy-immunity trade-off strategies adopted by female and male seahorses during BaP exposure. BaP induced more severe renal damage in female seahorses in a concentration-dependent manner. BaP biotransformation and detoxification in seahorses resemble those in mammals. Benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-oxide (BPDE) and 9-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene (9-OH-BaP) formed DNA adducts and disrupted Ca2+ homeostasis may together attribute the renal immunotoxicity. Sexual dimorphisms in detoxification of both BPDE and 9-OH-BaP, and in regulation of Ca2+, autophagy and inflammation, mainly determined the extent of renal damage. Moreover, the mechanism of sex hormones regulated sexual dimorphism in immune responses needs to be further elucidated. Collectively, these findings contribute to the understanding of sexual dimorphism in the immunotoxicity induced by BaP exposure in seahorses, which may attribute to the dramatic decline in the biodiversity of the genus.

Transcriptomic and proteomic features of a mouse model of sperm DNA damage induced by benzo(a)pyrene

This study replicated a mouse model of sperm DNA damage induced by benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), and the transcriptomic and proteomic features of the model were examined to clarify the pathways related to BaP-induced damage to sperm DNA. Male mice in the BaP group were subjected to BaP at a dosage of 100 mg/kg/d or an equivalent quantity of saline solution in the control group for 60 days. Subsequently, the DNA fragmentation index (DFI) in sperm was assessed using a sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA). RNA-seq and data-independent acquisition (DIA) were used to identify the mRNA and protein expression patterns in the testis. The sperm DFI significantly increased in the BaP group. Compared to the control group, the BaP group exhibited differential expression of 240 genes (referred to as DEGs) and 616 proteins (referred to as DEPs). These molecules included Aldh1a1, Cyb5r3, Fads1, Oxsm, Rcn3, and Prss45. Pathways in cancer, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, metabolic pathways, and the MAPK signaling pathway were the primary areas where these genes showed enrichment. BaP can damage the DNA of sperm and affect metabolism, the PI3K-Akt pathway, and pathways associated with cancer signaling.

Sodium arsenite exposure enhances H3K14 acetylation and impairs male spermatogenesis in rat testes

Histone modifications play important roles in the epigenetic regulation of spermatogenesis via mediating gene transcription. Steroidogenic regulatory enzymes control testosterone biosynthesis, which are essential for spermatogenesis. Arsenic exposure inhibits the expression of steroidogenic genes by significantly increasing tri-methylation of H3K9 (H3K9me3) level in rat testis, finally diminishes testosterone release and lowers the rat sperm quality. Acetylation of H3K14 (H3K14ac) is associated with testosterone production and spermatogenesis. Co-occurrence of H3K9me3/H3K14ac has been identified previously by mass spectrometry in histone H3 isolated from different human cell types. H3K9me3/H3K14ac dually marked regions are in a poised inactive state to inhibit the gene expression. Whereas, whether inorganic arsenic exposure affects spermatogenesis and steroidogenic regulatory enzymes via mediating H3K14ac level has not been studied. Thereupon, the male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to (NaAsO2) for 6 weeks, then the sperm density and motility, testosterone level in serum, arsenic in rat testis were detected. mRNA expression of steroidogenic regulatory enzymes Star, Cyp11a1, Hsd3b and Hsd17b were determined by RT-PCR. H3K14ac level and the expression of histone acetylases of H3K14 (KAT2A and EP300), histone deacetylases of H3K14 (HDAC6 and HDAC3), the reader of H3K14ac (BAZ2A) were determined. The results suggested arsenic enhances H3K14ac in rat testis, which was associated with repression of steroidogenic regulatory genes expression, further reduced testosterone production, and impaired the spermatogenesis.

Measurement of hair thyroid and steroid hormone concentrations in the rat evidence endocrine disrupting potential of a low dose mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been shown to influence endogenous hormones levels in animal models, but little is known about the effects of their mixtures. For hormone measurements, hair analysis is a promising approach to provide information on long-term status of hormones. Herein we used hair analysis to assess the combined effects of 13 PAHs on steroid and thyroid hormones levels in a rat model. The PAH mixture was administered orally three times per week to female rats at doses of 0, 10, 20, 40, 80, 200, 400 and 800 μg/kg of body weight for each compound over a 90-day exposure period. Fourteen out of 36 analyzed hormones were detected in rat hair, including pregnenolone (P5), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP4), corticosterone (CORT), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione (AD), 3,3'-diiodo-L-thyronine (T2), 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3), and 3,5,3',5'-triiodo-L-thyronine (T4). The PAH mixture significantly elevated P5 and DHEA levels at the doses of 200 and 400 μg/kg but reduced T2 and T3 levels at the highest dose as compared to the control. While P5, DHEA, 17-OHP4 and AD concentrations exhibited inverted U-shaped dose responses, T2, T3 and T4 concentrations exhibited inverse linear dose responses, which are further confirmed by their relationships with hair hydroxylated PAHs (OH-PAHs) concentrations. Likewise, there were significant nonmonotonic relationships of hormone molar ratios (e.g., AD/17-OHP4 and DHEA/CORT ratios) with exposure intensity and OH-PAHs. Overall, our results demonstrate the capability of PAH mixtures to interfere with steroid and thyroid hormones in female rats.

