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Ubero-Pascal N, Aboal M. Cyanobacteria and Macroinvertebrate Relationships in Freshwater Benthic Communities beyond Cytotoxicity. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:190. [PMID: 38668615 PMCID: PMC11054157 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are harmful algae that are monitored worldwide to prevent the effects of the toxins that they can produce. Most research efforts have focused on direct or indirect effects on human populations, with a view to gain easy accurate detection and quantification methods, mainly in planktic communities, but with increasing interest shown in benthos. However, cyanobacteria have played a fundamental role from the very beginning in both the development of our planet's biodiversity and the construction of new habitats. These organisms have colonized almost every possible planktic or benthic environment on earth, including the most extreme ones, and display a vast number of adaptations. All this explains why they are the most important or the only phototrophs in some habitats. The negative effects of cyanotoxins on macroinvertebrates have been demonstrated, but usually under conditions that are far from natural, and on forms of exposure, toxin concentration, or composition. The cohabitation of cyanobacteria with most invertebrate groups is long-standing and has probably contributed to the development of detoxification means, which would explain the survival of some species inside cyanobacteria colonies. This review focuses on benthic cyanobacteria, their capacity to produce several types of toxins, and their relationships with benthic macroinvertebrates beyond toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Ubero-Pascal
- Department of Zoology and Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, Espinardo Campus, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Marina Aboal
- Laboratory of Algology, Faculty of Biology, Espinardo Campus, University of Murcia, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
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2
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Rider Z, Percich A, Hiripitiyage Y, Harris TD, Sturm BSM, Wilson AE, Pollock ED, Beaver JR, Husic A. Drivers of cyanotoxin and taste-and-odor compound presence within the benthic algae of human-disturbed rivers. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 253:121357. [PMID: 38401471 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Freshwater benthic algae form complex mat matrices that can confer ecosystem benefits but also produce harmful cyanotoxins and nuisance taste-and-odor (T&O) compounds. Despite intensive study of the response of pelagic systems to anthropogenic change, the environmental factors controlling toxin presence in benthic mats remain uncertain. Here, we present a unique dataset from a rapidly urbanizing community (Kansas City, USA) that spans environmental, toxicological, taxonomic, and genomic indicators to identify the prevalence of three cyanotoxins (microcystin, anatoxin-a, and saxitoxin) and two T&O compounds (geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol). Thereafter, we construct a random forest model informed by game theory to assess underlying drivers. Microcystin (11.9 ± 11.6 µg/m2), a liver toxin linked to animal fatalities, and geosmin (0.67 ± 0.67 µg/m2), a costly-to-treat malodorous compound, were the most abundant compounds and were present in 100 % of samples, irrespective of land use or environmental conditions. Anatoxin-a (8.1 ± 11.6 µg/m2) and saxitoxin (0.18 ± 0.39 µg/m2), while not always detected, showed a systematic tradeoff in their relative importance with season, an observation not previously reported in the literature. Our model indicates that microcystin concentrations were greatest where microcystin-producing genes were present, whereas geosmin concentrations were high in the absence of geosmin-producing genes. Together, these results suggest that benthic mats produce microcystin in situ but that geosmin production may occur ex situ with its presence in mats attributable to adsorption by organic matter. Our study broadens the awareness of benthic cyanobacteria as a source of harmful and nuisance metabolites and highlights the importance of benthic monitoring for sustaining water quality standards in rivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zane Rider
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Kansas, 2150 Learned Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States
| | - Abigal Percich
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Kansas, 2150 Learned Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States
| | - Yasawantha Hiripitiyage
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Kansas, 2150 Learned Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States
| | - Ted D Harris
- Kansas Biological Survey, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States
| | - Belinda S M Sturm
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Kansas, 2150 Learned Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States
| | - Alan E Wilson
- School of Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
| | - Erik D Pollock
- Stable Isotope Laboratory, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, United States
| | - John R Beaver
- BSA Environmental Services, Beachwood, OH 44122, United States
| | - Admin Husic
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Kansas, 2150 Learned Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045, United States.
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3
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Johnston LH, Huang Y, Bermarija TD, Rafuse C, Zamlynny L, Bruce MR, Graham C, Comeau AM, Valadez-Cano C, Lawrence JE, Beach DG, Jamieson RC. Proliferation and anatoxin production of benthic cyanobacteria associated with canine mortalities along a stream-lake continuum. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 917:170476. [PMID: 38290679 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
Proliferations of benthic cyanobacteria are increasingly in the public eye, with rising animal deaths associated with benthic rather than planktonic blooms. In early June 2021, two dogs died after consuming material on the shore of Shubenacadie Grand Lake, Nova Scotia. Preliminary investigations indicated anatoxins produced by benthic cyanobacterial mats were responsible for the deaths. In this study, we monitored the growth of a toxic benthic cyanobacterial species (Microcoleus sp.) along a stream-lake continuum where the canine poisonings occurred. We found that the species was able to proliferate in both lentic and lotic environments, but temporal growth dynamics and the predominant sub-species were influenced by habitat type, and differed with hydrodynamic setting, nutrient and sunlight availability. Toxin concentration was greatest in cyanobacterial mats growing in the oligotrophic lakeshore environment (maximum measured total anatoxins (ATXs) >20 mg·kg-1 wet weight). This corresponded with a shift in the profile of ATX analogues, which also indicated changing sub-species dominance along the stream-lake transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay H Johnston
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Yannan Huang
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Tessa D Bermarija
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Cheryl Rafuse
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Lydia Zamlynny
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Meghann R Bruce
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of New Brunswick, P.O. Box 4400, Fredericton, NB, Canada
| | - Catherine Graham
- Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture, Animal Health Laboratory, 65 River Rd, Bible Hill, NS, Canada
| | - André M Comeau
- Integrated Microbiome Resource (IMR), Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Cecilio Valadez-Cano
- Biology Department, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Janice E Lawrence
- Biology Department, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Daniel G Beach
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, Canada; Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, Canada
| | - Rob C Jamieson
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Department of Civil & Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, 1360 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS, Canada.
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4
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Bauer F, Wolfschlaeger I, Geist J, Fastner J, Schmalz CW, Raeder U. Occurrence, Distribution and Toxins of Benthic Cyanobacteria in German Lakes. TOXICS 2023; 11:643. [PMID: 37624149 PMCID: PMC10458227 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11080643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are favored by climate change and global warming; however, to date, most research and monitoring programs have focused on planktic cyanobacteria. Benthic cyanobacteria blooms also increase and pose a risk to animal and human health; however, there is limited knowledge of their occurrence, distribution and the toxins involved, especially in relation to their planktic conspecifics. Therefore, we analyzed the benthic and planktic life forms of cyanobacterial communities in 34 lakes in Germany, including a monitoring of cyanotoxins. Community analyses were based on microscopic examination and Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The analyses of cyanotoxins were carried out using LC-MS/MS and ELISA. Observed benthic mats containing cyanobacteria consisted mainly of Nostocales and Oscillatoriales, being present in 35% of the lakes. Anatoxin was the most abundant cyanotoxin in the benthic samples, reaching maximum concentrations of 45,000 µg/L, whereas microcystin was the predominate cyanotoxin in the open-water samples, reaching concentrations of up to 18,000 µg/L. Based on the results, specific lakes at risk of toxic cyanobacteria could be identified. Our findings suggest that monitoring of benthic cyanobacteria and their toxins should receive greater attention, ideally complementing existing open-water sampling programs with little additional effort.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Bauer
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Limnological Research Station Iffeldorf, Technical University of Munich, Hofmark 1–3, 82393 Iffeldorf, Germany (U.R.)
| | - Immanuel Wolfschlaeger
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Limnological Research Station Iffeldorf, Technical University of Munich, Hofmark 1–3, 82393 Iffeldorf, Germany (U.R.)
| | - Juergen Geist
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Limnological Research Station Iffeldorf, Technical University of Munich, Hofmark 1–3, 82393 Iffeldorf, Germany (U.R.)
| | - Jutta Fastner
- German Environment Agency, Schichauweg 58, 12307 Berlin, Germany
| | - Carina Wiena Schmalz
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Limnological Research Station Iffeldorf, Technical University of Munich, Hofmark 1–3, 82393 Iffeldorf, Germany (U.R.)
| | - Uta Raeder
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Limnological Research Station Iffeldorf, Technical University of Munich, Hofmark 1–3, 82393 Iffeldorf, Germany (U.R.)
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5
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Shishido TK, Delbaje E, Wahlsten M, Vuori I, Jokela J, Gugger M, Fiore MF, Fewer DP. A cylindrospermopin-producing cyanobacterium isolated from a microbial mat in the Baltic Sea. Toxicon 2023:107205. [PMID: 37406865 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Toxic benthic mats of cyanobacteria are associated with water quality problems and animal poisonings around the world. A strain of the filamentous cyanobacterial genus Kamptonema was isolated from a water bloom in the Baltic Sea four decades ago and later shown to produce cylindrospermopsins. However, the exact habitat of this strain remains unclear and cylindrospermopsins have not yet been reported from water blooms in the Baltic Sea. Here, we report the isolation of Kamptonema sp. UHCC 0994 from a benthic microbial mat collected in shallow water on the coast of Helsinki. We obtained draft genome sequences for the Kamptonema spp. PCC 7926 and UHCC 0994 strains that were isolated from the Baltic Sea. These genomes were 90-96% similar to previously studied Kamptonema sp. PCC 6506 and Kamptonema formosum PCC 6407, which were isolated from benthic and North American freshwater environments, respectively. The genomes of all four Kamptonema strains encode complete cylindrospermopsin biosynthetic gene clusters. We detected the production of cylindrospermopsin and 7-epi-cylindrospermopsin in the four Kamptonema strains using high-resolution liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. The four strains encode genes for producing gas vesicles distributed in two to three different regions of their genomes. Kamptonema spp. UHCC 0994 and PCC 7926 have both retained the ability to regulate their buoyancy when grown in liquid culture. Together this suggests that these toxic cyanobacteria may exhibit a tychoplanktic lifestyle in the Baltic Sea. This study suggests that microbial mats containing cyanobacteria could be a source of environmental toxins in the Baltic Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania Keiko Shishido
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Endrews Delbaje
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland; Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Avenida Centenário 303, Piracicaba, 13400-970, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Matti Wahlsten
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Inkeri Vuori
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jouni Jokela
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Muriel Gugger
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Collection of Cyanobacteria, Paris, F-75015, France
| | - Marli F Fiore
- Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Avenida Centenário 303, Piracicaba, 13400-970, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - David P Fewer
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
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Redouane EM, Tazart Z, Lahrouni M, Mugani R, Elgadi S, Zine H, Zerrifi SEA, Haida M, Martins JC, Campos A, Oufdou K, Vasconcelos V, Oudra B. Health risk assessment of lake water contaminated with microcystins for fruit crop irrigation and farm animal drinking. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:80234-80244. [PMID: 37294489 PMCID: PMC10344998 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-27914-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The health risks linked to the consumption of microcystin-accumulating crops have been increasing worldwide in toxic cyanobloom-occurring regions. The bioaccumulation of microcystins (MCs) in agricultural produce at environmentally realistic concentrations is poorly investigated. In this field study, we assessed the health risks of MCs in raw water used for irrigating fruit crops (bioaccumulation) and watering farm animals in the Lalla Takerkoust agricultural region (Marrakesh, Morocco). Thus, MCs were extracted from water and fruit samples and quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in order to calculate the health risk indicators. MCs posed a high health-risk level to poultry and horses, with estimated daily intakes (EDI) being 14- and 19-fold higher than the recommended limits (3.1 and 2.3 μg MC-LR L-1), respectively. Furthermore, pomegranate posed the same level of risk, with EDI being 22- and 53-fold higher than the limit dose (0.04 μg MC-LR kg-1) for adults and children, respectively. There was an urgent need for guidelines regarding water use and management in MC-polluted areas, besides the setup of nature-based tools for toxin removal from raw water used in farming practices. Moreover, MCs could contaminate the human food chain, which implies further investigations of their potential accumulation in livestock- and poultry-based food.
