Benzophenone-1 stimulated the growth of BG-1 ovarian cancer cells by cell cycle regulation via an estrogen receptor alpha-mediated signaling pathway in cellular and xenograft mouse models

A review of sources, pathways, and toxic effects of human exposure to benzophenone ultraviolet light filters

Benzophenone ultraviolet light filters (BPs) are high-production-volume chemicals extensively used in personal care products, leading to widespread human exposure. Given their estrogenic properties, the potential health risks associated with exposure to BPs have become a public health concern. This review aims to summarize sources and pathways of exposure to BPs and associated health risks. Dermal exposure, primarily through the use of sunscreens, constitutes a major pathway for BP exposure. At a recommended application rate, dermal exposure of BP-3 via the application of sunscreens may reach or exceed the suggested reference dose. Other exposure pathways to BPs, such as drinking water, seafood, and packaged foods, contribute minimal to the overall dose. Inhalation is a minor pathway of exposure; however, its contribution cannot be ignored. Human exposure to BPs is an order of magnitude higher in North America than in Asia and Europe. Studies conducted on laboratory animals and cells have consistently demonstrated the toxic effects of BP exposure. BPs are estrogenic and elicit reproductive and developmental toxicities. Furthermore, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and carcinogenicity have been reported from chronic BP exposure. In addition to animal and cell studies, epidemiological investigations have identified associations between BPs and couples' fecundity and other reproductive disorders, as well as adverse birth outcomes. Further studies are urgently needed to understand the risks posed by BPs on human health.

Cell cycle, apoptosis, cell differentiation, and lipid metabolism gene expression in endometriotic tissue and exposure to parabens and benzophenones

AIM

To describe the expression profile in endometriotic tissue of genes involved in four signaling pathways related to the development and progression of endometriosis (cell cycle, apoptosis, cell differentiation and lipid metabolism) and to explore its relationship with the women exposure to chemicals with hormonal activity released from cosmetics and personal care products (PCPs).

METHODS

This cross-sectional study, encompassed within the EndEA study, comprised a subsample of 33 women with endometriosis. Expression levels of 13 genes (BMI1, CCNB1, CDK1, BAX, BCL2L1, FOXO3, SPP1, HOXA10, PDGFRA, SOX2, APOE, PLCG1 and PLCG2) in endometriotic tissue and urinary concentrations of 4 paraben (PB) and 3 benzophenone (BP) congeners were quantified. Bivariate linear and logistic regression analyses were performed to explore the associations between exposure and gene expression levels.

RESULTS

A total of 8 out 13 genes (61.5 %) were expressed in >75 % of the samples. Exposure to congeners of PBs and/or BPs was associated with the overexpression of CDK1 gene (whose protein drives cells through G2 phase and mitosis), HOXA10 and PDGFRA genes (whose proteins favor pluripotent cell differentiation to endometrial cells), and APOE (whose protein regulates the transport and metabolism of cholesterol, triglycerides and phospholipids in multiple tissues) and PLCG2 genes (whose protein creates 1D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate and diacylglycerol, two important second messengers).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that women exposure to cosmetic and PCP-released chemicals might be associated with the promotion of cell cycle and cell differentiation as well as with lipid metabolism disruption in endometriotic tissue, three crucial signaling pathways in the development and progression of endometriosis. However, further studies should be accomplished to confirm these preliminary data.

Safety of benzophenone-type UV filters: A mini review focusing on carcinogenicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity

Consumer products containing benzophenone-type ultraviolet (UV) filters (BPs) have been widely accepted by the public, resulting in the widely existence of various BPs in the human body and environment. In recent years, more and more evidences show that BPs are endocrine disruptors. In view of the continuous exposure risk of BPs and their endocrine disrupting characteristics, the carcinogenicity of BPs and their effects on reproduction and development are of particular concern. However, due to the wide varieties of BPs and the scattered toxicity studies on BPs, people have a limited understanding on the safety of BPs. Therefore, this paper systematically reviews the carcinogenicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity of BPs in order to expand people's knowledge on the health risks of BPs and screen for more safe BPs. Although existing toxicological studies are insufficient, it can be determined that BPs have different potentials for carcinogenicity, and reproductive and developmental toxicity. Among those BPs, 2-hydroxyl-4-methoxyl benzophenone needs to be used with caution due to its adverse effects on cancer cell proliferation and migration, reproductive ability, sex differentiation, neurodevelopment, and so on. It is worth noting that functional group substitutions significantly affect the interaction between BPs and biomolecules such as DNA, cancer cells, and seminal fluid, resulting in different levels of toxicity. In short, it is very necessary to evaluate the carcinogenicity, reproductive and developmental toxicity of BPs, which is of great significance for establishing reasonable BPs content standards in cosmetics, water quality treatment standards for BPs, and so on.

Benzophenone-3: Comprehensive review of the toxicological and human evidence with meta-analysis of human biomonitoring studies

BACKGROUND

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) and its major metabolite benzophenone-1 (BP-1) are widely used as UV filters in sunscreens and cosmetics to prevent sunburn and skin damage, or as stabilizers to prevent photodegradation in many commercial products. As a result, their presence is ubiquitous in the environment, wildlife and humans. Based on endocrine disruption concerns, international regulatory agencies are performing a closer evaluation.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

This work aimed to comprehensively review the available human relevant evidence for safety issues in MEDLINE/PubMed in order to create a structured database of studies, as well as to conduct an integrative analysis as part of the Human Biomonitoring for Europe (HBM4EU) Initiative.