Influences of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon on the epigenome toxicity and its applicability in human health risk assessment

The existence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in ambient air is an escalating concern worldwide because of their ability to cause cancer and induce permanent changes in the genetic material. Growing evidence implies that during early life-sensitive stages, the risk of progression of acute and chronic diseases depends on epigenetic changes initiated by the influence of environmental cues. Several reports deciphered the relationship between exposure to environmental chemicals and epigenetics, and have known toxicants that alter the epigenetic states. Amongst PAHs, benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is accepted as a group 1 cancer-causing agent by the International Agency for the Research on Cancer (IARC). B[a]P is a well-studied pro-carcinogen that is metabolically activated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)/cytochrome P450 pathway. Cytochrome P450 plays a pivotal role in the stimulation step, which is essential for DNA adduct formation. Accruing evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations assume a fundamental part in PAH-promoted carcinogenesis. This interaction between PAHs and epigenetic factors results in an altered profile of these marks, globally and locus-specific. Some of the epigenetic changes due to exposure to PAHs lead to increased disease susceptibility and progression. It is well understood that exposure to environmental carcinogens, such as PAH triggers disease pathways through changes in the genome. Several evidence reported due to the epigenome-wide association studies, that early life adverse environmental events may trigger widespread and persistent variations in transcriptional profiling. Moreover, these variations respond to DNA damage and/or a consequence of epigenetic modifications that need further investigation. Growing evidence has associated PAHs with epigenetic variations involving alterations in DNA methylation, histone modification, and micro RNA (miRNA) regulation. Epigenetic alterations to PAH exposure were related to chronic diseases, such as pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease, endocrine disruptor, nervous system disorder, and cancer. This hormetic response gives a novel perception concerning the toxicity of PAHs and the biological reaction that may be a distinct reliance on exposure. This review sheds light on understanding the latest evidence about how PAHs can alter epigenetic patterns and human health. In conclusion, as several epigenetic change mechanisms remain unclear yet, further analyses derived from PAHs exposure must be performed to find new targets and disease biomarkers. In spite of the current limitations, numerous evidence supports the perception that epigenetics grips substantial potential for advancing our knowledge about the molecular mechanisms of environmental toxicants, also for predicting health-associated risks due to environmental circumstances exposure and individual susceptibility.

KISS1R and ANKRD31 Cooperate to Enhance Leydig Cell Gene Expression via the Cytoskeletal-Nucleoskeletal Pathway

Kisspeptins are involved in the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, Leydig cell functions, and testosterone secretion, acting as endogenous ligands of the KISS1 receptor. ANKRD31 protein participates in male fertility, regulating meiotic progression, and epididymal sperm maturation. Here, we show that in Leydig cells, KISS1 receptor and ANKRD31 proteins physically interact; the formation of this protein complex is enhanced by Kisspeptin-10 that also modulates F-actin synthesis, favoring histone acetylation in chromatin and gene expression via the cytoskeletal–nucleoskeletal pathway. Kp/KISS1R system deregulation, expression impairment of cytoskeletal–nucleoskeletal mediators, Leydig gene targets, and the decreased testosterone secretion in Ankrd31^−/− testis strongly supported our hypothesis. Furthermore, cytochalasin D treatment subverted the gene expression induction dependent on Kisspeptin-10 action. In conclusion, the current work highlights a novel role for the Kisspeptin-10 in the induction of the cytoskeletal–nucleoskeletal route, downstream a physical interaction between KISS1 receptor and ANKRD31, with gene expression activation as final effect, in Leydig cells.

Parental exposure to 3-methylcholanthrene before gestation adversely affected the endocrine system and spermatogenesis in male F1 offspring

The compound 3-methylcholanthrene (3-MC) is an environmental pollutant belonging to the PAHs, which reportedly have the potential to disrupt the endocrine systems of animals. In the present study, 4-week-old male and female mice were given 3-MC through their diet at a dose of 0.5mg/kg of chow for 6 weeks before pregnancy. The first filial (F₁) generation offspring of exposed or unexposed parental mice were sacrificed at the age of 5 or 10 weeks (F₁-5W or F₁-10W), and the potential effects on the F₀ and F₁ offspring were evaluated. The results showed that the serum and testicular testosterone (T) levels and the genes involved in T synthesis in F₀ males and male F₁-5W individuals born from female mice exposed to 3-MC were significantly decreased. In addition, histological analysis suggested that exposure to 3-MC significantly disrupted testicular morphology in F₀ mice and in the offspring of female mice exposed to 3-MC. Further investigation revealed that genes involved in spermatogenesis, such as Phosphoglycerate kinase 2 (Pgk2), Glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (Gdnf), Myeloblastosis oncogene (Myb), DEAD box helicase 4 (Ddx4) and KIT proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase (Kit), were suppressed in these mice. However, the adverse effects of parental 3-MC exposure on the adolescent mice were mitigated when they grew to adulthood, which was verified by studies on F₁-10W mice. Our results suggest that female exposure to 3-MC has the potential to disrupt the endocrine system and spermatogenesis in male offspring; nevertheless, the adverse effects might be mitigated with age.

Insights into Interactions of Human Cytochrome P450 17A1: Review

Abstract:

Cytochrome P450s are a widespread and vast superfamily of hemeprotein monooxygenases that metabolize physiologically essential chemicals necessary for most species' survival, from protists to plants to humans. They catalyze the synthesis of steroid hormones, cholesterol, bile acids, and arachidonate metabolites and the degradation of endogenous compounds such as steroids, fatty acids, and other catabolizing compounds as an energy source and detoxifying xenobiotics such as drugs, procarcinogens, and carcinogens. The human CYP17A1 is one of the cytochrome P450 genes located at the 10q chromosome. The gene expression occurs in the adrenals and gonads, with minor amounts in the brain, placenta, and heart. This P450c17 cytochrome gene is a critical steroidogenesis regulator which performs two distinct activities: 17 alpha-hydroxylase activity (converting pregnenolone to 17-hydroxypregnenolone and progesterone to 17-hydroxyprogesterone, these precursors are further processed to provide glucocorticoids and sex hormones) and 17, 20-lyase activity (which converts 17-hydroxypregnenolone to DHEA). Dozens of mutations within CYP17A1 are found to cause 17-alpha-hydroxylase and 17, 20-lyase deficiency. This condition affects the function of certain hormone-producing glands, resulting in high blood pressure levels (hypertension), abnormal sexual development, and other deficiency diseases. This review highlights the changes in CYP17A1 associated with gene-gene interaction, drug-gene interaction, chemical-gene interaction, and its biochemical reactions; they have some insights to correlate with the fascinating functional characteristics of this human steroidogenic gene. The findings of our theoretical results will be helpful to further the design of specific inhibitors of CYP17A1.