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Affiliation(s)
- El Mahdi Redouane
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Zakaria Tazart
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Majida Lahrouni
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Richard Mugani
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Sara Elgadi
- Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnologies, Agrosciences, and Environment (BioMAgE), Labeled Research Unit-CNRST N°4, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
- Laboratory of Agro. Food Technology and Quality, Regional Center for Agronomic Research of Marrakech, National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA), 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Hamza Zine
- Geology and Sustainable Mining Institute (GSMI), Mohammad VI Polytechnic University, 43150, Ben Guerir, Morocco
| | - Soukaina El Amrani Zerrifi
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
- Higher Institute of Nurses Professions and Health Techniques of Guelmim, 81000, Guelmim, Morocco
| | - Mohammed Haida
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - José Carlos Martins
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Campos
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - Khalid Oufdou
- Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnologies, Agrosciences, and Environment (BioMAgE), Labeled Research Unit-CNRST N°4, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208, Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Brahim Oudra
- Water, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, 40000, Marrakech, Morocco
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Gugger M, Boullié A, Laurent T. Cyanotoxins and Other Bioactive Compounds from the Pasteur Cultures of Cyanobacteria (PCC). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:388. [PMID: 37368689 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15060388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In tribute to the bicentenary of the birth of Louis Pasteur, this report focuses on cyanotoxins, other natural products and bioactive compounds of cyanobacteria, a phylum of Gram-negative bacteria capable of carrying out oxygenic photosynthesis. These microbes have contributed to changes in the geochemistry and the biology of Earth as we know it today. Furthermore, some bloom-forming cyanobacterial species are also well known for their capacity to produce cyanotoxins. This phylum is preserved in live cultures of pure, monoclonal strains in the Pasteur Cultures of Cyanobacteria (PCC) collection. The collection has been used to classify organisms within the Cyanobacteria of the bacterial kingdom and to investigate several characteristics of these bacteria, such as their ultrastructure, gas vacuoles and complementary chromatic adaptation. Thanks to the ease of obtaining genetic and further genomic sequences, the diversity of the PCC strains has made it possible to reveal some main cyanotoxins and to highlight several genetic loci dedicated to completely unknown natural products. It is the multidisciplinary collaboration of microbiologists, biochemists and chemists and the use of the pure strains of this collection that has allowed the study of several biosynthetic pathways from genetic origins to the structures of natural products and, eventually, their bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muriel Gugger
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Collection of Cyanobacteria, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Anne Boullié
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Collection of Cyanobacteria, 75015 Paris, France
| | - Thierry Laurent
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Collection of Cyanobacteria, 75015 Paris, France
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Robichon C, Robin J, Dolédec S. Relative effect of hydraulics, physico-chemistry and other biofilm algae on benthic cyanobacteria assemblages in a regulated river. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 872:162142. [PMID: 36764542 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The development of benthic cyanobacteria currently raises concern worldwide because of their potential to produce toxins. As a result, understanding which measures of biotic and abiotic parameters influence the development of cyanobacterial assemblages is of great importance to guide management actions. In this study, we investigate the relative contributions of abiotic and biotic parameters that may drive the development of cyanobacterial assemblages in river biofilms. First, a 2D hydrodynamic model allowed us to retrace changes in depths and velocities according to discharge at a 4 m2 resolution. From this model, we set up three hydraulic zones in each of the 4 reaches investigated along a 50-km-long river stretch. We further used univariate, multivariate and variance partitioning analyses to assess the contribution of past and present hydraulics, present physical and chemical parameters and algae to the temporal variability of cyanobacterial assemblage composition. The cyanobacterial assemblages were generally dominated by Phormidium sp., Lyngbya sp., Planktolyngbya sp. and Oscillatoria sp., four genera known to contain potentially toxic species. The highest biovolumes of cyanobacteria were present in low velocity zones in early summer and shifted to high velocity zones in late summer, highlighting the major influence of hydraulic parameters on benthic cyanobacteria settlement and development in rivers. Considering the identified genera, biofilms present a potentially high risk of toxin production. Relations between cyanobacterial development, toxin production and environmental parameters need to be further assessed to better estimate this risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Robichon
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France.
| | - Joël Robin
- Univ Lyon, ISARA, Agroecology and Environment research unit, F-69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
| | - Sylvain Dolédec
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, F-69622 Villeurbanne, France
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Usman AS, Merican F, Zaki S, Broady P, Convey P, Muangmai N. Microcystin production by oscillatorialean cyanobacteria isolated from cryopreserved Antarctic mats. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 120:102336. [PMID: 36470600 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Twenty cyanobacterial strains of eight morphospecies isolated from deep-frozen (-15 °C) mat samples originally collected on Ross Island, in Victoria Land, and on the McMurdo Ice Shelf were screened for the presence of genes encoding for production of anatoxins, cylindrospermopsin, microcystin/nodularin and saxitoxin. One strain of each of Microcoleus autumnalis and Phormidesmis priestleyi and two strains of Wilmottia murrayi were found to produce microcystin. No toxin production was detected in the other 16 strains representing five species. The four toxin-producing strains were characterised using both morphological and molecular approaches. Phylogenetic analyses using partial 16S rRNA sequences were consistent with the morphological identification of all four strains. They were all found to contain a fragment of the mcyE gene, which is involved in microcystin biosynthesis. ELISA analysis of extracts from cultures of these strains confirmed the presence of low concentrations of microcystin: 0.35 μg/L in M. autumnalis, <0.15 μg/L in P. priestleyi, 1.60 μg/L in W. murrayi strain 1 and 0.9 μg/L in W. murrayi strain 2. This study includes the first report of microcystin synthesis by W. murrayi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aminu Surajo Usman
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Faradina Merican
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Syazana Zaki
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Paul Broady
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
| | - Peter Convey
- British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, UK; Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
| | - Narongrit Muangmai
- Department of Fishery Biology, Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
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Stoyneva-Gärtner M, Stefanova K, Uzunov B, Radkova M, Gärtner G. Cuspidothrix Is the First Genetically Proved Anatoxin A Producer in Bulgarian Lakes and Reservoirs. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110778. [PMID: 36356028 PMCID: PMC9696308 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The paper presents the first proof of planktonic cyanoprokaryote genus Cuspidothrix as an anatoxin A (ATX) producer in Bulgarian wetlands. The results from polymerase chain reaction (PCR) obtained from two summer sampling campaigns in 26 selected lakes and reservoirs demonstrated presence of the anaC gene, responsible for ATX production in 21 strains of the genus. They were found in three waterbodies sampled in 2018 (coastal lake Vaya, coastal reservoir Poroy, inland reservoir Sinyata Reka) and in four waterbodies sampled in 2019 (inland reservoirs Duvanli, Koprinka, Plachidol 2, Sinyata Reka). The detected genetic diversity generally corresponds to the observations conducted by conventional light microscopy, by which we distinguished three species of Cuspidothrix (Cuspidothrix issatschenkoi, Cuspidothrix elenkinii and Cuspidothrix tropicalis, the latter considered alien in the country). Eleven strains showed high similarity to two sequences of C. issatschenkoi available from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). Ten other strains assembled in a group, which-in lack of available from NCBI genetic sequences-were presumed related to C. tropicalis and C. elenkinii after comparison with the results from light microscopy. Cuspidothrix strains found in Bulgarian waterbodies showed high genetic similarity to those isolated and sequenced from Asia (Japan, China) and Northern Europe (Norway, Finland).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katerina Stefanova
- AgroBio Institute, Bulgarian Agricultural Academy, BG-1164 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Blagoy Uzunov
- Faculty of Biology, Department of Botany, Sofia University, BG-1164 Sofia, Bulgaria
- Correspondence:
| | - Mariana Radkova
- AgroBio Institute, Bulgarian Agricultural Academy, BG-1164 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Georg Gärtner
- Institute of Botany, Innsbruck University, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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11
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Christensen VG, Olds HT, Norland J, Khan E. Phytoplankton community interactions and cyanotoxin mixtures in three recurring surface blooms within one lake. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 427:128142. [PMID: 35042050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.128142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria can produce numerous secondary metabolites (cyanotoxins) with various toxicities, yet data on cyanotoxins in many lakes are limited. Moreover, little research is available on complex relations among cyanobacteria that produce toxins. Therefore, we studied cyanobacteria and 19 cyanotoxins at three sites with recurring blooms in Kabetogama Lake (USA). Seven of 19 toxins were detected in various combinations. Anabaenopeptin A and B were detected in every sample. Microcystin-YR was detected more frequently than microcystin-LR, unlike other lakes in the region. Microcystin-YR concentrations, however, generally were low; two samples exceeded drinking water guidelines and no samples exceeded recreational guidelines. Anabaenopeptins correlated with six cyanobacterial taxa, most of which lack available literature on peptide production. The potential toxin producing cyanobacteria, Microcystis, was significantly correlated to microcystin-YR. Pseudanabaena sp. and Synechococcus sp. had strong negative correlations with several toxins that may indicate competition or stress between organisms. Non-metric multidimensional scaling identified three cyanobacterial pairs that may reflect symbiotic or antagonistic relations. This study highlights interactions among cyanobacteria and multiple cyanotoxins and the methods used may be useful for uncovering additional patterns in cyanobacteria communities in other systems, leading to further understanding of how those interactions lead to toxin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria G Christensen
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 2280 Woodale Dr., Mounds View , MN, USA; North Dakota State University, Environmental and Conservation Sciences Program, 1300 Albrecht Blvd., Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - Hayley T Olds
- US Geological Survey, Upper Midwest Water Science Center, 2280 Woodale Dr., Mounds View , MN, USA
| | - Jack Norland
- North Dakota State University, Environmental and Conservation Sciences Program, 1300 Albrecht Blvd., Fargo, ND 58102, USA
| | - Eakalak Khan
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, 4505 S. Maryland Pkwy, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA
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12
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Jaeger-Honz S, Nitschke J, Altaner S, Klein K, Dietrich DR, Schreiber F. Investigation of microcystin conformation and binding towards PPP1 by molecular dynamics simulation. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 351:109766. [PMID: 34861245 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MC) are a group of structurally similar cyanotoxins with currently 279 described structural variants. Human exposure is frequent by consumption of contaminated water, food or food supplements. MC can result in serious intoxications, commensurate with ensuing pathology in various organs or in rare cases even mortality. The current WHO risk assessment primarily considers MC-LR, while all other structural variants are treated as equivalent to MC-LR, despite that current data strongly suggest that MC-LR is not the most toxic MC, and toxicity can be very different for MC congeners. To investigate and analyse binding and conformation of different MC congeners, we applied for the first time Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation to four MC congeners (MC-LR, MC-LF, [Enantio-Adda5]MC-LF, [β-D-Asp3,Dhb7]MC-RR). We could show that ser/thr protein phosphatase 1 is stable in all MD simulations and that MC-LR backbone adopts to a second conformation in solvent MD simulation, which was previously unknown. We could also show that MC congeners can adopt to different backbone conformation when simulated in solvent or in complex with ser/thr protein phosphatase 1 and differ in their binding behaviour. Our findings suggest that MD Simulation of different MC congeners aid in understanding structural differences and binding of this group of structurally similar cyanotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Jaeger-Honz
- Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | - Jahn Nitschke
- Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Karsten Klein
- Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Falk Schreiber
- Department of Computer and Information Science, University of Konstanz, Germany; Faculty of Information Technology, Monash University, Australia.