RESULTS

A total of 1,635 titles and abstracts were screened and 254 references were evaluated and tabulated in detail, and classified in different categories: i) exposure sources and predictors; ii) human biomonitoring (HBM) exposure levels to perform a meta-analysis; iii) toxicokinetic data in both experimental animals and humans; iv) in vitro and in vivo rodent toxicity studies; and v) human data on effect biomarkers and health outcomes. Our integrative analysis showed that internal peak BP-3 concentrations achieved after a single whole-body application of a commercially available sunscreen (4% w/w) may overlap with concentrations eliciting endocrine disrupting effects in vitro, and with internal concentrations causing in vivo adverse female reproductive effects in rodents that were supported by still limited human data. The adverse effects in rodents included prolonged estrous cycle, altered uterine estrogen receptor gene expression, endometrium hyperplasia and altered proliferation and histology of the mammary gland, while human data indicated menstrual cycle hormonal alterations and increased risk of uterine fibroids and endometriosis. Among the modes of action reported (estrogenic, anti-androgenic, thyroid, etc.), BP-3 and especially BP-1 showed estrogenic activity at human-relevant concentrations, in agreement with the observed alterations in female reproductive endpoints. The meta-analysis of HBM studies identified a higher concern for North Americans, showing urinary BP-3 concentrations on average 10 and 20 times higher than European and Asian populations, respectively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our work supports that these benzophenones present endocrine disrupting properties, endorsing recent European regulatory efforts to limit human exposure. The reproducible and comprehensive database generated may constitute a point of departure in future risk assessments to support regulatory initiatives. Meanwhile, individuals should not refrain from sunscreen use. Commercially available formulations using inorganic UV filters that are practically not absorbed into systemic circulation may be recommended to susceptible populations.

Associations between concentrations of typical ultraviolet filter benzophenones in indoor dust and human hair from China: A human exposure study

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has been widely used as a typical ultraviolet (UV) filter in various personal care products. While BP-3 and its derivatives (BPs) have been detected in various environmental matrices, very little is known about the concentration profile of BPs in human hair. The associations of BPs in human hair with those in indoor dust samples collected from the same locations remain largely unclear. In this study, a total of 258 indoor dust samples and 66 human hair samples were collected across China and analyzed to determine the presence of BP-3 and its derivatives. The BP-3 concentrations ranged from 0.386 to 1230 ng/g dw in indoor dust and from 0.149 to 696 ng/g dw in human hair. No difference was found between BPs in indoor dust samples from different geographic regions (p > 0.05), whereas relatively higher BP concentrations were observed for dust from urban regions than dust from rural ones (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was found between the BP-3 concentrations of indoor dust and human hair samples (p < 0.05). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of BPs for humans from indoor dust showed a gender difference (females > males; p < 0.05), with the highest EDI value being found in Southwest China (males: 35.5 pg/kg bw/day; females: 40.6 pg/kg bw/day). This study provides the concentration profiles of BPs in human hair and elucidates the associations between the BP concentrations in indoor dust samples and human hair samples collected across China.

Benzophenone-1 induced aberrant proliferation and metastasis of ovarian cancer cells via activated ERα and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways

Benzophenone-1 (BP-1) belongs to personal care product-related contaminants of emerging concern and has been recently reported to induce xenoestrogenic effects. However, the underlying mechanisms leading to the activation of target receptors and subsequent various adverse outcomes remain unclear, which is beneficial to safety and health risk assessment of benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters with their widespread occurrence. Herein, we investigated disrupting effects of BP-1 at environmentally relevant concentrations (10^-9-10^-6 M) on estrogen receptor (ER) α-associated signaling pathways. Molecular dynamics simulations together with yeast-based assays revealed the steady binding of BP-1 to ERα ligand binding domain (LBD) and hence the observed agonistic activity. BP-1 triggered interaction between ERα and β-catenin in human SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells and caused translocation of β-catenin from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, leading to aberrant activation of Wnt/β-catenin. BP-1 consequently induced dissemination of SKOV3 via regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transitions (EMT) biomarkers including minimally downregulating ZO-1 gene to 78.0 ± 10.1% and maximally upregulating MMP9 gene to 144.1 ± 29.7% and promoted 1.03-1.83 fold proliferation, migration and invasion of SKOV3. We provide the first evidence that the BP-1 activated ERα triggers crosstalk between ERα and Wnt/β-catenin pathway, leading to the abnormal stimulation and progression of SKOV3 cancer cells.

2D/2D Heterojunction systems for the removal of organic pollutants: A review

Photocatalysis is considered to be an effective way to remove organic pollutants, but the key to photocatalysis is finding a high-efficiency and stable photocatalyst. 2D materials-based heterojunction has aroused widespread concerns in photocatalysis because of its merits in more active sites, adjustable band gaps and shorter charge transfer distance. Among various 2D heterojunction systems, 2D/2D heterojunction with a face-to-face contact interface is regarded as a highly promising photocatalyst. Due to the strong coupling interface in 2D/2D heterojunction, the separation and migration of photoexcited electron-hole pairs are facilitated, which enhances the photocatalytic performance. Thus, the design of 2D/2D heterojunction can become a potential model for expanding the application of photocatalysis in the removal of organic pollutants. Herein, in this review, we first summarize the fundamental principles, classification, and strategies for elevating photocatalytic performance. Then, the synthesis and application of the 2D/2D heterojunction system for the removal of organic pollutants are discussed. Finally, the challenges and perspectives in 2D/2D heterojunction photocatalysts and their application for removing organic pollutants are presented.

Environmental chemicals, breast cancer progression and drug resistance

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most common causes of cancer in the world and the second leading cause of cancer deaths among women. Mortality is associated mainly with the development of metastases. Identification of the mechanisms involved in metastasis formation is, therefore, a major public health issue. Among the proposed risk factors, chemical environment and pollution are increasingly suggested to have an effect on the signaling pathways involved in metastatic tumor cells emergence and progression. The purpose of this article is to summarize current knowledge about the role of environmental chemicals in breast cancer progression, metastasis formation and resistance to chemotherapy. Through a scoping review, we highlight the effects of a wide variety of environmental toxicants, including persistent organic pollutants and endocrine disruptors, on invasion mechanisms and metastatic processes in BC. We identified the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and cancer-stemness (the stem cell-like phenotype in tumors), two mechanisms suspected of playing key roles in the development of metastases and linked to chemoresistance, as potential targets of contaminants. We discuss then the recently described pro-migratory and pro-invasive Ah receptor signaling pathway and conclude that his role in BC progression is still controversial. In conclusion, although several pertinent pathways for the effects of xenobiotics have been identified, the mechanisms of actions for multiple other molecules remain to be established. The integral role of xenobiotics in the exposome in BC needs to be further explored through additional relevant epidemiological studies that can be extended to molecular mechanisms.