The gender-specific adverse association of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on skeletal muscle mass and strength in the general adults and the possible mechanisms in experimental rats

Whether polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) exposure is associated with muscle mass and muscle strength has been scantly investigated. The cross-sectional associations of urinary PAH metabolites with appendicular skeletal muscle mass and hand grip strength in adults were first investigated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Laboratory study was further carried out to examine the effect of PAHs on skeletal muscle mass and strength. 2742 and 2462 US adults were finally analyzed for muscle mass and muscle strength, respectively. In male participants, urinary PAH metabolites were found to show an inverse relationship with muscle mass and grip strength. In female participants, no significant relationship was found between urinary PAH metabolites with muscle mass or grip strength. In male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats, administration of B [a]P induced muscle atrophy when compared with the control. However, muscle mass and strength were not significantly altered in female rats. The variations in muscle morphology parameters were accompanied by significant decrease in plasma testosterone levels in the B [a]P-treated male rats. Testosterone co-treatment significantly mitigated B [a]P mediated damages in skeletal muscle in male rats. The results of the present study indicate that there may be a gender-specific causal relationship between the PAHs and muscle atrophy.

Air pollution-induced epigenetic changes: disease development and a possible link with hypersensitivity pneumonitis

Air pollution is a serious threat to our health and has become one of the major causes of many diseases including cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and cancer. The association between air pollution and various diseases has long been a topic of research interest. However, it remains unclear how air pollution actually impacts health by modulating several important cellular functions. Recently, some evidence has emerged about air pollution-induced epigenetic changes, which are linked with the etiology of various human diseases. Among several epigenetic modifications, DNA methylation represents the most prominent epigenetic alteration underlying the air pollution-induced pathogenic mechanism. Several other types of epigenetic changes, such as histone modifications, miRNA, and non-coding RNA expression, have also been found to have been linked with air pollution. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP), one of the most prevalent forms of interstitial lung diseases (ILDs), is triggered by the inhalation of certain organic and inorganic substances. HP is characterized by inflammation in the tissues around the lungs' airways and may lead to irreversible lung scarring over time. This review, in addition to other diseases, attempts to understand whether certain pollutants influence HP development through such epigenetic modifications.

Long-term exposure to environmental levels of phenanthrene disrupts spermatogenesis in male mice

Phenanthrene (Phe) is a tricyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with high bioavailability under natural exposure. However, there are few studies on the reproductive toxicity of Phe in mammals. In this study, male Kunming mice were gavaged once every two days with Phe (5, 50, and 500 ng/kg) for 28 weeks. The accumulation levels of Phe in the testis were dose-dependently increased. Histopathological staining showed that Phe exposure reduced the number of spermatogonia, sperm and Sertoli cells. The percentage of testicular apoptotic cells was significantly increased, which was further verified by the upregulated BAX protein. The expression of the GDNF/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was downregulated, which might suppress the self-renewal and differentiation of spermatogonial stem cells. Meanwhile, Phe exposure inhibited the expression of Sertoli cell markers (Fshr, WT1, Sox9) and the Leydig cell marker Cyp11a1, indicating damage to the function of Sertoli cells and Leydig cells. Serum estrogen and testicular estrogen receptor alpha were significantly upregulated, while androgen receptor expression was downregulated. These alterations might be responsible for impaired spermatogenesis. This study provides new insights for evaluating the reproductive toxicity and potential mechanisms of Phe in mammals.

Chronic low-level perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) exposure promotes testicular steroidogenesis through enhanced histone acetylation

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), an artificial perfluorinated compound, has been associated with male reproductive disorders. Histone modifications are important epigenetic mediators; however, the impact of PFOS exposure on testicular steroidogenesis through histone modification regulations remains to be elucidated. In this study, we examined the roles of histone modifications in regulating steroid hormone production in male rats chronically exposed to low-level PFOS. The results indicate that PFOS exposure significantly up-regulated the expressions of StAR, CYP11A1 and 3β-HSD, while CYP17A1 and 17β-HSD were down-regulated, thus contributing to the elevated progesterone and testosterone levels. Furthermore, PFOS significantly increased the histones H3K9me2, H3K9ac and H3K18ac while reduced H3K9me3 in rat testis. It is known that histone modifications are closely involved in gene transcription. Therefore, to investigate the association between histone modifications and steroidogenic gene regulation, the levels of these histone marks were further measured in steroidogenic gene promoter regions by ChIP. It was found that H3K18ac was augmented in Cyp11a1 promoter, and H3K9ac was increased in Hsd3b after PFOS exposure, which is proposed to result in the activation of CYP11A1 and 3β-HSD, respectively. To sum up, chronic low-level PFOS exposure activated key steroidogenic gene expression through enhancing histone acetylation (H3K9ac and H3K18ac), ultimately stimulating steroid hormone biosynthesis in rat testis.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and sex steroid receptors

Sex-steroid receptors (SSRs) are essential mediators of estrogen, progestin, and androgen signaling that are critical in vast aspects of human development and multi-organ homeostasis. Dysregulation of SSR function has been implicated in numerous pathologies including cancers, obesity, Type II diabetes mellitus, neuroendocrine disorders, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia, male and female infertility, and other reproductive disorders. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) modulate SSR function in a wide variety of cell and tissues. There exists strong experimental, clinical, and epidemiological evidence that engagement of EDCs with SSRs may disrupt endogenous hormone signaling leading to physiological abnormalities that may manifest in disease. In this chapter, we discuss the molecular mechanisms by which EDCs interact with estrogen, progestin, and androgen receptors and alter SSR functions in target cells. In addition, the pathological consequences of disruption of SSR action in reproductive and other organs by EDCs is described with an emphasis on underlying mechanisms of receptors dysfunction.