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13
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Howard MDA, Kudela RM, Hayashi K, Tatters AO, Caron DA, Theroux S, Oehrle S, Roethler M, Donovan A, Loftin K, Laughrey Z. Multiple co-occurring and persistently detected cyanotoxins and associated cyanobacteria in adjacent California lakes. Toxicon 2021; 192:1-14. [PMID: 33428970 PMCID: PMC8811718 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The global proliferation of toxin producing cyanobacterial blooms has been attributed to a wide variety of environmental factors with nutrient pollution, increased temperatures, and drought being three of the most significant. The current study is the first formal assessment of cyanotoxins in two impaired lakes, Canyon Lake and Lake Elsinore, in southern California that have a history of cyanobacterial blooms producing high biomass as measured by chl-a. Cyanotoxins in Lake Elsinore were detected at concentrations that persistently exceeded California recreational health thresholds, whereas Canyon Lake experienced persistent concentrations that only occasionally exceeded health thresholds. The study results are the highest recorded concentrations of microcystins, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin detected in southern California lakes. Concentrations exceeded health thresholds that caused both lakes to be closed for recreational activities. Cyanobacterial identifications indicated a high risk for the presence of potentially toxic genera and agreed with the cyanotoxin results that indicated frequent detection of multiple cyanotoxins simultaneously. A statistically significant correlation was observed between chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and microcystin concentrations for Lake Elsinore but not Canyon Lake, and chl-a was not a good indicator of cylindrospermopsin, anatoxin-a, or nodularin. Therefore, chl-a was not a viable screening indicator of cyanotoxin risk in these lakes. The study results indicate potential acute and chronic risk of exposure to cyanotoxins in these lakes and supports the need for future monitoring efforts to help minimize human and domestic pet exposure and to better understand potential effects to wildlife. The frequent co-occurrence of complex cyanotoxin mixtures further complicates the risk assessment process for these lakes given uncertainty in the toxicology of mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith D A Howard
- Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board, 11020 Sun Center Drive, #200, Rancho Cordova, CA, 95670, USA.
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Department of Ocean Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
| | - Kendra Hayashi
- Department of Ocean Science, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
| | - Avery O Tatters
- USEPA Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division Laboratory, 1 Sabine Drive, Gulf Breeze, FL, 32561, USA.
| | - David A Caron
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-0371, USA.
| | - Susanna Theroux
- Biogeochemistry Department, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Blvd., Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA, 92626, USA.
| | - Stuart Oehrle
- Waters Field Lab, Northern Kentucky University, Chemistry Department, Highland Heights, KY, 41099, USA.
| | - Miranda Roethler
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, 1122 NE Boat St. Box 355020, Seattle, WA, 98195-5020, USA.
| | - Ariel Donovan
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
| | - Keith Loftin
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
| | - Zachary Laughrey
- U.S. Geological Survey, Kansas Water Science Center, Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, 1217 Biltmore Drive, Lawrence, KS, 66049, USA.
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14
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Zupančič M, Kogovšek P, Šter T, Remec Rekar Š, Cerasino L, Baebler Š, Krivograd Klemenčič A, Eleršek T. Potentially Toxic Planktic and Benthic Cyanobacteria in Slovenian Freshwater Bodies: Detection by Quantitative PCR. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020133. [PMID: 33670338 PMCID: PMC7917684 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to increased frequency of cyanobacterial blooms and emerging evidence of cyanotoxicity in biofilm, reliable methods for early cyanotoxin threat detection are of major importance for protection of human, animal and environmental health. To complement the current methods of risk assessment, this study aimed to evaluate selected qPCR assays for detection of potentially toxic cyanobacteria in environmental samples. In the course of one year, 25 plankton and 23 biofilm samples were collected from 15 water bodies in Slovenia. Three different analyses were performed and compared to each other; qPCR targeting mcyE, cyrJ and sxtA genes involved in cyanotoxin production, LC-MS/MS quantifying microcystin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin concentration, and microscopic analyses identifying potentially toxic cyanobacterial taxa. qPCR analyses detected potentially toxic Microcystis in 10 lake plankton samples, and potentially toxic Planktothrix cells in 12 lake plankton and one lake biofilm sample. A positive correlation was observed between numbers of mcyE gene copies and microcystin concentrations. Potential cylindrospermopsin- and saxitoxin-producers were detected in three and seven lake biofilm samples, respectively. The study demonstrated a potential for cyanotoxin production that was left undetected by traditional methods in both plankton and biofilm samples. Thus, the qPCR method could be useful in regular monitoring of water bodies to improve risk assessment and enable timely measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maša Zupančič
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
- Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Correspondence:
| | - Polona Kogovšek
- Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, National Institute of Biology, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (P.K.); (Š.B.)
| | - Tadeja Šter
- Slovenian Environment Agency, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.Š.); (Š.R.R.); (A.K.K.)
| | - Špela Remec Rekar
- Slovenian Environment Agency, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (T.Š.); (Š.R.R.); (A.K.K.)
| | - Leonardo Cerasino
- Department of Sustainable Agro-Ecosystems and Bioresources, Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, 38010 San Michele all’Adige, Italy;
| | - Špela Baebler
- Department of Biotechnology and Systems Biology, National Institute of Biology, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (P.K.); (Š.B.)
| | | | - Tina Eleršek
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
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15
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Plaas HE, Paerl HW. Toxic Cyanobacteria: A Growing Threat to Water and Air Quality. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:44-64. [PMID: 33334098 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The global expansion of harmful cyanobacterial blooms (CyanoHABs) poses an increasing threat to public health. CyanoHABs are characterized by the production of toxic metabolites known as cyanotoxins. Human exposure to cyanotoxins is challenging to forecast, and perhaps the least understood exposure route is via inhalation. While the aerosolization of toxins from marine harmful algal blooms (HABs) has been well documented, the aerosolization of cyanotoxins in freshwater systems remains understudied. In recent years, spray aerosol (SA) produced in the airshed of the Laurentian Great Lakes (United States and Canada) has been characterized, suggesting that freshwater systems may impact atmospheric aerosol loading more than previously understood. Therefore, further investigation regarding the impact of CyanoHABs on human respiratory health is warranted. This review examines current research on the incorporation of cyanobacterial cells and cyanotoxins into SA of aquatic ecosystems which experience HABs. We present an overview of cyanotoxin fate in the environment, biological incorporation into SA, existing data on cyanotoxins in SA, relevant collection methods, and adverse health outcomes associated with cyanotoxin inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley E Plaas
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences, Morehead City, NC 28557, United States
| | - Hans W Paerl
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, United States
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences, Morehead City, NC 28557, United States
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16
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Massey IY, Al osman M, Yang F. An overview on cyanobacterial blooms and toxins production: their occurrence and influencing factors. TOXIN REV 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1843060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Isaac Yaw Massey
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Muwaffak Al osman
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Fei Yang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Xiangya School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, China
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, University of South China, Hengyang, China
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17
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Haddadchi A, Kuczynski A, Hoyle JT, Kilroy C, Booker DJ, Hicks M. Periphyton removal flows determined by sediment entrainment thresholds. Ecol Modell 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2020.109263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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18
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Wood SA, Kelly L, Bouma-Gregson K, Humbert JF, Laughinghouse HD, Lazorchak J, McAllister T, McQueen A, Pokrzywinski K, Puddick J, Quiblier C, Reitz LA, Ryan K, Vadeboncoeur Y, Zastepa A, Davis TW. Toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacterial proliferations: Challenges and solutions for enhancing knowledge and improving monitoring and mitigation. FRESHWATER BIOLOGY 2020; 65:1824-1842. [PMID: 34970014 PMCID: PMC8715960 DOI: 10.1111/fwb.13532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
1. This review summarises knowledge on the ecology, toxin production, and impacts of toxic freshwater benthic cyanobacterial proliferations. It documents monitoring, management, and sampling strategies, and explores mitigation options. 2. Toxic proliferations of freshwater benthic cyanobacteria (taxa that grow attached to substrates) occur in streams, rivers, lakes, and thermal and meltwater ponds, and have been reported in 19 countries. Anatoxin- and microcystin-containing mats are most commonly reported (eight and 10 countries, respectively). 3. Studies exploring factors that promote toxic benthic cyanobacterial proliferations are limited to a few species and habitats. There is a hierarchy of importance in environmental and biological factors that regulate proliferations with variables such as flow (rivers), fine sediment deposition, nutrients, associated microbes, and grazing identified as key drivers. Regulating factors differ among colonisation, expansion, and dispersal phases. 4. New -omics-based approaches are providing novel insights into the physiological attributes of benthic cyanobacteria and the role of associated microorganisms in facilitating their proliferation. 5. Proliferations are commonly comprised of both toxic and non-toxic strains, and the relative proportion of these is the key factor contributing to the overall toxin content of each mat. 6. While these events are becoming more commonly reported globally, we currently lack standardised approaches to detect, monitor, and manage this emerging health issue. To solve these critical gaps, global collaborations are needed to facilitate the rapid transfer of knowledge and promote the development of standardised techniques that can be applied to diverse habitats and species, and ultimately lead to improved management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Keith Bouma-Gregson
- Office of Information Management and Analysis, California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, California, United States of America
| | | | - H Dail Laughinghouse
- Fort Lauderdale Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Florida, USA
| | - James Lazorchak
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Monitoring and Modeling, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Tara McAllister
- Te Pūnaha Matatini Centre of Research Excellence for Complex Systems, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew McQueen
- Environmental Risk Assessment Branch, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering Research & Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Katyee Pokrzywinski
- Environmental Risk Assessment Branch, US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering Research & Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, United States of America
| | | | | | - Laura A Reitz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Ken Ryan
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Yvonne Vadeboncoeur
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wright State University, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Arthur Zastepa
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Ontario, Canada
| | - Timothy W Davis
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, United States of America
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19
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Kelly LT, Ryan KG, Wood SA. Differential strain response in alkaline phosphatase activity to available phosphorus in Microcoleus autumnalis. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 89:101664. [PMID: 31672236 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Toxic, benthic cyanobacterial proliferations have increased in frequency and severity globally and can have negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems, recreation and human health. Microcoleus autumnalis has been associated with numerous animal fatalities and is causing increasing concern. It tends to grow in systems with moderate dissolved inorganic nitrogen and very low dissolved reactive phosphorus. Acquisition of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, from organic sources may explain how M. autumnalis can reach the high biomass in these relatively nutrient deplete environments. In the present study the effect of phosphorus concentration and source on alkaline phosphatase activity was investigated in toxic and non-toxic M. autumnalis strains. Toxic strains exhibited significantly higher alkaline phosphatase activity than non-toxic strains (p < 0.05), and alkaline phosphatase activity increased in all strains under phosphorus-depleted conditions (p < 0.05). Alkaline phosphatase activity was also present in environmental M. autumnalis mats, though at lower levels than in laboratory experiments. The presence of alkaline phosphatase activity indicates that the acquisition of phosphorus from organic phosphorus sources may contribute to the ability of M. autumnalis to grow in systems with low dissolved reactive phosphorus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura T Kelly
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand.