Environmental toxin exposure in polycystic ovary syndrome women and possible ovarian neoplastic repercussion

Purpose: Over the last two decades, increasing attention has been paid to environmental toxins and their effects on the female reproductive system. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances or mixtures that can mimic the action of steroid hormones and interfere with their metabolism. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are proinflammatory molecules that can interact with cell surface receptors and mediate the triggering of proinflammatory pathways and oxidative stress. The purpose of this review is to explore the effects of environmental toxin exposure in the pathogenesis of both polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and OC (ovarian cancer), considered separately, and also to evaluate possible neoplastic ovarian repercussion after exposure in patients diagnosed with PCOS.Materials and methods: We searched PubMed for articles published in the English language with the use of the following MeSH search terms: "polycystic ovary syndrome" and "ovarian cancer" combined with "endocrine disruptors". Titles and abstracts were examined and full articles that met the selection criteria were retrieved. A manual search of review articles and cross-references completed the search.Results: Extensive data from different studies collected in recent years concerning the effects of EDC/AGE exposure have confirmed their role in the pathophysiology of both PCOS and OC. They favor PCOS/OC development through different mechanisms that finally lead to hormonal and metabolic disruption and epigenetic modifications.Conclusions: Environmental toxin exposure in PCOS women could favor neoplastic transformation by exacerbating and potentiating some PCOS features. Further research, although difficult, is needed in order to prevent further diffusion of these substances in the environment, or at least to provide adequate information to the population considered at risk.

Implication of environmental estrogens on breast cancer treatment and progression

Breast cancer is the most diagnosed malignancy among women in the United States. Approximately 70% of breast tumors express estrogen receptor alpha and are deemed ER-positive. ER-positive breast tumors depend upon endogenous estrogens to promote ER-mediated cellular proliferation. Decades of research have led to a fundamental understanding of the role ER signaling in this disease and this knowledge has led to significant advancements in the clinical use of antiestrogens for breast cancer treatment. However, adjuvant breast cancer recurrence and metastatic disease progression due to endocrine therapy resistance are prominent and unresolved issues. The established role that estrogens play in breast cancer pathogenesis explains why some patients initially respond to endocrine therapy but also why a significant number of patients become refractory to antiestrogen treatment. It is been hypothesized that exposure to environmental steroid hormone mimics and/or acquired mechanisms of resistance may explain why endocrine therapy fails in a subset of breast cancer patients. This review will highlight: 1) the relationship between ER signaling and breast cancer pathogenesis, 2) the implication of environmental exposures on steroid hormone regulated processes including breast cancer, and 3) the unresolved issue of endocrine therapy resistance.

Presence of benzophenones commonly used as UV filters and absorbers in paired maternal and fetal samples

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated widespread exposure of humans to certain benzophenones commonly used as UV filters or UV absorbers; some of which have been demonstrated to have endocrine disrupting abilities.

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether benzophenones present in pregnant women pass through the placental barrier to amniotic fluid and further to the fetal blood circulation.

METHODS

A prospective study of 200 pregnant women with simultaneously collected paired samples of amniotic fluid and maternal serum and urine. In addition, unique samples of human fetal blood (n=4) obtained during cordocentesis: and cord blood (n=23) obtained at delivery, both with paired maternal samples of serum and urine collected simultaneously, were used. All biological samples were analyzed by TurboFlow-liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry for seven different benzophenones.

RESULTS

Benzophenone-1 (BP-1), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), 4-methyl-benzophenone (4-MBP), and 4-hydroxy-benzophenone (4-HBP) were all detectable in amniotic fluid and cord blood samples and except 4-HBP also in fetal blood; albeit at a low frequency. BP-1 and BP-3 were measured at ~10-times lower concentrations in fetal and cord blood compared to maternal serum and 1000-times lower concentration compared to maternal urine levels. Therefore BP-1 and BP-3 were only detectable in the fetal circulation in cases of high maternal exposure indicating some protection by the placental barrier. 4-MBP seems to pass into fetal and cord blood more freely with a median 1:3 ratio between cord blood and maternal serum levels. Only for BP-3, which the women seemed to be most exposed to, did the measured concentrations in maternal urine and serum correlate to concentrations measured in amniotic fluid. Thus, for BP-3, but not for the other tested benzophenones, maternal urinary levels seem to be a valid proxy for fetal exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

Detectable levels of several of the investigated benzophenones in human amniotic fluid as well as in fetal and cord blood calls for further investigations of the toxicokinetic and potential endocrine disrupting properties of these compounds in order for better assessment of the risk to the developing fetus.

Therapy Effects of Wogonin on Ovarian Cancer Cells

Background

Wogonin is a plant monoflavonoid and has been reported to induce apoptosis of cancer cells and show inhibitory effect on cancer cell growth. However, the detailed and underlying molecular mechanisms are not elucidated. In this study, we investigated the molecular and biological effects of wogonin in human ovarian A2780 cancer cells.

Materials and Methods

We determined the effects of wogonin on the changes of cell cycling and apoptotic responses of cells. Western blot analysis was used to measure the effects of wogonin on protein expressions.

Results

Our results showed that treatment with wogonin inhibited the cancer cell proliferation, decreased the percentage of G0/G1 subpopulation, and reduced invasiveness of A2780 cells. Exposure to wogonin also resulted in downregulated protein levels of estrogen receptor alpha (ER-α), VEGF, Bcl-2, and Akt and increased expressions of Bax and p53. In addition, exposure to wogonin increased caspase-3 cleavage and induced apoptosis in A2780 cells. Our study further showed that MPP, a specific ER-α inhibitor, significantly enhanced antitumor effects of wogonin in A2780 cells.