Environmental pollutants exposure and male reproductive toxicity: The role of epigenetic modifications

Male fertility rates have shown a progressive decrease in recent decades. There is a growing concern about the male reproductive dysfunction caused by environmental pollutants exposure, however the underlying molecular mechanisms are still not well understood. Epigenetic modifications play a key role in the biological responses to external stressors. Therefore, this review discusses the roles of epigenetic modifications in male reproductive toxicity induced by environmental pollutants, with a particular emphasis on DNA methylation, histone modifications and miRNAs. The available literature proposed that environmental pollutants can directly or cause oxidative stress and DNA damage to induce a variety of epigenetic changes, which lead to gene dysregulation, mitochondrial dysfunction and consequent male reproductive toxicity. However, future studies focusing on more kinds of epigenetic modifications and their crosstalk as well as epidemiological data are still required to fill in the current research gaps. In addition, the intrinsic links between pollutants-mediated epigenetic regulations and male reproduction-related physiological responses deserve to be further explored.

The modulatory effect of taurine on benzo (a) pyrene-induced hepatorenal toxicity

Toxicities linked with Benzo (a) pyrene B[a]P exposure, particularly in liver and kidney have been reported in both animals and humans. Taurine (2-aminoethane sulfonic acid) is an intracellular β-amino acid reported to elicit hepatorenal protective functions. However, the modulatory effect of taurine on hepatorenal toxicity associated with exposure to B[a]P has not been reported. This study evaluated the effects of taurine on the hepatorenal toxicities induced in cohorts of rats exposed to B[a]P. Experimental rats were treated as follows: B[a]P (10 mg/kg); co-treated cohorts -B[a]P (10 mg/kg) plus taurine (100 or 200 mg/kg) for 4 successive weeks. Results show that co-dosing with taurine significantly (P < 0.05) improved B[a]P-induced distortion of oxidative stress markers (catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, total sulphydryl, reduced glutathione, lipid peroxidation and xanthine oxidase), renal function (urea and creatinine) and liver function marker enzymes (alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and gamma glutamyl transferase). Moreover, taurine effectively mitigated increase in myeloperoxidase activity, levels of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, nitric oxide and interleukin-1β in kidney and liver of rats treated with B[a]P. In conclusion, taurine modulates hepatorenal toxicity in B[a]P-exposed rats by suppressing hepatic and renal damage indices, oxidative injury and inflammatory stress.

Parental exposure to benzo(a)pyrene in the peripubertal period impacts reproductive aspects of the F1 generation in rats

Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is an ubiquitous environmental pollutant which can lead to adverse effects on male reproduction. However, the persistence of these changes on a multigenerational scale has not been sufficiently explored. This study evaluated if peripubertal exposure to BaP in male rats can induce reproductive impairment in offspring. Male rats received BaP at environmentally relevant doses (0, 0.1, 1, or 10 μg/kg/day) orally from post-natal (PND) 23-53. On PND 90, treated males were mated with non-treated females for obtaining the next generation (F1). The paternal exposure to BaP decreased the body weight of offspring on PND 1, 13 and 22, as well as it provoked a reduction in the relative anogenital distance of the males. This exposure also brought forward the onset of puberty, evidenced by an earlier vaginal opening and first estrous in females of the lowest dose group and by a delay in the testicular descent and preputial separation ages in males. The males presented a decrease in the daily sperm production and a disrupted sperm morphology. Furthermore, the testicular histology was altered, evidenced by a reduction in the Leydig cell numbers and in the seminiferous tubules diameter, as well as a disrupted seminiferous tubules staging. The estrous cyclicity and some fertility parameters were changed in the females, as well as alterations in the ovary and uterus histology were observed. BaP compromised several reproductive parameters of the F1 generation, suggesting that peripubertal exposure to this compound provokes permanent modifications in male germ line of F0 generation.

Exposure to benzo(a)pyrene from juvenile period to peripubertal impairs male reproductive parameters in adult rats

Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is a persistent organic pollutant and endocrine disruptor that can compromise the steroidogenesis process by interacting with the StAR protein, causing adverse effects on male reproduction. However, consequences of prepubertal BaP exposure and its impacts on adult life are yet unknown. This study investigated the effects of BaP exposure from the juvenile period to peripubertal on reproductive parameters in adult male rats. Males were exposed to 0; 0.1; 1 or 10 μg/kg/day of BaP from post-natal (PND) 23 to PND 53 (by gavage). The lowest dose of BaP was able to compromise the male copulatory behavior, as evidenced by the delay in the first mount, intromission and ejaculation. Furthermore, BaP-treated groups showed lower sperm quality (disrupted motility and morphology) and quantity, reduced relative weights of the thyroid and seminal gland. Serum testosterone levels and the Leydig cells nuclei volume were decreased by BaP exposure whereas the StAR expression was increased. Histopathological changes in the testis also were detected in the males exposed to BaP. These results showed that prepubertal BaP-exposure adversely influenced the male reproductive system in the adult life, indicating that a comprehensive risk assessment of BaP-exposure on prepubertal period is necessary.