| | - Ken G Ryan
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand.
| | - Susanna A Wood
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand.
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20
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Svirčev Z, Lalić D, Bojadžija Savić G, Tokodi N, Drobac Backović D, Chen L, Meriluoto J, Codd GA. Global geographical and historical overview of cyanotoxin distribution and cyanobacterial poisonings. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:2429-2481. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02524-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Bouma-Gregson K, Olm MR, Probst AJ, Anantharaman K, Power ME, Banfield JF. Impacts of microbial assemblage and environmental conditions on the distribution of anatoxin-a producing cyanobacteria within a river network. THE ISME JOURNAL 2019; 13:1618-1634. [PMID: 30809011 PMCID: PMC6776057 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0374-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Blooms of planktonic cyanobacteria have long been of concern in lakes, but more recently, harmful impacts of riverine benthic cyanobacterial mats been recognized. As yet, we know little about how various benthic cyanobacteria are distributed in river networks, or how environmental conditions or other associated microbes in their consortia affect their biosynthetic capacities. We performed metagenomic sequencing for 22 Oscillatoriales-dominated (Cyanobacteria) microbial mats collected across the Eel River network in Northern California and investigated factors associated with anatoxin-a producing cyanobacteria. All microbial communities were dominated by one or two cyanobacterial species, so the key mat metabolisms involve oxygenic photosynthesis and carbon oxidation. Only a few metabolisms fueled the growth of the mat communities, with little evidence for anaerobic metabolic pathways. We genomically defined four cyanobacterial species, all which shared <96% average nucleotide identity with reference Oscillatoriales genomes and are potentially novel species in the genus Microcoleus. One of the Microcoleus species contained the anatoxin-a biosynthesis genes, and we describe the first anatoxin-a gene cluster from the Microcoleus clade within Oscillatoriales. Occurrence of these four Microcoleus species in the watershed was correlated with total dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, and the species that contains the anatoxin-a gene cluster was found in sites with higher nitrogen concentrations. Microbial assemblages in mat samples with the anatoxin-a gene cluster consistently had a lower abundance of Burkholderiales (Betaproteobacteria) species than did mats without the anatoxin-producing genes. The associations of water nutrient concentrations and certain co-occurring microbes with anatoxin-a producing Microcoleus motivate further exploration for their roles as potential controls on the distributions of toxigenic benthic cyanobacteria in river networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Bouma-Gregson
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Matthew R Olm
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Alexander J Probst
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Group for Aquatic Microbial Ecology, Biofilm Center, Department for Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Karthik Anantharaman
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Mary E Power
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jillian F Banfield
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Earth Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA.
- Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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22
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Shishido TK, Jokela J, Humisto A, Suurnäkki S, Wahlsten M, Alvarenga DO, Sivonen K, Fewer DP. The Biosynthesis of Rare Homo-Amino Acid Containing Variants of Microcystin by a Benthic Cyanobacterium. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:md17050271. [PMID: 31067786 PMCID: PMC6562525 DOI: 10.3390/md17050271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are a family of chemically diverse hepatotoxins produced by distantly related cyanobacteria and are potent inhibitors of eukaryotic protein phosphatases 1 and 2A. Here we provide evidence for the biosynthesis of rare variants of microcystin that contain a selection of homo-amino acids by the benthic cyanobacterium Phormidium sp. LP904c. This strain produces at least 16 microcystin chemical variants many of which contain homophenylalanine or homotyrosine. We retrieved the complete 54.2 kb microcystin (mcy) gene cluster from a draft genome assembly. Analysis of the substrate specificity of McyB1 and McyC adenylation domain binding pockets revealed divergent substrate specificity sequences, which could explain the activation of homo-amino acids which were present in 31% of the microcystins detected and included variants such as MC-LHty, MC-HphHty, MC-LHph and MC-HphHph. The mcy gene cluster did not encode enzymes for the synthesis of homo-amino acids but may instead activate homo-amino acids produced during the synthesis of anabaenopeptins. We observed the loss of microcystin during cultivation of a closely related strain, Phormidium sp. DVL1003c. This study increases the knowledge of benthic cyanobacterial strains that produce microcystin variants and broadens the structural diversity of known microcystins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tânia Keiko Shishido
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
- Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5D, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Jouni Jokela
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Anu Humisto
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Suvi Suurnäkki
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, FI-40014 Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Matti Wahlsten
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Danillo O Alvarenga
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Kaarina Sivonen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - David P Fewer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 9, FI-0014 Helsinki, Finland.
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23
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Sendall BC, McGregor GB. Cryptic diversity within the Scytonema complex: Characterization of the paralytic shellfish toxin producer Heterosyctonema crispum, and the establishment of the family Heteroscytonemataceae (Cyanobacteria/Nostocales). HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 80:158-170. [PMID: 30502809 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Strains of the freshwater filamentous, benthic cyanobacterium Scytonema crispum Agardh isolated from six sites in subtropical south-east Queensland were characterised using a combination of phenotypic and genetic traits. Morphologically, the strains were consistent with the description of Scytonemataceae sensu stricto, and the description of Scytonema crispum. However, phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA gene, the 16S-23S rRNA operon, and the nifH gene revealed that these strains and three others from outside Australia formed a monophyletic clade distinct from Scytonema and other species in the Scytonemataceae. Collectively, this data suggests this group is sufficiently evolutionarily distinct to be placed in a new family, Heteroscytonemataceae fam. nov. Accordingly, the taxon previously known as S. crispum has been transferred to a new genus Heteroscytonema gen nov., as H. crispum. Some strains of H. crispum exhibited facultative production of paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). The concentration of PSTs produced by individual strains varied widely, from 2.7 μg g-1 to 171.3 μg g-1, and included C toxins, decarbamoyl saxitoxin (dcSTX), gonyautoxins (GTX2, GTX3 and GTX5), saxitoxin (STX) and uncharacterised PSTs. The majority of the Australian strains produced dcSTX as the dominant saxitoxin analogue, a significant finding given that dcSTX has approximately half the relative toxicity of STX. The PST profile varied within and between Australian strains of H. crispum and in strains collected from New Zealand and the United States. The sxtA gene, one of the determinants for the production of PSTs, was present in all strains in which PSTs were detected. The discovery of PST-producing H. crispum in the headwaters of a major drinking water reservoir presents a serious risk for potential human and animal exposure to these neurotoxic compounds and further highlights the importance of monitoring benthic cyanobacteria populations for potentially toxigenic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara C Sendall
- Queensland Department of Health, Forensic and Scientific Services, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Qld 4108, Australia.