Conclusion

Our results suggest a potential clinical impact of wogonin on management of ovarian cancer.

Low-cost approach to increase the analysis throughput of bar adsorptive microextraction (BAµE) combined with environmentally-friendly renewable sorbent phase of recycled diatomaceous earth

In this study, a novel apparatus for bar adsorptive microextraction (BAµE) using a voltage regulator was proposed as an alternative tool to improve the analysis throughput. In addition, recycled diatomaceous earth obtained as a brewery residue was employed as a biosorbent coating for the determination of methyl paraben, ethyl paraben, benzophenone and triclocarban in water samples by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The use of the extraction devices, comprised of floating adsorptive bars of 7.5mm length, in the extractions with magnetic stirrers linked to a voltage regulator enabled the analysis of multiple samples, simultaneously. The method optimization was carried out by univariate and multivariate analyses. The optimal conditions for the method were sample solution at pH 5, extraction time of 90min and liquid desorption in 100µL of acetonitrile:methanol (50:50, v/v) for 15min. The total sample preparation time was 17.5min per sample for a simultaneous batch of six extractions. The R² values for the calibration curves obtained were higher than 0.9985. The limits of detection (LODs) varied from 0.19 to 2μgL^-1 and the limits of quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.63 to 6.9μgL^-1. The method was applied to freshwater samples collected from Peri Lagoon (Florianópolis, SC, Brazil) and the relative recoveries ranged from 63% to 124% with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of < 20% (n = 2). The RSD values for the reproducibility of the performance of the magnetic stirrers and inter-device extraction efficiency were lower than 14% (n = 3) and 11% (n = 3), respectively.

Effect of dioxin and 17β-estradiol on the expression of cytochrome P450 1A1 gene via an estrogen receptor dependent pathway in cellular and xenografted models

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A1 plays a major role in the metabolic activation of procarcinogens to carcinogens via aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) pathway. Especially, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) is known as an agonist of AhR. In estrogen responsive cancers, 17β-estradiol (E2) may influence on AhR dependent expression of CYP1 family via the interaction between estrogen receptor (ER) and AhR. In the present study, the effect of E2/ER on the expression of AhR and CYP1A1 genes was investigated for MCF-7 clonal variant (MCF-7 CV) breast cancer cells expressing ER. In reverse transcription-PCR and Western blot analysis, mRNA expression level of AhR was not altered, but its protein expression level was increased by TCDD or E2. The transcriptional and translational levels of CYP1A1 appeared to be increased by TCDD or E2. The increased expression of AhR and CYP1A1 induced by E2 was restored to the control level by the co-treatment of ICI 182,780, indicating that E2 induced the protein expression levels of AhR and CYP1A1 like TCDD via an ER dependent pathway. In an in vivo xenograft mouse model transplanted with MCF-7 CV cells, the protein expression levels of AhR and CYP1A1 of tumor masses were also increased by E2 or TCDD. Taken together, these results indicate that E2 may promote AhR dependent expression of CYP1A1 via ER dependent pathway in MCF-7 CV cells expressing ER in the absence of TCDD, an agonist of AhR. The relevance of E2 and ER in CYP1A1 activation of estrogen responsive cancers may be targeted for developing more effective cancer treatments.

Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals and Epigenetic Modifications in Ovarian Cancer: A Review

Ovarian cancer (OC) is a relatively fatal female reproductive malignancy. Since the underlying causes are uncertain, it brings us to believe that both genetic and external factors contribute toward development of this lethal disorder. Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the form of occupational usage of pesticides, fungicides, herbicides, plasticizers, cosmetics, and so on is potentially carcinogenic and their ability to cause epigenetic modifications has led us to hypothesize that they may play a catalytic role in OC progression. In response to synthetic chemicals, animal models have demonstrated disturbances in the development of ovaries and steroid hormonal levels but in humans, more research is required. The present review is an attempt to address the impact of EDCs on the hormonal system and gene methylation levels that may lead to malfunctioning of the ovaries which may consequently develop in the form of cancer. It can be concluded that endocrine disruptors do have a potential carcinogenicity and their high proportions in human body may cause epigenetic modifications, prompting ovarian surface epithelium to grow in an abnormal manner.

Fludioxonil induced the cancer growth and metastasis via altering epithelial-mesenchymal transition via an estrogen receptor-dependent pathway in cellular and xenografted breast cancer models

Fludioxonil is an antifungal agent used in agricultural applications that is present at measurable amounts in fruits and vegetables. In this study, the effects of fludioxonil on cancer cell viability, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and metastasis were examined in MCF-7 clonal variant breast cancer cell (MCF-7 CV cells) with estrogen receptors (ERs). MCF-7 CV cells were cultured with 0.1% DMSO (control), 17β-estradiol (E2; 1 ×10^-9 M, positive control), or fludioxonil (10^-5 -10^-8 M). MTT assay revealed that fludioxonil increased MCF-7 CV cell proliferation 1.2 to 1.5 times compared to the control, while E2 markedly increased the cell proliferation by about 3.5 times. When the samples were co-treated with ICI 182,780 (10^-8 M), an ER antagonist, fludioxonil-induced cell proliferation was reversed to the level of the control. Protein levels of cyclin E1, cyclin D1, Snail, and N-cadherin increased in response to fludioxonil as the reaction to E2, but these increases were not observed when fludioxonil was administered with ICI 182,780. Moreover, the protein level of p21 and E-cadherin decreased in response to treatment with fludioxonil, but remained at the control level when co-treated with ICI 182,780. In xenografted mouse models transplanted with MCF-7 CV cells, fludioxonil significantly increased the tumor mass formation by about 2.5 times as E2 did when compared to vehicle (0.1% DMSO) during the experimental period (80 days). Immunohistochemistry revealed that the protein level of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), Snail, and cathepsin D increased in response to fludioxonil as the reaction to E2. These results imply that fludioxonil may have a potential to induce growth or metastatic behaviors of breast cancer by regulation of the expression of cell cycle-, EMT-, and metastasis-related genes via the ER-dependent pathway. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1439-1454, 2017.