Multigenerational Impacts of Benzo[a]pyrene on Bone Modeling and Remodeling in Medaka (Oryzias latipes)

Ancestral benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) (1 μg/L, 21 days) exposure has previously been shown to cause skeletal deformities in medaka (Oryzias latipes) larvae in the F1-F3 generation. However, when and how this deformity is induced during bone development remain to be elucidated. The col10a1:nlGFP/osx:mCherry double transgenic medaka model was employed to determine the temporal and spatial changes of col10a1:nlGFP- positive osteochondral progenitor cells (OPCs) and osx:mCherry-positive premature osteoblasts (POBs) [8 days postfertilization (dpf)-31 dpf] in combination with changes in bone mineralization at the tissue level. Ancestral BaP exposure delayed the development of col10a1:nlGFP- and osx:mCherry-positive osteoblasts and reduced the abundance of col10a1:nlGFP-positive osteoblast progenitors and col10a1:nlGFP/osx:mCherry double-positive premature osteoblasts during critical windows of early vertebral bone formation, associated with reduced bone mineralization in embryos (14 dpf) and larvae (31 dpf), compressed vertebral segments in larvae (31 dpf), and reduced bone thickness in adult male medaka (6 months old) of the F1-F3 generations. Both Col10a1:nlGFP and osx:mCherry were identified as potential targets of epigenetic modifications underlying the transgenerational inheritance of BaP bone toxicity. The present study provides novel knowledge of the underlying mechanisms of transgenerational toxicity of BaP at the cellular level.

Abnormal methylation of spermatozoa induced by benzo(a)pyrene in rats

Epigenetic mutations caused by pollutants are possibly linked to many diseases. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) is one of the most representative air pollutants and has aroused wide concern because of its strong carcinogenicity. The reproductive toxicity induced by BaP has been identified, but little is known about the characteristics of the methylation changes induced by BaP. In this study, a methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing method was used to detect the methylation of sperm DNA of rats exposed to BaP. Compared with the respective genes in normal rats, there were 3227 hypomethylated genes and 828 hypermethylated genes after BaP exposure. Gene ontology enrichment analysis reported that differentially methylated genes (DMGs) were enriched in the localization, single-multicellular organism process and plasma membrane. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis showed that the DMGs were significantly enriched in the Ras signalling pathway, Rap1 signalling pathway, pancreatic secretion and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction. DisGeNET disease spectrum analysis showed that DMGs were associated with infertility and certain genetic diseases. Further research needs to be done to explore whether these abnormal methylation are transgenerational.

Effects of lactational exposure to low-dose BaP on allergic and non-allergic immune responses in mice offspring

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) can induce developmental and reproductive toxicity; however, the full scope of its immunotoxic effects remains unknown. This study aimed to assess effects of lactational exposure to low-dose BaP (comparable to human exposure) on potential allergic\non-allergic immune responses in murine offspring. Lactating C3H/HeJ dams were orally dosed with BaP at 0, 0.25, 5.0, or 100 pmol/animal/week) at post-natal days [PND] 1, 8, and 15. Five-weeks-old pups then received intratracheally ovalbumin (OVA) every 2 weeks for 6 weeks. Following the final exposure, mice were processed to permit analyses of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid cell profiles as well as levels of lung inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, serum OVA-specific immunoglobulin, and mediastinal lymph node (MLN) cell activation/proliferation. In OVA-sensitized male offspring, lactational low-dose BaP exposure led to enhanced (albeit not significantly) macrophage, neutrophil, and eosinophil infiltration to, and increased T-helper (T_H)-2 cytokine production in, the lungs. In females, BaP exposure, regardless of dose, led to slightly enhanced lung levels of macrophages and eosinophils, and of inflammatory molecules. Protein levels of interleukin (IL)-33 in the OVA + BaP (middle dose) group, and interferon (IFN)-γ in the OVA + BaP (low dose) group, were higher than that of the OVA (no BaP) group. Ex vivo studies showed lactational exposure to BaP partially induced activation of T-cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the MLN cells of both male and female offspring, with or without OVA sensitization. Further, IL-4 and IFNγ levels in MLN culture supernatants were elevated even without OVA-re-stimulation in OVA + BaP groups. In conclusion, lactational exposure to low-dose BaP appeared to exert slight effects on later allergic and non-allergic immune responses in offspring by facilitating development of modest T_H2 responses and activating MLN cells. In addition, lactational exposures to BaP might give rise to gender differences in allergic/non-allergic immune responses of offspring.

Enhanced H3K4me3 modifications are involved in the transactivation of DNA damage responsive genes in workers exposed to low-level benzene

In this study, we explore whether altered global histone modifications respond to low-level benzene exposure as well as their association with the hematotoxicity. We recruited 147 low-level benzene-exposed workers and 122 control workers from a petrochemical factory in Maoming City, Guangdong Province, China. The internal exposure marker level, urinary S-phenylmercapturic acid (SPMA), in benzene-exposed workers was 1.81-fold higher than that of the controls (P < 0.001). ELISA method was established to examine the specific histone modifications in human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLCs) of workers. A decrease in the counts of white blood cells (WBC), neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes appeared in the benzene-exposed group (all P < 0.05) compared to the control group. Global trimethylated histone 3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3) modification was enhanced in the benzene-exposed group (P < 0.05) and was positively associated with the concentration of urinary SPMA (β = 0.103, P = 0.045) and the extent of DNA damage (% Tail DNA: β = 0.181, P = 0.022), but was negatively associated with the leukocyte count (WBC: β = -0.038, P = 0.023). The in vitro study revealed that H3K4me3 mark was enriched in the promoters of several DNA damage responsive (DDR) genes including CRY1, ERCC2, and TP53 in primary human lymphocytes treated with hydroquinone. Particularly, H3K4me3 modification was positively correlated with the expression of CRY1 in the PBLCs of benzene-exposed workers. These observations indicate that H3K4me3 modification might mediate the transcriptional regulation of DDR genes in response to low-dose benzene exposure.

Traffic-derived particulate matter exposure and histone H3 modification: A repeated measures study

BACKGROUND

Airborne particulate matter (PM) may induce epigenetic changes that potentially lead to chronic diseases. Histone modifications regulate gene expression by influencing chromatin structure that can change gene expression status. We evaluated whether traffic-derived PM exposure is associated with four types of environmentally inducible global histone H3 modifications.