| | - Glenn B McGregor
- Queensland Department of Environment and Science, GPO Box 5078 Brisbane Qld 4001, Australia
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Andeden EE, Ozturk S, Aslim B. Antiproliferative, neurotoxic, genotoxic and mutagenic effects of toxic cyanobacterial extracts. Interdiscip Toxicol 2018; 11:267-274. [PMID: 31762678 PMCID: PMC6853012 DOI: 10.2478/intox-2018-0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are the rich resource of various secondary metabolites including toxins with broad pharmaceutical significance. The aim of this work was to evaluate the antiproliferative, neurotoxic, genotoxic and mutagenic effects of cyanobacterial extracts containing Microcystin-LR (MCLR) in vitro. ELISA analysis results showed that MCLR contents of five cyanobacterial extracts were 2.07 ng/mL, 1.43 ng/mL, 1.41 ng/mL, 1.27 ng/mL, and 1.12 ng/mL for Leptolyngbya sp. SB1, Phormidium sp. SB4, Oscillatoria earlei SB5, Phormidium sp. SB2, Uncultured cyanobacterium, respectively. Phormidium sp. SB4 and Phormidium sp. SB2 extracts had the lowest neurotoxicity (86% and 79% cell viability, respectively) and Oscillatoria earlei SB5 extracts had the highest neurotoxicity (47% cell viability) on PC12 cell at 1000 µg/ml extract concentration. Leptolyngbya sp. SB1 and Phormidium sp. SB2 showed the highest antiproliferative effect (92% and 77% cell death) on HT29 cell. On the other hand, all concentrations of five toxic cyanobacterial extracts induced DNA damage between 3.0% and 1.3% of tail intensity and did not cause any direct mutagenic effect at the 1000 µg/plate cyanobacterial extracts. These results suggest that cyanobacteria-derived MCLR is a promising candidate for development of effective agents against colon cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enver Ersoy Andeden
- Molecular biology and genetics, Life sciences, Nevsehir Hacı Bektas Veli, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Sahlan Ozturk
- Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Life sciences, Nevsehir Haci Bektas Veli, Nevsehir, Turkey
| | - Belma Aslim
- Biology, Faculty of Science, Life sciences, Gazi, Ankara, Turkey
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Tokodi N, Drobac D, Lazić G, Petrović T, Marinović Z, Lujić J, Malešević TP, Meriluoto J, Svirčev Z. Screening of cyanobacterial cultures originating from different environments for cyanotoxicity and cyanotoxins. Toxicon 2018; 154:1-6. [PMID: 30243795 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Eighty cultures from the Novi Sad Cyanobacterial Culture Collection (NSCCC) were screened for toxicity with Artemia salina bioassay and for common cyanobacterial toxins, microcystins/nodularin (MCs/NOD) and saxitoxin (STX), with ELISA assays. The results show that 22.5% (11) of the investigated cyanobacterial cultures in exponential phase exhibited toxicity in the A. salina bioassay and 38.7% (31) produced MCs/NOD and/or STX. However, the findings in the two methods applied were contradictory. Therefore, A. salina bioassay was repeated on 28 cultures in stationary growth phase, which were positive in ELISA assays but not in the initial A. salina bioassay. Seven more cultures exhibited cell-bound toxicity, and only one extracellular toxicity. The observed difference in the toxicity indicates that cyanobacterial growth phase could affect the screening results. The findings also varied depending on the environment from which the cultures originated. In the initial screening via bioassay, 11.8% (6 cultures out of 51) from terrestrial and 17.2% (5 out of 29) from aquatic environment showed cell-bound toxicity. Furthermore, based on the ELISA assay, 31.4% (16) of the cultures from terrestrial ecosystems were positive for the presence of the investigated cyanotoxins, and 51.7% (15) from aquatic ecosystems. Based on all results, more frequent toxin production was observed in cultures originating from aquatic environments. Furthermore, the group of terrestrial cultures that originated from biological loess crusts were basically non-toxic. The discrepancies in the results by two different methods indicates that the use of several complementary methods would help to improve the assessment of cyanobacterial toxicity and cyanotoxin analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada Tokodi
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Damjana Drobac
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Gospava Lazić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Tamaš Petrović
- Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad", Rumenački put 20, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Zoran Marinović
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; Szent István University, Department of Aquaculture, Páter Károly u. 1, Gödöllő 2100, Hungary
| | - Jelena Lujić
- Szent István University, Department of Aquaculture, Páter Károly u. 1, Gödöllő 2100, Hungary
| | - Tamara Palanački Malešević
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Jussi Meriluoto
- Åbo Akademi University, Department for biochemistry, Tykistökatu 6A, 20520 Turku, Finland; University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Zorica Svirčev
- University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 3, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia; Åbo Akademi University, Department for biochemistry, Tykistökatu 6A, 20520 Turku, Finland
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Kust A, Urajová P, Hrouzek P, Vu DL, Čapková K, Štenclová L, Řeháková K, Kozlíková-Zapomělová E, Lepšová-Skácelová O, Lukešová A, Mareš J. A new microcystin producing Nostoc strain discovered in broad toxicological screening of non-planktic Nostocaceae (cyanobacteria). Toxicon 2018; 150:66-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Churro C, Azevedo J, Vasconcelos V, Silva A. Detection of a Planktothrix agardhii Bloom in Portuguese Marine Coastal Waters. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9120391. [PMID: 29207501 PMCID: PMC5744111 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyanobacteria blooms are frequent in freshwaters and are responsible for water quality deterioration and human intoxication. Although, not a new phenomenon, concern exists on the increasing persistence, scale, and toxicity of these blooms. There is evidence, in recent years, of the transfer of these toxins from inland to marine waters through freshwater outflow. However, the true impact of these blooms in marine habitats has been overlooked. In the present work, we describe the detection of Planktothrix agardhii, which is a common microcystin producer, in the Portuguese marine coastal waters nearby a river outfall in an area used for shellfish harvesting and recreational activities. P. agardhii was first observed in November of 2016 in seawater samples that are in the scope of the national shellfish monitoring system. This occurrence was followed closely between November and December of 2016 by a weekly sampling of mussels and water from the sea pier and adjacent river mouth with salinity ranging from 35 to 3. High cell densities were found in the water from both sea pier and river outfall, reaching concentrations of 4,960,608 cells·L−1 and 6810.3 × 106 cells·L−1 respectively. Cultures were also established with success from the environment and microplate salinity growth assays showed that the isolates grew at salinity 10. HPLC-PDA analysis of total microcystin content in mussel tissue, water biomass, and P. agardhii cultures did not retrieve a positive result. In addition, microcystin related genes were not detected in the water nor cultures. So, the P. agardhii present in the environment was probably a non-toxic strain. This is, to our knowledge, the first report on a P. agardhii bloom reaching the sea and points to the relevance to also monitoring freshwater harmful phytoplankton and related toxins in seafood harvesting and recreational coastal areas, particularly under the influence of river plumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Churro
- Laboratório de Fitoplâncton, Departamento do Mar e Recursos Marinhos, Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, Rua Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Joana Azevedo
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4069-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Laboratório de Fitoplâncton, Departamento do Mar e Recursos Marinhos, Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, Rua Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, 6, 1449-006 Lisboa, Portugal.
- Centro de Ciências do MAR, CCMAR, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal.
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Cantoral Uriza EA, Asencio AD, Aboal M. Are We Underestimating Benthic Cyanotoxins? Extensive Sampling Results from Spain. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9120385. [PMID: 29182536 PMCID: PMC5744105 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 11/22/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) are potent hepatotoxins, and their presence in water bodies poses a threat to wildlife and human populations. Most of the available information refers to plankton, and much less is known about microcystins in other habitats. To broaden our understanding of the presence and environmental distribution of this group of toxins, we conducted extensive sampling throughout Spain, under a range of conditions and in distinct aquatic and terrestrial habitats. More than half of the tested strains were toxic; concentrations of the hepatotoxin were low compared with planktic communities, and the number of toxic variants identified in each sample of the Spanish strains ranged from 1–3. The presence of microcystins LF and LY (MC-LF and MC-LY) in the tested samples was significant, and ranged from 21.4% to 100% of the total microcystins per strain. These strains were only detected in cyanobacteria Oscillatoriales and Nostocales. We can report, for the first time, seven new species of microcystin producers in high mountain rivers and chasmoendolithic communities. This is the first report of these species in Geitlerinema and the confirmation of Anatoxin-a in Phormidium uncinatum. Our findings show that microcystins are widespread in all habitat types, including both aerophytic and endolithic peat bogs and that it is necessary to identify all the variants of microcystins in aquatic bodies as the commonest toxins sometimes represent a very low proportion of the total.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique A Cantoral Uriza
- Unidad Multidisciplinaria de Docencia e Investigación (UMDI), Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla, C.P. Querétaro 76230, Mexico.
| | - Antonia D Asencio
- Departamento de Biología Aplicada (Botánica), Facultad de Ciencias Experimentales, Universidad Miguel Hernández, Campus de Elche, E-03202 Alicante, Spain.
| | - Marina Aboal
- Laboratorio de Algología, Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, E-30100 Murcia, Spain.
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Howard MDA, Nagoda C, Kudela RM, Hayashi K, Tatters A, Caron DA, Busse L, Brown J, Sutula M, Stein ED. Microcystin Prevalence throughout Lentic Waterbodies in Coastal Southern California. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E231. [PMID: 28737685 PMCID: PMC5535178 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxin producing cyanobacterial blooms have increased globally in recent decades in both frequency and intensity. Despite the recognition of this growing risk, the extent and magnitude of cyanobacterial blooms and cyanotoxin prevalence is poorly characterized in the heavily populated region of southern California. Recent assessments of lentic waterbodies (depressional wetlands, lakes, reservoirs and coastal lagoons) determined the prevalence of microcystins and, in some cases, additional cyanotoxins. Microcystins were present in all waterbody types surveyed although toxin concentrations were generally low across most habitats, as only a small number of sites exceeded California's recreational health thresholds for acute toxicity. Results from passive samplers (Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT)) indicated microcystins were prevalent throughout lentic waterbodies and that traditional discrete samples underestimated the presence of microcystins. Multiple cyanotoxins were detected simultaneously in some systems, indicating multiple stressors, the risk of which is uncertain since health thresholds are based on exposures to single toxins. Anatoxin-a was detected for the first time from lakes in southern California. The persistence of detectable microcystins across years and seasons indicates a low-level, chronic risk through both direct and indirect exposure. The influence of toxic cyanobacterial blooms is a more complex stressor than presently recognized and should be included in water quality monitoring programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith D A Howard
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Carey Nagoda
- San Diego Regional Water Quality Control Board, 2375 Northside Drive, Suite 100, San Diego, CA 92108, USA.
| | - Raphael M Kudela
- Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA.
| | - Kendra Hayashi
- Department of Ocean Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA.
| | - Avery Tatters
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA.
| | - David A Caron
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern California, 3616 Trousdale Parkway, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0371, USA.
| | - Lilian Busse
- German Federal Environmental Agency, Umweltbundesamt, Wörlitzer Platz 1, 06844 Dessau, Germany.
| | - Jeff Brown
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Martha Sutula
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
| | - Eric D Stein
- Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 3535 Harbor Boulevard, Suite 110, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA.