Treatment of BG-1 Ovarian Cancer Cells Expressing Estrogen Receptors with Lambda-cyhalothrin and Cypermethrin Caused a Partial Estrogenicity Via an Estrogen Receptor-dependent Pathway

Synthetic pyrethroids (SPs) are the most common pesticides which are recently used for indoor pest control. The widespread use of SPs has resulted in the increased exposure to wild animals and humans. Recently, some SPs are suspected as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and have been assessed for their potential estrogenicity by adopting various analyzing assays. In this study, we examined the estrogenic effects of lambda-cyhalothrin (LC) and cypermethrin (CP), the most commonly used pesticides in Korea, using BG-1 ovarian cancer cells expressing estrogen receptors (ERs). To evaluate the estrogenic activities of two SPs, LC and CP, we employed MTT assay and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in LC or CP treated BG-1 ovarian cancer cells. In MTT assay, LC (10(-6) M) and CP (10(-5) M) significantly induced the growth of BG-1 cancer cells. LC or CP-induced cell growth was antagonized by addition of ICI 182,720 (10(-8) M), an ER antagonist, suggesting that this effect appears to be mediated by an ER-dependent manner. Moreover, RT-PCR results showed that transcriptional level of cyclin D1, a cell cycle-regulating gene, was significantly up-regulated by LC and CP, while these effects were reversed by co-treatment of ICI 182,780. However, p21, a cyclin D-ckd-4 inhibitor gene, was not altered by LC or CP. Moreover, ERα expression was not significantly changed by LC and CP, while downregulated by E2. Finally, in xenografted mouse model transplanted with human BG-1 ovarian cancer cells, E2 significantly increased the tumor volume compare to a negative control, but LC did not. Taken together, these results suggest that LC and CP may possess estrogenic potentials by stimulating the growth of BG-1 ovarian cancer cells via partially ER signaling pathway associated with cell cycle as did E2, but this estrogenic effect was not found in in vivo mouse model.

Couples' urinary concentrations of benzophenone-type ultraviolet filters and the secondary sex ratio

The secondary sex ratio (SSR), defined as the ratio of males to females at birth, has been investigated in relation to endocrine disruptors to search for environmental toxicants perturbing human sex selection. Benzophenone (BP)-type ultraviolet (UV) filters, which are used in sunscreens and personal care products, have been reported to exert estrogenic and anti-androgenic activities. This study aimed to evaluate the association between maternal, paternal, and couple urinary concentrations of BP-type UV filters and the SSR, given the absence of previous investigation. The study cohort comprised 220 couples who were enrolled in the Longitudinal Investigation of Fertility and the Environment (LIFE) Study between 2005 and 2009 prior to conception and who had a singleton birth during the follow-up period. Couples' urinary concentrations of five BP-type UV filters (ng/mL) were measured using triple-quadrupole tandem mass spectrometry: 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1), 2,2',4,4'-tetrahydroxybenzophenone (BP-2), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-3), 2,2'-dihydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP-8), and 4-hydroxybenzophenone (4-OH-BP). Modified Poisson regression models were used to estimate the relative risks (RRs) of a male birth for each BP-type UV filter, after adjusting for potential confounders. When maternal and paternal urinary BP-type UV filter concentrations were modeled jointly, both maternal BP-2 (2nd vs 1st tertile, RR, 0.62, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.43-0.91) and paternal BP-2 (3rd vs 1st tertile, RR, 0.67, 95% CI, 0.45-0.99; p-trend, 0.04) were significantly associated with an excess of female births. Contrarily, maternal 4-OH-BP was significantly associated with an excess of male births (2nd vs 1st tertile, RR, 1.87, 95% CI, 1.27-2.74; 3rd vs 1st tertile, RR, 1.80, 95% CI, 1.13-2.87; p-trend, 0.02). Our findings provide the first evidence suggesting that BP-type UV filters may affect the SSR. However, future corroboration is needed, given the exploratory design of this study.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and female cancer: Informing the patients

Breast and uterine cancer are the most frequent female gender related neoplasms whose growth is mostly estrogen dependent. Therefore, any EDC exhibiting estrogenic effects may increase the risk of these two malignancies. This review focuses on the potential role of EDCs with estrogenic potential on the risk of breast and uterine neoplasms but also points to the possible role of the exposure to EDCs in the pathogenesis of ovarian and cervical cancer. It also underlines the necessity of informing the public about the presence of EDCs in common consumer products, their detrimental health effects and methods of reducing the exposure risk.

Benzophenone 1 induced photogenotoxicity and apoptosis via release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO at environmental UV radiation

Solar UV radiation is main factor of photocarcinogenesis, photoageing, and phototoxicity; thus, protection from UV radiation is major concern. Sunscreens containing UV filters are suggested as sun safe practices, but safety of UV filters remains in controversies. Benzophenone-1 (BP1) is commonly used in sunscreens as UV blocker. We assessed the photogenotoxicity and apoptotic parameters in human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells) by western blot, immunocytochemistry, flowcytometry, comet assay and TEM imaging. Our results exposed that BP1 photosensitized and generated intracellular ROS (2.02 folds) under sunlight/UVR. Decrease in cell viability was recorded as 80.06%, 60.98% and 56.24% under sunlight, UVA and UVB, respectively. Genotoxic potential of BP1 was confirmed through photomicronuclei and CPDs formation. BP1 enhanced lipid peroxidation and leakage of LDH enzyme (61.7%). Apoptotic cells were detected by AnnexinV/PI staining and sub G1 population of cell cycle. BP1 induced up regulation of apoptotic proteins Bax/Bcl2 ratio, Apaf-1, cytochrome c, Smac/DIABLO and cleaved caspase 3 was noticed. Down regulation of pro caspase 3 was inhibited by Z-VAD-fmk (inhibitor of caspase). Thus, study established the involvement of BP1 in photogenotoxicity and apoptosis via release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO. These findings suggest sunscreen user to avoid BP1 in cosmetics preparation for its topical application.