METHODS

The Beijing Truck Driver Air Pollution Study included 60 truck drivers and 60 office workers examined twice, 1-2 weeks apart, for ambient PM₁₀ (both day-of and 14-day average exposures), personal PM_2.5, black carbon (BC), and elemental components (potassium, sulfur, iron, silicon, aluminum, zinc, calcium, and titanium). For both PM₁₀ measures, we obtained hourly ambient PM₁₀ data for the study period from the Beijing Municipal Environmental Bureau's 27 representatively distributed monitoring stations. We then calculated a 24h average for each examination day and a moving average of ambient PM₁₀ measured in the 14 days prior to each examination. Examinations measured global levels of H3 lysine 9 acetylation (H3K9ac), H3 lysine 9 tri-methylation (H3K9me3), H3 lysine 27 tri-methylation (H3K27me3), and H3 lysine 36 tri-methylation (H3K36me3) in blood leukocytes collected after work. We used adjusted linear mixed-effect models to examine percent changes in histone modifications per each μg/m³ increase in PM exposure.

RESULTS

In all participants each μg/m³ increase in 14-day average ambient PM₁₀ exposure was associated with lower H3K27me3 (β=-1.1%, 95% CI: -1.6, -0.6) and H3K36me3 levels (β=-0.8%, 95% CI: -1.4, -0.1). Occupation-stratified analyses showed associations between BC and both H3K9ac and H3K36me3 that were stronger in office workers (β=4.6%, 95% CI: 0.9, 8.4; and β=4.1%, 95% CI: 1.3; 7.0 respectively) than in truck drivers (β=0.1%, 95% CI: -1.3, 1.5; and β=0.9%, 95% CI: -0.9, 2.7, respectively; both p_interaction <0.05). Sex-stratified analyses showed associations between examination-day PM₁₀ and H3K9ac, and between BC and H3K9me3, were stronger in women (β=10.7%, 95% CI: 5.4, 16.2; and β=7.5%, 95% CI: 1.2, 14.2, respectively) than in men (β=1.4%, 95% CI: -0.9, 3.7; and β=0.9%, 95% CI: -0.9, 2.7, respectively; both p_interaction <0.05). We observed no associations between personal PM_2.5 or elemental components and histone modifications.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest a possible role of global histone H3 modifications in effects of traffic-derived PM exposures, particularly BC exposure. Future studies should assess the roles of these modifications in human diseases and as potential mediators of air pollution-induced disease, in particular BC exposure.

Specific histone modifications were associated with the PAH-induced DNA damage response in coke oven workers

To investigate whether polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure is associated with specific histone modifications and whether DNA damage triggers epigenetic alterations, we recruited 190 male workers with occupational exposure to PAHs and 100 male control workers from Benxi Steel Plant, Liaoning province, China. Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP), DNA damage, specific histone modification levels and the expression of selected DNA damage response (DDR) genes were measured in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLCs) of the subjects. The results showed that trimethylated Lys 27 of histone H3 (H3K27me3) and trimethylated Lys 36 of histone H3 (H3K36me3) were elevated in the PAH-exposed group (both P < 0.001), while trimethylated Lys H3 of histone H3 (H3K4me3) was decreased compared to the unexposed group (P < 0.001). Notably, H3K36me3 was positively associated with the level of internal exposure marker 1-OHP (β = 0.197; P < 0.001) and the degree of DNA damage (β = 0.175; P < 0.001) in all subjects, indicating that the PAH-induced DNA damage response might be mediated by H3K36me3 and/or H3K4me3 modifications. Particularly, the ChIP-qPCR assay revealed that the modifications of H3K36me3 were enriched in the gene body of DDR genes, MGMT and MLH1. The up-regulation of MGMT and MLH1 was correlated with the elevated H3K36me3 in the PAH-exposed workers (P < 0.001). Collectively, we revealed that H3K36me3 could be an indicator of PAH exposure and might be involved in the transcriptional regulation of DNA repair genes in response to DNA damage.

Exposure of preimplantation embryos to low-dose bisphenol A impairs testes development and suppresses histone acetylation of StAR promoter to reduce production of testosterone in mice

Previous studies have shown that bisphenol A (BPA) is a potential endocrine disruptor and testicular toxicant. The present study focused on exploring the impact of exposure to low dose of BPA on male reproductive development during the early embryo stage and the underlying mechanisms. BPA (20 μg/kg/day) was orally administered to female mice on days 1-5 of gestation. The male offspring were euthanized at PND10, 20, 24, 35 or PND50. We found that the mice exposed to BPA before implantation (BPA-mice) displayed retardation of testicular development with reduction of testosterone level. The diameter and epithelium height of seminiferous tubules were reduced in BPA-mice at PND35. The numbers of spermatogenic cells at different stages were significantly reduced in BPA-mice at PND50. BPA-mice showed a persistent reduction in serum and testicular testosterone levels starting from PND24, whereas GnRH mRNA was significantly increased at PND35 and PND50. The expressions of testicular StAR and P450scc in BPA-mice also decreased relative to those of the controls at PND35 and PND50. Further analysis found that the levels of histone H3 and H3K14 acetylation (Ac-H3 and H3K14ac) in the promoter of StAR were decreased relative to those of control mice, whereas the level of Ac-H3 in the promoter of P450scc was not significantly different between the groups. These results provide evidence that exposure to BPA in preimplantation embryo retards the development of testes by reducing histone acetylation of the StAR promoter to disrupt the testicular testosterone synthesis.