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30
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McGregor GB, Sendall BC. Iningainema pulvinus gen nov., sp nov. (Cyanobacteria, Scytonemataceae) a new nodularin producer from Edgbaston Reserve, north-eastern Australia. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 62:10-19. [PMID: 28118884 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Revised: 11/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
A new nodularin producing benthic cyanobacterium Iningainema pulvinus gen nov., sp nov. was isolated from a freshwater ambient spring wetland in tropical, north-eastern Australia and characterised using combined morphological and phylogenetic attributes. It formed conspicuous irregularly spherical to discoid, blue-green to olive-green cyanobacterial colonies across the substratum of shallow pools. Morphologically Iningainema is most similar to Scytonematopsis Kiseleva and Scytonema Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault. All three genera have isopolar filaments enveloped by a firm, often layered and coloured sheath; false branching is typically geminate, less commonly singly. Phylogenetic analyses using partial 16S rRNA sequences of three clones of Iningainema pulvinus strain ES0614 showed that it formed a well-supported monophyletic clade. All three clones were 99.7-99.9% similar, however they shared less than 93.9% nucleotide similarity with other cyanobacterial sequences including putatively related taxa within the Scytonemataceae. Amplification of a fragment of the ndaF gene involved in nodularin biosynthesis from Iningainema pulvinus confirmed that it has this genetic determinant. Consistent with these results, analysis of two extracts from strain ES0614 by HPLC-MS/MS confirmed the presence of nodularin at concentrations of 796 and 1096μgg-1 dry weight. This is the third genus of cyanobacteria shown to produce the cyanotoxin nodularin and the first report of nodularin synthesis from the cyanobacterial family Scytonemataceae. These new findings may have implications for the aquatic biota at Edgbaston Reserve, a spring complex which has been identified as a priority conservation area in the central Australian arid and semiarid zones, based on patterns of endemicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn B McGregor
- Queensland Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation, GPO Box 5078 Brisbane 4001, Australia.
| | - Barbara C Sendall
- Queensland Department of Health, Forensic and Scientific Services, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, Qld 4108, Australia
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Pancrace C, Barny MA, Ueoka R, Calteau A, Scalvenzi T, Pédron J, Barbe V, Piel J, Humbert JF, Gugger M. Insights into the Planktothrix genus: Genomic and metabolic comparison of benthic and planktic strains. Sci Rep 2017; 7:41181. [PMID: 28117406 PMCID: PMC5259702 DOI: 10.1038/srep41181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Planktothrix is a dominant cyanobacterial genus forming toxic blooms in temperate freshwater ecosystems. We sequenced the genome of planktic and non planktic Planktothrix strains to better represent this genus diversity and life style at the genomic level. Benthic and biphasic strains are rooting the Planktothrix phylogenetic tree and widely expand the pangenome of this genus. We further investigated in silico the genetic potential dedicated to gas vesicles production, nitrogen fixation as well as natural product synthesis and conducted complementary experimental tests by cell culture, microscopy and mass spectrometry. Significant differences for the investigated features could be evidenced between strains of different life styles. The benthic Planktothrix strains showed unexpected characteristics such as buoyancy, nitrogen fixation capacity and unique natural product features. In comparison with Microcystis, another dominant toxic bloom-forming genus in freshwater ecosystem, different evolutionary strategies were highlighted notably as Planktothrix exhibits an overall greater genetic diversity but a smaller genomic plasticity than Microcystis. Our results are shedding light on Planktothrix evolution, phylogeny and physiology in the frame of their diverse life styles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Pancrace
- Institut Pasteur, Collection des Cyanobactéries, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 05, France.,UMR UPMC 113, CNRS 7618, IRD 242, INRA 1392, PARIS 7 113, UPEC, IEES Paris, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France.,Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC), 4 Place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marie-Anne Barny
- UMR UPMC 113, CNRS 7618, IRD 242, INRA 1392, PARIS 7 113, UPEC, IEES Paris, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Reiko Ueoka
- Institute of Microbiology, Eigenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Calteau
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Genoscope &CNRS, UMR 8030, Laboratoire d'Analyse Bioinformatique en Génomique et Métabolisme, 2, rue Gaston Crémieux, CP 5706, 91057 EVRY cedex, France
| | - Thibault Scalvenzi
- Institut Pasteur, Collection des Cyanobactéries, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - Jacques Pédron
- UMR UPMC 113, CNRS 7618, IRD 242, INRA 1392, PARIS 7 113, UPEC, IEES Paris, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Barbe
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux Energies Alternatives (CEA), Genoscope, Laboratoire de Biologie Moléculaire pour l'étude des Génomes, 2, rue Gaston Crémieux, CP 5706, 91057 EVRY cedex, France
| | - Joern Piel
- Institute of Microbiology, Eigenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 4, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jean-François Humbert
- UMR UPMC 113, CNRS 7618, IRD 242, INRA 1392, PARIS 7 113, UPEC, IEES Paris, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Muriel Gugger
- Institut Pasteur, Collection des Cyanobactéries, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Buratti FM, Manganelli M, Vichi S, Stefanelli M, Scardala S, Testai E, Funari E. Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation. Arch Toxicol 2017; 91:1049-1130. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1913-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Loftin KA, Clark JM, Journey CA, Kolpin DW, Van Metre PC, Carlisle D, Bradley PM. Spatial and temporal variation in microcystin occurrence in wadeable streams in the southeastern United States. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2016; 35:2281-2287. [PMID: 26844812 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Despite historical observations of potential microcystin-producing cyanobacteria (including Leptolyngbya, Phormidium, Pseudoanabaena, and Anabaena species) in 74% of headwater streams in Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina (USA) from 1993 to 2011, fluvial cyanotoxin occurrence has not been systematically assessed in the southeastern United States. To begin to address this data gap, a spatial reconnaissance of fluvial microcystin concentrations was conducted in 75 wadeable streams in the Piedmont region (southeastern USA) during June 2014. Microcystins were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (limit = 0.10 µg/L) in 39% of the streams with mean, median, and maximum detected concentrations of 0.29 µg/L, 0.11 µg/L, and 3.2 µg/L, respectively. Significant (α = 0.05) correlations were observed between June 2014 microcystin concentrations and stream flow, total nitrogen to total phosphorus ratio, and water temperature; but each of these factors explained 38% or less of the variability in fluvial microcystins across the region. Temporal microcystin variability was assessed monthly through October 2014 in 5 of the streams where microcystins were observed in June and in 1 reference location; microcystins were repeatedly detected in all but the reference stream. Although microcystin concentrations in the present study did not exceed World Health Organization recreational guidance thresholds, their widespread occurrence demonstrates the need for further investigation of possible in-stream environmental health effects as well as potential impacts on downstream lakes and reservoirs. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:2281-2287. Published 2016 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Loftin
- Organic Geochemistry Research Laboratory, Kansas Water Science Center, US Geological Survey, Lawrence, Kansas, USA
| | - Jimmy M Clark
- South Atlantic Water Science Center, US Geological Survey, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Celeste A Journey
- South Atlantic Water Science Center, US Geological Survey, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
| | - Dana W Kolpin
- Iowa Water Science Center, US Geological Survey, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
| | | | - Daren Carlisle
- National Water Quality Program, US Geological Survey, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Paul M Bradley
- South Atlantic Water Science Center, US Geological Survey, Columbia, South Carolina, USA
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Kurmayer R, Deng L, Entfellner E. Role of toxic and bioactive secondary metabolites in colonization and bloom formation by filamentous cyanobacteria Planktothrix. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 54:69-86. [PMID: 27307781 PMCID: PMC4892429 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2015] [Revised: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Bloom-forming cyanobacteria Planktothrix agardhii and P. rubescens are regularly involved in the occurrence of cyanotoxin in lakes and reservoirs. Besides microcystins (MCs), which inhibit eukaryotic protein phosphatase 1 and 2A, several families of bioactive peptides are produced, thereby resulting in impressive secondary metabolite structural diversity. This review will focus on the current knowledge of the phylogeny, morphology, and ecophysiological adaptations of Planktothrix as well as the toxins and bioactive peptides produced. The relatively well studied ecophysiological adaptations (buoyancy, shade tolerance, nutrient storage capacity) can partly explain the invasiveness of this group of cyanobacteria that bloom within short periods (weeks to months). The more recent elucidation of the genetic basis of toxin and bioactive peptide synthesis paved the way for investigating its regulation both in the laboratory using cell cultures as well as under field conditions. The high frequency of several toxin and bioactive peptide synthesis genes observed within P. agardhii and P. rubescens, but not for other Planktothrix species (e.g. P. pseudagardhii), suggests a potential functional linkage between bioactive peptide production and the colonization potential and possible dominance in habitats. It is hypothesized that, through toxin and bioactive peptide production, Planktothrix act as a niche constructor at the ecosystem scale, possibly resulting in an even higher ability to monopolize resources, positive feedback loops, and resilience under stable environmental conditions. Thus, refocusing harmful algal bloom management by integrating ecological and phylogenetic factors acting on toxin and bioactive peptide synthesis gene distribution and concentrations could increase the predictability of the risks originating from Planktothrix blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Kurmayer
- University of Innsbruck, Research Institute for Limnology, Mondseestrasse 9, 5310 Mondsee, Austria.
| | - Li Deng
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute of Groundwater Ecology, Ingolstädter Landstrasse 1, 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Entfellner
- University of Innsbruck, Research Institute for Limnology, Mondseestrasse 9, 5310 Mondsee, Austria
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Moore CE, Juan J, Lin Y, Gaskill CL, Puschner B. Comparison of Protein Phosphatase Inhibition Assay with LC-MS/MS for Diagnosis of Microcystin Toxicosis in Veterinary Cases. Mar Drugs 2016; 14:E54. [PMID: 27005635 PMCID: PMC4820308 DOI: 10.3390/md14030054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are acute hepatotoxins of increasing global concern in drinking and recreational waters and are a major health risk to humans and animals. Produced by cyanobacteria, microcystins inhibit serine/threonine protein phosphatase 1 (PP1). A cost-effective PP1 assay using p-nitrophenyl phosphate was developed to quickly assess water and rumen content samples. Significant inhibition was determined via a linear model, which compared increasing volumes of sample to the log-transformed ratio of the exposed rate over the control rate of PP1 activity. To test the usefulness of this model in diagnostic case investigations, samples from two veterinary cases were tested. In August 2013 fifteen cattle died around two ponds in Kentucky. While one pond and three tested rumen contents had significant PP1 inhibition and detectable levels of microcystin-LR, the other pond did not. In August 2013, a dog became fatally ill after swimming in Clear Lake, California. Lake water samples collected one and four weeks after the dog presented with clinical signs inhibited PP1 activity. Subsequent analysis using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) detected microcystin congeners -LR, -LA, -RR and -LF but not -YR. These diagnostic investigations illustrate the advantages of using functional assays in combination with LC-MS/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E Moore
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 2225 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Jeanette Juan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 2225 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Yanping Lin
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 2225 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Cynthia L Gaskill
- Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40511, USA.
| | - Birgit Puschner
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 2225 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Heath M, Wood SA, Young RG, Ryan KG. The role of nitrogen and phosphorus in regulatingPhormidiumsp. (cyanobacteria) growth and anatoxin production. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2016; 92:fiw021. [DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiw021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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Entrapped Sediments as a Source of Phosphorus in Epilithic Cyanobacterial Proliferations in Low Nutrient Rivers. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141063. [PMID: 26479491 PMCID: PMC4610676 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Proliferations of the benthic mat-forming cyanobacteria Phormidium have been reported in rivers worldwide. Phormidium commonly produces natural toxins which pose a health risk to animal and humans. Recent field studies in New Zealand identified that sites with Phormidium proliferations consistently have low concentrations of water column dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP). Unlike other river periphyton, Phormidium mats are thick and cohesive, with water and fine sediment trapped in a mucilaginous matrix. We hypothesized that daytime photosynthetic activity would elevate pH inside the mats, and/or night time respiration would reduce dissolved oxygen. Either condition could be sufficient to facilitate desorption of phosphates from sediment incorporated within mats, thus allowing Phormidium to utilize it for growth. Using microelectrodes, optodes and pulse amplitude modulation fluorometry we demonstrated that photosynthetic activity results in elevated pH (>9) during daytime, and that night-time respiration causes oxygen depletion (<4 mg L-1) within mats. Water trapped within the mucilaginous Phormidium mat matrix had on average 320-fold higher DRP concentrations than bulk river water and this, together with elevated concentrations of elements, including iron, suggest phosphorus release from entrapped sediment. Sequential extraction of phosphorus from trapped sediment was used to investigate the role of sediment at sites on the Mangatainoka River (New Zealand) with and without Phormidium proliferations. Deposition of fine sediment (<63 μm) was significantly higher at the site with the most extensive proliferations and concentrations of biological available phosphorus were two- to four- fold higher. Collectively these results provide evidence that fine sediment can provide a source of phosphorus to support Phormidium growth and proliferation.