Effect of fenhexamid and cyprodinil on the expression of cell cycle- and metastasis-related genes via an estrogen receptor-dependent pathway in cellular and xenografted ovarian cancer models

Fenhexamid and cyprodinil are antifungal agents (pesticides) used for agriculture, and are present at measurable amounts in fruits and vegetables. In the current study, the effects of fenhexamid and cyprodinil on cancer cell proliferation and metastasis were examined. Additionally, the protein expression levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin E as well as cathepsin D were analyzed in BG-1 ovarian cancer cells that express estrogen receptors (ERs). The cells were cultured with 0.1% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO; control), 17β-estradiol (E2; 10(-9)M), and fenhexamid or cyprodinil (10(-5)-10(-7)M). Results of a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that fenhexamid and cyprodinil increased BG-1 cell proliferation about 1.5 to 2 times similar to E2 (5 times) compared to the control. When the cells were co-treated with ICI 182,780 (10(-8)M), an ER antagonist, the proliferation of pesticide-treated BG-1 cells was decreased to the level of the control. A wound healing assay revealed that the pesticides reduced the disrupted area in the BG-1 cell monolayer similar to E2. Protein levels of cyclin D1 and E as well as cathepsin D were increased by fenhexamid and cyprodinil. This effect was reversed by co-treatment with ICI 182,780. In a xenograft mouse model with transplanted BG-1 cells, cyprodinil significantly increased tumor mass formation about 2 times as did E2 (6 times) compared to the vehicle (0.1% DMSO) over an 80-day period. In contrast, fenhexamid did not promote ovarian tumor formation in this mouse model. Cyprodinil also induced cell proliferation along with the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and cathepsin D in tumor tissues similar to E2. Taken together, these results imply that fenhexamid and cyprodinil may have disruptive effects on ER-expressing cancer by altering the cell cycle- and metastasis-related gene expression via an ER-dependent pathway.

Growth and migration of LNCaP prostate cancer cells are promoted by triclosan and benzophenone-1 via an androgen receptor signaling pathway

Prostate cancer (PCa) is a global health concern in human males. Recently, it has been known that endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) may act as an exogenous factor to enhance cancer progression. Triclosan (TCS) and 2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone (BP-1) were reported to bioaccumulate in human bodies through the skin absorption. However, there has been insufficient evidence on the findings that the intervention of EDCs may promote the cancer progression in PCa. In the present study, to verify the risk of TCS and BP-1 to a PCa progression, cancer cell proliferation and migration were investigated in LNCaP PCa cells. TCS and BP-1 increased LNCaP cell proliferative activity and migration as did dihydrotestosterone (DHT). This phenomenon was reversed by the treatment with bicalutamide, a well known AR antagonist, suggesting that TCS and BP-1 acted as a xenoandrogen in LNCaP cells via AR signaling pathway by mimicking the action of DHT. A Western blot assay was performed to identify the alterations in the translational levels of cell growth- and metastasis-related markers, i.e., c-fos, cyclin E, p21, and cathepsin D genes. The expressions of genes related with G1/S transition of cell cycle and metastasis were increased by DHT, TCS, and BP-1, while the expression of p21 protein responsible for cell cycle arrest was reduced by DHT, TCS, and BP-1. Taken together, these results indicated that TCS and BP-1 may enhance the progression of PCa by regulating cell cycle and metastasis-related genes via AR signaling pathway.

Cytochrome P450 1 family and cancers

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcriptional factor that dimerizes with aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT). This complex binds to xenobiotics response element (XREs), and then starts the expressions of downstream genes including cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1 family members: CYP1A1, CYP1A2 and CYP1B1. Role of CYP1 family is involved in the metabolism of endogenous hormones, xenobiotics and drug. The expression of CYP1 family is regulated by estradiol (E2) or xenobiotics in diverse cancers. In breast cancers expressing estrogen receptors (ERs), level of CYP1B1 is increased by E2 and reversed by an estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182,780 or 4-hydrotamoxifen, which indicates that the expression of CYP1 family in downstream region of AhR is regulated by an activation of ERα. In metabolic pathways, E2 is converted into 4-hydroxyestradiol by CYP1B1, which can be converted into mainly estradiol-3,4-quinone, a potential carcinogen, by peroxidase. Increased expression of CYP1 family indicates the possibility of carcinogenesis by exposure of xenobiotics in endometrial and ovarian cancers. Apart from roles of CYP1 family in relation with ER pathway, CYP1 family is over-expressed in ER independent cancers. CYP1A1 exhibits hydroxylase activity in oxidation of arachidonic acid, which has been transformed to 12(R)-hydrxyeicosatetraenoic (HETEs), a potent activator of AhR activity. On the basis of results, phytoestrogens and dexamethasone are provided as cancer therapy regulating the expression of CYP1 family. Thus, this review focuses on the role(s) of CYP1 family in ER-dependent or ER-independent cancers and the potential for cancer therapy to target CYP1 family in these cancers.