Epigenetic alterations induced by genotoxic occupational and environmental human chemical carcinogens: A systematic literature review

Accumulating evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations play an important role in chemically-induced carcinogenesis. Although the epigenome and genome may be equally important in carcinogenicity, the genotoxicity of chemical agents and exposure-related transcriptomic responses have been more thoroughly studied and characterized. To better understand the evidence for epigenetic alterations of human carcinogens, and the potential association with genotoxic endpoints, we conducted a systematic review of published studies of genotoxic carcinogens that reported epigenetic endpoints. Specifically, we searched for publications reporting epigenetic effects for the 28 agents and occupations included in Monograph Volume 100F of the International Agency for the Research on Cancer (IARC) that were classified as "carcinogenic to humans" (Group 1) with strong evidence of genotoxic mechanisms of carcinogenesis. We identified a total of 158 studies that evaluated epigenetic alterations for 12 of these 28 carcinogenic agents and occupations (1,3-butadiene, 4-aminobiphenyl, aflatoxins, benzene, benzidine, benzo[a]pyrene, coke production, formaldehyde, occupational exposure as a painter, sulfur mustard, and vinyl chloride). Aberrant DNA methylation was most commonly studied, followed by altered expression of non-coding RNAs and histone changes (totaling 85, 59 and 25 studies, respectively). For 3 carcinogens (aflatoxins, benzene and benzo[a]pyrene), 10 or more studies reported epigenetic effects. However, epigenetic studies were sparse for the remaining 9 carcinogens; for 4 agents, only 1 or 2 published reports were identified. While further research is needed to better identify carcinogenesis-associated epigenetic perturbations for many potential carcinogens, published reports on specific epigenetic endpoints can be systematically identified and increasingly incorporated in cancer hazard assessments.

Testicular and epididymal toxicity induced by benzo(a)pyrene, alcohol, and their combination in Wistar rats

Alcoholism and cigarette smoking are pervasive problems that have been implicated in human health. In this study, independent and combinative toxicities of alcohol and benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) were tested for reproductive toxicity in rats. Male Wistar rats were exposed to BaP (100 μg per kg body weight) on alternative days and alcohol (2 g per kg body weight per day) daily, either individually or in combination for 60 days. Exposure to BaP or alcohol significantly decreased the fertility index and reduced the number of implantations associated with elevated pre- and post-implantation losses. The relative weights of testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles, and prostate gland were significantly decreased in BaP or alcohol administered rats. Exposure to BaP or alcohol significantly decreased daily sperm production, sperm density, percentages of motile, viable, HOS-tail swelled sperm, testicular 3β- and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity levels, mRNA levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, and serum testosterone levels. Further, in silico studies revealed the binding of BaP at the hydrophobic tunnel of StAR protein. Additional studies disclosed stable interactions of BaP with the amide group of ASN150 and the hydroxyl group of THR263 by forming three hydrogen bonds. Our results also showed that treatment of rats with BaP or alcohol caused a marked increase in levels of superoxide anions, hydrogen peroxide, and lipid peroxidation in testis and epididymis. Conversely, glutathione levels and activity levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase in testis as well as epididymis decreased significantly in the experimental rats. Under the same conditions, increased fragmented DNA levels were observed in sperm. The results of the present study indicate that exposure to BaP or alcohol adversely affected the male reproductive functions, which may be, at least in part, due to androgen deficiency and/or oxidative stress-related mechanisms. Consistently, the present results also showed higher reproductive toxicity upon exposure to combinations of BaP and alcohol than upon their individual treatments. Therefore, this combination was classified as additive and synergistic responses of BaP and alcohol.

Chronic Exposure of Female Mice to an Environmental Level of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate Suppresses Estrogen Synthesis Through Reduced Histone H3K14 Acetylation of the StAR Promoter Leading to Deficits in Follicular Development and Ovulation

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) at a high dose of 10 mg/kg has been reported to affect the neuroendocrine system and exert toxic effects in rodents. The present study examined the influence of chronic exposure to a low-dose of PFOS (0.1 mg/kg/day) on female reproductive endocrine and function. Herein, we show that adult female mice exposed to PFOS by gavage for 4 months (PFOS-mice) exhibited a prolongation of diestrus without signs of toxic effects. The numbers of mature follicles and corpora luteum were significantly reduced in PFOS-mice with increase of atresic follicles. The levels of serum estrogen (E2) and progesterone at proestrus and diestrus were reduced in PFOS-mice. In comparison with controls, PFOS-mice showed a significant decrease in the levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), and gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, the number of kisspeptin neurons and the level of kiss1 mRNA in anteroventral periventricular nucleus at proestrus but not at diestrus, which could be corrected with the normalization to E2. PFOS-mice did not generate an LH-surge at proestrus, which could be rescued by the application of E2 or kisspeptin-10. Notably, the level of ovarian steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) mRNA was decreased in PFOS-mice with the reduction of histone H3K14 acetylation in StAR promoter relative to control mice, whereas the P450scc expression and histone H3K14 acetylation showed no difference between the groups. The present study provides evidence that the chronic exposure to the low-dose of PFOS through selectively reducing histone acetylation of StAR suppresses the biosynthesis of E2 to impair the follicular development and ovulation.

Investigating the effects of in utero benzene exposure on epigenetic modifications in maternal and fetal CD-1 mice

Exposure to the ubiquitous environmental pollutant benzene is positively correlated with leukemia in adults and may be associated with childhood leukemia following in utero exposure. While numerous studies implicate oxidative stress and DNA damage as playing a role in benzene-mediated carcinogenicity, emerging evidence suggests that alterations in epigenetic regulations may be involved. The present study aimed to determine whether DNA methylation and/or various histone modifications were altered following in utero benzene exposure in CD-1 mice. Global DNA methylation and promoter-specific methylation of the tumor suppressor gene, p15, were assessed. Additionally, levels of acetylated histones H3, H4, and H3K56, as well as methylated histones H3K9 and H3K27 were assessed by Western blotting. A significant decrease in global DNA methylation of maternal bone marrow was observed following benzene exposure; however no effect on global DNA methylation was detected in fetal livers. Additionally, no effect of benzene exposure was observed on p15 promoter methylation or any measured histone modifications in both maternal bone marrow and fetal livers. These results suggest that the methodology used in the present study did not reveal alterations in DNA methylation and histone modifications following in utero exposure to benzene; however further experimentation investigating these modifications at the whole genome/epigenome level, as well as at later stages of benzene-induced carcinogenesis, are warranted.