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Rogers S, Puddick J, Wood SA, Dietrich DR, Hamilton DP, Prinsep MR. The effect of cyanobacterial biomass enrichment by centrifugation and GF/C filtration on subsequent microcystin measurement. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:821-34. [PMID: 25763766 PMCID: PMC4379527 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7030821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Microcystins are cyclic peptides produced by multiple cyanobacterial genera. After accumulation in the liver of animals they inhibit eukaryotic serine/threonine protein phosphatases, causing liver disease or death. Accurate detection/quantification of microcystins is essential to ensure safe water resources and to enable research on this toxin. Previous methodological comparisons have focused on detection and extraction techniques, but have not investigated the commonly used biomass enrichment steps. These enrichment steps could modulate toxin production as recent studies have demonstrated that high cyanobacterial cell densities cause increased microcystin levels. In this study, three microcystin-producing strains were processed using no cell enrichment steps (by direct freezing at three temperatures) and with biomass enrichment (by centrifugation or GF/C filtration). After extraction, microcystins were analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. All processing methods tested, except GF/C filtration, resulted in comparable microcystin quotas for all strains. The low yields observed for the filtration samples were caused by adsorption of arginine-containing microcystins to the GF/C filters. Whilst biomass enrichment did not affect microcystin metabolism over the time-frame of normal sample processing, problems associated with GF/C filtration were identified. The most widely applicable processing method was direct freezing of samples as it could be utilized in both field and laboratory environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley Rogers
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | | | - Susanna A Wood
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
- Cawthron Institute, Private Bag 2, Nelson 7010, New Zealand.
| | - Daniel R Dietrich
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, P.O. Box 662, 78457 Konstanz, Germany.
| | - David P Hamilton
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
| | - Michele R Prinsep
- Department of Chemistry, School of Science, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
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Bittencourt-Oliveira MC, Hereman TC, Cordeiro-Araújo MK, Macedo-Silva I, Dias CT, Sasaki FFC, Moura AN. Phytotoxicity associated to microcystins: a review. BRAZ J BIOL 2014; 74:753-60. [PMID: 25627583 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.06213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Microcystins (MC) are the most studied toxins of cyanobacteria since they are widely distributed and account for several cases of human and animal poisoning, being potent inhibitors of the serine/threonine protein phosphatases 1 (PP1) and 2A (PP2A). The phosphatases PP1 and PP2A are also present in plants, which may also suffer adverse effects due to the inhibition of these enzymes. In aquatic plants, biomass reduction is usually observed after absorption of cyanotoxins, which can bioaccumulate in its tissues. In terrestrial plants, the effects caused by microcystins vary from inhibition to stimulation as the individuals develop from seedling to adult, and include reduction of protein phosphatases 1 and 2A, oxidative stress, decreased photosynthetic activity and even cell apoptosis, as well as bioaccumulation in plant tissues. Thus, the irrigation of crop plants by water contaminated with microcystins is not only an economic problem but becomes a public health issue because of the possibility of food contamination, and this route of exposure requires careful monitoring by the responsible authorities.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Bittencourt-Oliveira
- Department of Biological Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo - USP, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - T C Hereman
- Department of Biological Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo - USP, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - M K Cordeiro-Araújo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo - USP, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - I Macedo-Silva
- Graduating Program on Biological Sciences, São Paulo State University - UNESP, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - C T Dias
- Departament of Exact Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo - USP, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - F F C Sasaki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo - USP, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - A N Moura
- Graduating Program on Botany, Rural and Federal University of Pernambuco - UFRPE, Recife, PE, Brazil
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Elucidation of insertion elements carried on plasmids and in vitro construction of shuttle vectors from the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:4887-97. [PMID: 24907328 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01188-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Several gene clusters that are responsible for toxin synthesis in bloom-forming cyanobacteria have been found to be associated with transposable elements (TEs). In particular, insertion sequence (IS) elements were shown to play a role in the inactivation or recombination of the genes responsible for cyanotoxin synthesis. Plasmids have been considered important vectors of IS element distribution to the host. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the IS elements propagated on the plasmids and the chromosome of the toxic cyanobacterium Planktothrix agardhii NIVA-CYA126/8 by means of high-throughput sequencing. In total, five plasmids (pPA5.5, pPA14, pPA50, pPA79, and pPA115, of 5, 6, 50, 79, and 120 kbp, respectively) were elucidated, and two plasmids (pPA5.5, pPA115) were found to propagate full IS element copies. Large stretches of shared DNA information between plasmids were constituted of TEs. Two plasmids (pPA5.5, pPA14) were used as candidates to engineer shuttle vectors (named pPA5.5SV and pPA14SV, respectively) in vitro by PCR amplification and the subsequent transposition of the Tn5 cat transposon containing the R6Kγ origin of replication of Escherichia coli. While pPA5.5SV was found to be fully segregated, pPA14SV consistently co-occurred with its wild-type plasmid even under the highest selective pressure. Interestingly, the Tn5 cat transposon became transferred by homologous recombination into another plasmid, pPA50. The availability of shuttle vectors is considered to be of relevance in investigating genome plasticity as a consequence of homologous recombination events. Combining the potential of high-throughput sequencing and in vitro production of shuttle vectors makes it simple to produce species-specific shuttle vectors for many cultivable prokaryotes.
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Ngwa FF, Madramootoo CA, Jabaji S. Comparison of cyanobacterial microcystin synthetase (mcy) E gene transcript levels, mcy E gene copies, and biomass as indicators of microcystin risk under laboratory and field conditions. Microbiologyopen 2014; 3:411-25. [PMID: 24838591 PMCID: PMC4287171 DOI: 10.1002/mbo3.173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased incidences of mixed assemblages of microcystin-producing and nonproducing cyanobacterial strains in freshwater bodies necessitate development of reliable proxies for cyanotoxin risk assessment. Detection of microcystin biosynthetic genes in water blooms of cyanobacteria is generally indicative of the presence of potentially toxic cyanobacterial strains. Although much effort has been devoted toward elucidating the microcystin biosynthesis mechanisms in many cyanobacteria genera, little is known about the impacts of co-occurring cyanobacteria on cellular growth, mcy gene expression, or mcy gene copy distribution. The present study utilized conventional microscopy, qPCR assays, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to study how competition between microcystin-producing Microcystis aeruginosa CPCC 299 and Planktothrix agardhii NIVA-CYA 126 impacts mcyE gene expression, mcyE gene copies, and microcystin concentration under controlled laboratory conditions. Furthermore, analyses of environmental water samples from the Missisquoi Bay, Quebec, enabled us to determine how the various potential toxigenic cyanobacterial biomass proxies correlated with cellular microcystin concentrations in a freshwater lake. Results from our laboratory study indicated significant downregulation of mcyE gene expression in mixed cultures of M. aeruginosa plus P. agardhii on most sampling days in agreement with depressed growth recorded in the mixed cultures, suggesting that interaction between the two species probably resulted in suppressed growth and mcyE gene expression in the mixed cultures. Furthermore, although mcyE gene copies and McyE transcripts were detected in all laboratory and field samples with measureable microcystin levels, only mcyE gene copies showed significant positive correlations (R(2) > 0.7) with microcystin concentrations, while McyE transcript levels did not. These results suggest that mcyE gene copies are better indicators of potential risks from microcystins than McyE transcript levels or conventional biomass proxies, especially in water bodies comprising mixed assemblages of toxic and nontoxic cyanobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felexce F Ngwa
- Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Québec, Canada, H9X 3V9
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Clearwater SJ, Wood SA, Phillips NR, Parkyn SM, Van Ginkel R, Thompson KJ. Toxicity thresholds for juvenile freshwater mussels Echyridella menziesii and crayfish Paranephrops planifrons, after acute or chronic exposure to Microcystis sp. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2014; 29:487-502. [PMID: 22489020 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Revised: 02/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Survival of juvenile freshwater mussels (Echyridella menziesii (Gray, 1843) formerly known as Hyridella menziesi) and crayfish (Paranephrops planifrons, White, 1842) decreased after four days exposure to microcystin-containing cell-free extracts (MCFE) of Microcystis sp. at concentrations typical of severe cyanobacterial blooms. Crayfish survival was 100, 80, and 50% in microcystin concentrations of 1339, 2426, and 11146 μg L(-1) respectively, and shade- and shelter-seeking behavior was negatively affected when concentrations were ≥2426 μg L(-1) . Mussel survival decreased to 92% and reburial rates decreased to 16% after exposure for 96 h to MCFE containing microcystins at concentrations of 5300 μg L(-1) . Crayfish survival was 100% when fed freeze-dried Microcystis sp. incorporated into an artificial diet (6-100 μg microcystin kg(-1) ww) at dietary doses from 0.03 to 0.55 μg g(-1) body weight d(-1) for 27 days. Specific growth rate was significantly lower in crayfish fed ≥0.15 μg g(-1) body weight day(-1) compared with controls, but not compared with a diet incorporating nontoxic cyanobacteria. Microcystins accumulated preferentially in crayfish hepatopancreas and mussel digesta as MCFE or dietary concentrations increased. These laboratory data indicate that, assuming dissolved oxygen concentrations remain adequate, and no simultaneous exposure to live Microcystis sp. cells, cell-free microcystins will only be a significant stressor to juvenile crayfish and mussels in severe Microcystis sp. blooms. In contrast, crayfish were negatively affected by relatively low concentrations of microcystins in artificial diets compared with those measured locally in benthic cyanobacterial mats.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Clearwater
- National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd., PO Box 11115, Hamilton 3251, New Zealand