Benzophenone-1 and nonylphenol stimulated MCF-7 breast cancer growth by regulating cell cycle and metastasis-related genes via an estrogen receptor α-dependent pathway

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) are defined as environmental compounds that produce adverse health manifestations in mammals by disrupting the endocrine system. Benzophenone-1 (2,4-dihydroxybenzophenone, BP1) and nonylphenol (NP), which are discharged from numerous industrial products, are known EDC. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of BP1 and NP on proliferation and metastasis of MCF-7 human breast cancer cells expressing estrogen receptors (ER). Treatment with BP1 (10⁻⁵-10⁻⁷ M) and NP (10⁻⁶-10⁻⁷ M) promoted proliferation of MCF-7 cells similar to the positive control 17 -beta-estradiol (E2). When ICI 182,780, an ER antagonist, was co-incubated with E2, BP1, or NP, proliferation of MCF-7 cells returned to the level of a control. Addition of BP1 or NP markedly induced migration of MCF-7 cells similar to E2. To elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms produced by these EDC, alterations in transcriptional and translational levels of proliferation and metastasis-related markers, including cyclin D1, p21, and cathepsin D, were determined. Data showed increase in expression of cyclin D1 and cathepsin D and decrease in p21 at both transcriptional and translational levels. However, BP1- or NP-induced alterations of these genes were blocked by ICI 182,780, suggesting that changes in expression of these genes may be regulated by an ERα-dependent pathway. In conclusion, BP1 and NP may accelerate growth of MCF-7 breast cancer cells by regulating cell cycle-related genes and promote cancer metastasis through amplification of cathepsin D.

Estrogen signaling crosstalk: Implications for endocrine resistance in ovarian cancer

Resistance to anti-estrogen therapies is a prominent challenge in the treatment of ovarian cancer. Tumors develop endocrine resistance by acquiring adaptations that help them rely on alternative oncogenic signaling cascades, which crosstalk with estrogen signaling pathways. An understanding of estrogen signaling crosstalk with these growth promoting cascades is essential in order to maximize efficacy of anti-estrogen treatments in ovarian cancer. Herein, we provide an overview of estrogen signaling in ovarian cancer and discuss the major challenges associated with anti-estrogen therapies. We also review what is currently known about how genomic and non-genomic estrogen signaling pathways crosstalk with several major oncogenic signaling cascades. The insights provided here illustrate existing strategies for targeting endocrine resistant ovarian tumors and may help identify new strategies to improve the treatment of this disease.

An ovarian cancer model with positive ER: Reversion of ER antagonist resistance by Src blockade

Approximately 60% of ovarian cancers are positive for the estrogen receptor (ER); however, ER-targeted treatment is disappointing due to drug resistance as compared with breast cancer. In estrogen-sensitive cancers, estrogen activates Src to phosphorylate p27 promoting its degradation and increasing cell cycle progression. Since Src is frequently activated in ovarian cancers, we investigated whether combined Src and ER blockade by saracatinib and fulvestrant would circumvent anti-estrogen resistance. In 20 out of 40 enrolled patients with immunohistochemically ER-positive ovarian cancer, phosphorylated Src (p-Src) at the site of 416 tyrosine was expressed with a propensity for metastasis and a poorer disease-free survival (DFS) at 3 years following ER antagonist treatment. The effects of ER and Src blockade on cell cycle were assayed in estrogen receptor α (ERα)-positive ovarian cancer. We observed that Src activity was fairly greater in anti-estrogen-resistant ovarian cancer cells than that in the anti-estrogen-sensitive cell line. Estrogen activated Src via ER-Src binding and ER translocation from cytoplasm to nucleus. Mitogenesis was mediated via ERα, not ERβ. Combined saracatinib and fulvestrant increased p27 and inhibited cell cycle progression. Furthermore, dual therapy induced autophagy and inhibited ovarian cancer xenograft growth more effectively than monotherapy. Saracatinib facilitated the therapeutic effects of fulvestrant by antagonizing the estrogen-mediated Src activation. These are supportive of further preclinical assessment of combined fulvestrant and saracatinib in patients with ovarian cancer.

Occurrences, toxicities, and ecological risks of benzophenone-3, a common component of organic sunscreen products: a mini-review

Benzophenone-3 (BP-3) has been widely used in sunscreens and many other consumer products, including cosmetics. The widespread use of BP-3 has resulted in its release into the water environment, and hence its potential impact on aquatic ecosystem is of concern. To better understand the risk associated with BP-3 in aquatic ecosystems, we conducted a thorough review of available articles regarding the physicochemical properties, toxicokinetics, environmental occurrence, and toxic effects of BP-3 and its suspected metabolites. BP-3 is lipophilic, photostable, and bioaccumulative, and can be rapidly absorbed via oral and dermal routes. BP-3 is reported to be transformed into three major metabolites in vivo, i.e., benzophenone-1 (BP-1), benzophenone-8 (BP-8), and 2,3,4-trihydroxybenzophenone (THB). BP-1 has a longer biological half-life than its parent compound and exhibits greater estrogenic potency in vitro. BP-3 has been detected in water, soil, sediments, sludge, and biota. The maximum detected level in ambient freshwater and seawater is 125ng/L and 577.5ng/L, respectively, and in wastewater influent is 10,400ng/L. The major sources of BP-3 are reported to be human recreational activities and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. BP-3 and its derivatives have been also detected in fish lipid. In humans, BP-3 has been detected in urine, serum, and breast milk samples worldwide. BP-1 has also been detected in placental tissues of delivering women. While sunscreens and cosmetics are known to be major sources of exposure, the fact that BP-3 has been detected frequently among young children and men suggests other sources. An increasing number of in vitro studies have indicated the endocrine disrupting capacity of BP-3. Based on a receptor binding assay, BP-3 has shown strong anti-androgenic and weak estrogenic activities but at the same time BP-3 displays anti-estrogenic activity as well. Predicted no effect concentration (PNEC) for BP-3 was derived at 1.32μg/L. The levels observed in ambient water are generally an order of magnitude lower than the PNEC, but in wastewater influents, hazard quotients (HQs) greater than 1 were noted. Considering limited ecotoxicological information and significant seasonal and spatial variations of BP-3 in water, further studies on environmental monitoring and potential consequences of long-term exposure in aquatic ecosystem are warranted.

microRNA-206 overexpression inhibits cellular proliferation and invasion of estrogen receptor α-positive ovarian cancer cells