Kolaviron protects against benzo[a]pyrene-induced functional alterations along the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis in male rats

Exposure to benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is well reported to be associated with neurological and reproductive dysfunctions. The present study investigated the influence of kolaviron, an isolated biflavonoid from the seed of Garcinia kola, on functional alterations along the brain-pituitary-gonadal axis in male rats exposed to B[a]P. Benzo[a]pyrene was orally administered at a dose of 10mg/kg alone or orally co-administered with kolaviron at 100 and 200mg/kg for 15 consecutive days. Administration of B[a]P significantly (p<0.05) decreased plasma levels of pituitary hormones namely follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and prolactin but increased luteinizing hormone (LH) by 47%, 55% and 20.9%, respectively, when compared with the control. The significant decrease in gonadosomatic index (GSI) was accompanied by significant decrease in testosterone production and sperm functional parameters in the B[a]P-treated rats. Moreover, B[a]P-treated rats showed significant elevation in the circulatory concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress indices in the brain, testes and sperm of B[a]P-treated rats. Light microscopy revealed severe necrosis of the Purkinje cells in the cerebellum, neuronal degeneration of the cerebral cortex, neuronal necrosis of the hippocampus and testicular atrophy in B[a]P-treated rats. Kolaviron co-treatment significantly ameliorated B[a]P mediated damages by suppressing pro-inflammatory mediators and enhancing the antioxidant status, neuroendocrine function, sperm characteristics and improving the architecture of the brain and testes in B[a]P-treated rats. The findings in the present investigation highlight that kolaviron may be developed to novel therapeutic agent against toxicity resulting from B[a]P exposure.

Reproductive and paternal mediated developmental toxicity of benzo(a)pyrene in adult male Wistar rats

In this study, we evaluated reproductive toxic effects of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) in adult male Wistar rats.

Prenatal alcohol exposure causes the over-expression of DHAND and EHAND by increasing histone H3K14 acetylation in C57 BL/6 mice

Prenatal alcohol exposure leads to congenital heart abnormal development, its mechanisms are still unknown. Recent reports have associated alcohol exposure with histone H3 acetylation. In the present study, we have performed the experiments to test the hypothesis that histone H3K14 acetylation is the key role in the fetal heart leads to over-expression of cardiac specific genes DHAND and EHAND caused by prenatal alcohol exposure. Seventy pregnant C57BL/6 mice were divided randomly into seven groups (n=10). They were the untreated group, dimethyl sulfoxide group, alcohol exposure group, curcumin treatment group, both alcohol and curcumin treatment group, SAHA treatment group, both alcohol and SAHA treatment group. Fetal mouse hearts were collected on embryonic day 14.5. The changes of HATs activities, the acetylation levels of histone H3K14 (H3K14ac), the expression levels of cardiac specific genes DHAND and EHAND, and structure of chromatin were determined. Our data indicates that curcumin and SAHA significantly reduces and increases the activities of HATs and the levels of histone H3K14ac in fetal hearts, respectively. The expression of DHAND and EHAND is significantly down-regulated and up-regulated in the groups treated with curcumin and SAHA. Furthermore, our results from ChIP assays have shown that the histone H3K14ac connects with the DHAND and EHAND genes are significantly inhibited by curcumin and simulated by SAHA. Our study suggests that prenatal alcohol exposure causes the over-expression of DHAND and EHAND by increasing H3K14ac in mice.

Benzo[a]pyrene effects on reproductive endpoints in Fundulus heteroclitus

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) that has been implicated in modulating aromatase enzyme function with the potential to interrupt normal reproductive function. The aim of this study was to use a fish model, Fundulus heteroclitus, to assess whether BaP exposure adversely impacts reproduction. Adult fish were exposed to waterborne BaP nominal concentrations of (0, 1, or 10 μg/l) for 28 days. Males and females were combined for the second half of the exposure (days 14-28) in order to quantitate egg production and fertilization success. Egg fertilization and subsequent hatching success of F1 embryos was significantly decreased by the high dose of BaP. In males, both gonad weight and plasma testosterone concentrations were significantly reduced compared to controls by 10 μg/l BaP. Histopathological examination of testes including spermatogonia, spermatocyte and spermatid cyst areas, percentage of cysts per phase, and area of spermatozoa per seminiferous tubule were not significantly affected. Other biomarkers, including male liver weight, liver vitellogenin (vtg) mRNA expression and sperm concentrations, were also not affected. In females, estradiol concentrations were significantly reduced after BaP exposure, but egg production, gonad weight, liver weight, vtg expression and oocyte maturation were not altered. Steroid concentrations in Fundulus larvae from exposed parents at 1 and 3 weeks posthatch were not significantly changed. BaP exposure at these environmentally relevant concentrations caused negative alterations particularly in male fish to both biochemical and phenotypic biomarkers associated with reproduction and multigenerational embryo survival.

Endocrine disruption of the epigenome: a breast cancer link

The heritable component of breast cancer accounts for only a small proportion of total incidences. Environmental and lifestyle factors are therefore considered to among the major influencing components increasing breast cancer risk. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are ubiquitous in the environment. The estrogenic property of EDCs has thus shown many associations between ongoing exposures and the development of endocrine-related diseases, including breast cancer. The environment consists of a heterogenous population of EDCs and despite many identified modes of action, including that of altering the epigenome, drawing definitive correlations regarding breast cancer has been a point of much discussion. In this review, we describe in detail well-characterized EDCs and their actions in the environment, their ability to disrupt mammary gland formation in animal and human experimental models and their associations with exposure and breast cancer risk. We also highlight the susceptibility of early-life exposure to each EDC to mediate epigenetic alterations, and where possible describe how these epigenome changes influence breast cancer risk.