The expression levels of estrogen receptor (ER α) are closely associated with estrogen-dependent growth, invasion and response to endocrine therapy in ERα-positive ovarian cancer. However, the underlying regulatory mechanisms remain to be fully understood. Previous studies have demonstrated that ERα is a direct target of microRNA (miR)-206. miR-206 has been found to be an important tumor suppressor in several cancer types, including ovarian, gastric and laryngeal cancer. However, the specific role of miR-206 in ovarian cancer remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of miR-206 in ER-a positive ovarian cancer in vitro. The present study demonstrated that miR-206 is significantly downregulated in ERα-positive but not ERα‑negative ovarian cancer tissues, compared with normal ovarian epithelium tissue. It was also found that the expression of miR-206 was decreased in ERα-positive ovarian cancer cell lines, CAOV-3 and BG-1, compared with normal ovarian epithelium tissues. This suggests that miR-206 may play a role in ERα-positive ovarian cancer cells via an estrogen-dependent mechanism. Further analysis revealed that 17β-E2 treatment significantly promoted cellular proliferation and invasion of estrogen-dependent CAOV-3 and BG-1 cells, which could be reversed by the introduction of miR-206 mimics. In conclusion, the present study suggests that miR-206 has an inhibitory role in estrogen-dependent ovarian cancer cells. Thus, miR-206 may be a promising candidate for the endocrine therapy of ERα-positive ovarian cancer.

Capilliposide Isolated from Lysimachia capillipes Hemsl. Induces ROS Generation, Cell Cycle Arrest, and Apoptosis in Human Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Cell Lines

Several data has reported that capilliposide, extracted from a traditional Chinese medicine, Lysimachia capillipes Hemsl. (LC) could exhibit inhibitory effect on cell proliferation in various cancers. The current study investigated the antitumor efficacy of Capilliposide and elucidated its potential molecular mechanism involved in vivo and vitro. Our results indicated that LC capilliposide inhibited proliferation of lung cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner. LC capilliposide induced cell cycle arrest at the S stage and enhanced apoptosis in NSCLC cells. Treatment with LC capilliposide increased the intracellular level of ROS, which activated the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Blockage of ROS by NAC highly reversed the effect of LC capilliposide on apoptosis. Xenograft tumor growth was significantly lower in the LC-treated group compared with the untreated control group (P < 0.05). The results also show that LC treatment does not produce any overt signs of acute toxicity in vivo. These findings demonstrate that LC capilliposide could exert an anti-tumor effect on NSCLC through mitochondrial-mediated apoptotic pathway and the activation of ROS is involved.

Effects of 4-nonylphenol and bisphenol A on stimulation of cell growth via disruption of the transforming growth factor-β signaling pathway in ovarian cancer models

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) signaling pathway is a major pathway in cellular processes such as cell growth, apoptosis, and cellular homeostasis. The signaling pathway activated by 17β-estadiol (E2) appeared to inhibit the TGF-β signaling pathway by cross-talk with the TGF-β components in estrogen receptor (ER) positive cells. In this study, we examined the inhibitory effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including 4-nonylphenol (NP), 4-otylphenol (OP), bisphenol A (BPA), and benzophenon-1 (BP-1), in the TGF-β signaling pathway in BG-1 ovarian cancer cells expressing estrogen receptors (ERs). The transcriptional and translational levels of TGF-β related genes were examined by reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), Western blot analysis, and xenograft mouse models of ovarian cancer cells. As a result, treatment with NP, OP, and BPA induced the expressions of SnoN, a TGF-β pathway inhibitor, and c-Fos, a TGF-β target transcription factor. Treatment with NP, BPA, and BP-1 resulted in decreased phosphorylation of Smad3, a downstream target of TGF-β. These results indicate that NP and BPA may stimulate the proliferation of BG-1 cells via inhibition of the TGF-β signaling pathway. In a xenograft mouse model, transplanted BG-1 ovarian cancer cells showed significantly decreased phosphorylation of Smad3 and increased expression of SnoN in the ovarian tumor masses following treatment with E2, NP, or BPA. In parallel with an in vitro model, the expressions of these TGF-β signaling pathway were similarly regulated by NP or BPA in a xenograft mouse model. These results support the fact that the existence of an unproven relationship between EDCs/ER-α and TGF-β signaling pathway and a further study are required in order to verify more profound and distinct mechanism(s) for the disturbance of the TGF-β signaling pathway by diverse EDCs.

Anticancer effect of genistein on BG-1 ovarian cancer growth induced by 17 β-estradiol or bisphenol A via the suppression of the crosstalk between estrogen receptor α and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor signaling pathways

The interaction between estrogen receptor (ER) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R) signaling pathway plays an important role in proliferation of and resistance to endocrine therapy to estrogen dependent cancers. Estrogen (E2) upregulates the expression of components of IGF-1 system and induces the downstream of mitogenic signaling cascades via phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1). In the present study, we evaluated the xenoestrogenic effect of bisphenol A (BPA) and antiproliferative activity of genistein (GEN) in accordance with the influence on this crosstalk. BPA was determined to affect this crosstalk by upregulating mRNA expressions of ERα and IGF-1R and inducing phosphorylation of IRS-1 and Akt in protein level in BG-1 ovarian cancer cells as E2 did. In the mouse model xenografted with BG-1 cells, BPA significantly increased a tumor burden of mice and expressions of ERα, pIRS-1, and cyclin D1 in tumor mass compared to vehicle, indicating that BPA induces ovarian cancer growth by promoting the crosstalk between ER and IGF-1R signals. On the other hand, GEN effectively reversed estrogenicity of BPA by reversing mRNA and protein expressions of ERα, IGF-1R, pIRS-1, and pAkt induced by BPA in cellular model and also significantly decreased tumor growth and in vivo expressions of ERα, pIRS-1, and pAkt in xenografted mouse model. Also, GEN was confirmed to have an antiproliferative effect by inducing apoptotic signaling cascades. Taken together, these results suggest that GEN effectively reversed the increased proliferation of BG-1 ovarian cancer by suppressing the crosstalk between ERα and IGF-1R signaling pathways upregulated by BPA or E2.