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Ngwa F, Madramootoo C, Jabaji S. Monitoring toxigenic Microcystis strains in the Missisquoi bay, Quebec, by PCR targeting multiple toxic gene loci. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2014; 29:440-451. [PMID: 22431468 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Revised: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The increasing incidence of mixed assemblages of toxic and nontoxic cyanobacterial blooms in Quebec's freshwater bodies over the last decade, coupled with inherent inadequacies of current monitoring approaches, warrants development of sensitive and reliable tools for assessing the toxigenic potential of these water blooms. In this study, we applied three independent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays that simultaneously target the microcystin synthetase (mcy) genes A, E, and G to rapidly and reliably detect and quantify potentially toxic Microcystis genotypes in the Missisquoi bay, Quebec, Canada. Linear regressions of quantitative PCR threshold cycles (Ct ) against the logarithm of their respective Microcystis cell number equivalents resulted in highly significant linear curves with coefficients of determination (R(2) ) greater than 0.99 (p < 0.0001, n = 6) and reaction efficiencies of 91.0, 95.8, and 92.7%, respectively, for the mcyA, mcyE, and mcyG-based quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) assays. The three assays successfully estimated potential microcystin-producing Microcystis genotypes from all field samples. The proportions of MicrocystismcyA, mcyE, and mcyG genotypes to total Microcystis cell counts showed substantial spatial variability ranging between 1.7-21.6%, 1.9-11.2%, and 2.2-22.6%, respectively. Correlation of microscopically determined total Microcystis counts to qPCR-based MicrocystismcyA, mcyE, or mcyG cell number equivalents resulted in highly significant associations with R(2) > 0.90. Thus, PCR-based assays targeting the mcyA, mcyG, and/or mcyE genes can serve as powerful screening tools for rapid and sensitive estimation of microcystin-producing Microcystis genotypes in freshwater water bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felexce Ngwa
- Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, Ste. 21111 Lakeshore Road, Anne de Bellevue, Québec, Canada H9X 3V9
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Phormidium autumnale growth and anatoxin-a production under iron and copper stress. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:2504-21. [PMID: 24351714 PMCID: PMC3873698 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5122504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Revised: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies on planktonic cyanobacteria have shown variability in cyanotoxin production, in response to changes in growth phase and environmental factors. Few studies have investigated cyanotoxin regulation in benthic mat-forming species, despite increasing reports on poisoning events caused by ingestion of these organisms. In this study, a method was developed to investigate changes in cyanotoxin quota in liquid cultures of benthic mat-forming cyanobacteria. Iron and copper are important in cellular processes and are well known to affect growth and selected metabolite production in cyanobacteria and algae. The effect of iron (40–4000 μg L−1) and copper (2.5–250 μg L−1) on growth and anatoxin-a quota in Phormidium autumnale was investigated in batch culture. These concentrations were chosen to span those found in freshwater, as well as those previously reported to be toxic to cyanobacteria. Anatoxin-a concentrations varied throughout the growth curve, with a maximum quota of between 0.49 and 0.55 pg cell−1 measured within the first two weeks of growth. Growth rates were significantly affected by copper and iron concentrations (P < 0.0001); however, no statistically significant difference between anatoxin-a quota maxima was observed. When the iron concentrations were 800 and 4000 μg L−1, the P.autumnale cultures did not firmly attach to the substratum. At 250 μg L−1 copper or either 40 or 4000 μg L−1 iron, growth was suppressed.
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Kleinteich J, Wood SA, Puddick J, Schleheck D, Küpper FC, Dietrich D. Potent toxins in Arctic environments – Presence of saxitoxins and an unusual microcystin variant in Arctic freshwater ecosystems. Chem Biol Interact 2013; 206:423-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2013.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Catherine Q, Susanna W, Isidora ES, Mark H, Aurélie V, Jean-François H. A review of current knowledge on toxic benthic freshwater cyanobacteria--ecology, toxin production and risk management. WATER RESEARCH 2013; 47:5464-79. [PMID: 23891539 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Benthic cyanobacteria are found globally in plethora of environments. Although they have received less attention than their planktonic freshwater counterparts, it is now well established that they produce toxins and reports of their involvement in animal poisonings have increased markedly during the last decade. Most of the known cyanotoxins have been identified from benthic cyanobacteria including: the hepatotoxic microcystins, nodularins and cylindrospermopsins, the neurotoxic saxitoxins, anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a and dermatotoxins, such as lyngbyatoxin. In most countries, observations of toxic benthic cyanobacteria are fragmented, descriptive and in response to animal toxicosis events. Only a limited number of long-term studies have aimed to understand why benthic proliferations occur, and/or how toxin production is regulated. These studies have shown that benthic cyanobacterial blooms are commonly a mixture of toxic and non-toxic genotypes and that toxin concentrations can be highly variable spatially and temporally. Physiochemical parameters responsible for benthic proliferation vary among habitat type with physical disturbance (e.g., flow regimes, wave action) and nutrients commonly identified as important. As climatic conditions change and anthropogenic pressures on waterways increase, it seems likely that the prevalence of blooms of benthic cyanobacteria will increase. In this article we review current knowledge on benthic cyanobacteria: ecology, toxin-producing species, variables that regulate toxin production and bloom formation, their impact on aquatic and terrestrial organisms and current monitoring and management strategies. We suggest research needs that will assist in filling knowledge gaps and ultimately allow more robust monitoring and management protocols to be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quiblier Catherine
- MNHN, UMR 7245, 57 rue Cuvier, CP39, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France; Université Paris Diderot, 5 rue T. Mann, 75013 Paris, France.
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COYOTE (CANIS LATRANS) AND DOMESTIC DOG (CANIS FAMILIARIS) MORTALITY AND MORBIDITY DUE TO A KARENIA BREVIS RED TIDE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO. J Wildl Dis 2013; 49:955-64. [DOI: 10.7589/2012-11-299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Roegner AF, Brena B, González-Sapienza G, Puschner B. Microcystins in potable surface waters: toxic effects and removal strategies. J Appl Toxicol 2013; 34:441-57. [PMID: 24038121 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2013] [Revised: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
In freshwater, harmful cyanobacterial blooms threaten to increase with global climate change and eutrophication of surface waters. In addition to the burden and necessity of removal of algal material during water treatment processes, bloom-forming cyanobacteria can produce a class of remarkably stable toxins, microcystins, difficult to remove from drinking water sources. A number of animal intoxications over the past 20 years have served as sentinels for widespread risk presented by microcystins. Cyanobacterial blooms have the potential to threaten severely both public health and the regional economy of affected communities, particularly those with limited infrastructure or resources. Our main objectives were to assess whether existing water treatment infrastructure provides sufficient protection against microcystin exposure, identify available options feasible to implement in resource-limited communities in bloom scenarios and to identify strategies for improved solutions. Finally, interventions at the watershed level aimed at bloom prevention and risk reduction for entry into potable water sources were outlined. We evaluated primary studies, reviews and reports for treatment options for microcystins in surface waters, potable water sources and treatment plants. Because of the difficulty of removal of microcystins, prevention is ideal; once in the public water supply, the coarse removal of cyanobacterial cells combined with secondary carbon filtration of dissolved toxins currently provides the greatest potential for protection of public health. Options for point of use filtration must be optimized to provide affordable and adequate protection for affected communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber F Roegner
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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Degradation of [Dha(7)]MC-LR by a Microcystin Degrading Bacterium Isolated from Lake Rotoiti, New Zealand. ISRN MICROBIOLOGY 2013; 2013:596429. [PMID: 23936728 PMCID: PMC3712209 DOI: 10.1155/2013/596429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Accepted: 05/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
For the first time a microcystin-degrading bacterium (NV-3 isolate) has been isolated and characterized from a NZ lake. Cyanobacterial blooms in New Zealand (NZ) waters contain microcystin (MC) hepatotoxins at concentrations which are a risk to animal and human health. Degradation of MCs by naturally occurring bacteria is an attractive bioremediation option for removing MCs from drinking and recreational water sources. The NV-3 isolate was identified by 16S rRNA sequence analysis and found to have 100% nucleotide sequence homology with the Sphingomonas MC-degrading bacterial strain MD-1 from Japan. The NV-3 isolate (concentration of 1.0 × 108 CFU/mL) at 30°C degraded a mixture of [Dha7]MC-LR and MC-LR (concentration 25 μg/mL) at a maximum rate of 8.33 μg/mL/day. The intermediate by-products of [Dha7]MC-LR degradation were detected and similar to MC-LR degradation by-products. The presence of three genes (mlrA, mlrB, and mlrC), that encode three enzymes involved in the degradation of MC-LR, were identified in the NV-3 isolate. This study confirmed that degradation of [Dha7]MC-LR by the Sphingomonas isolate NV-3 occurred by a similar mechanism previously described for MC-LR by Sphingomonas strain MJ-PV (ACM-3962). This has important implications for potential bioremediation of toxic blooms containing a variety of MCs in NZ waters.
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Shishido TK, Kaasalainen U, Fewer DP, Rouhiainen L, Jokela J, Wahlsten M, Fiore MF, Yunes JS, Rikkinen J, Sivonen K. Convergent evolution of [D-Leucine(1)] microcystin-LR in taxonomically disparate cyanobacteria. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:86. [PMID: 23601305 PMCID: PMC3640908 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Many important toxins and antibiotics are produced by non-ribosomal biosynthetic pathways. Microcystins are a chemically diverse family of potent peptide toxins and the end-products of a hybrid NRPS and PKS secondary metabolic pathway. They are produced by a variety of cyanobacteria and are responsible for the poisoning of humans as well as the deaths of wild and domestic animals around the world. The chemical diversity of the microcystin family is attributed to a number of genetic events that have resulted in the diversification of the pathway for microcystin assembly. Results Here, we show that independent evolutionary events affecting the substrate specificity of the microcystin biosynthetic pathway have resulted in convergence on a rare [D-Leu1] microcystin-LR chemical variant. We detected this rare microcystin variant from strains of the distantly related genera Microcystis, Nostoc, and Phormidium. Phylogenetic analysis performed using sequences of the catalytic domains within the mcy gene cluster demonstrated a clear recombination pattern in the adenylation domain phylogenetic tree. We found evidence for conversion of the gene encoding the McyA2 adenylation domain in strains of the genera Nostoc and Phormidium. However, point mutations affecting the substrate-binding sequence motifs of the McyA2 adenylation domain were associated with the change in substrate specificity in two strains of Microcystis. In addition to the main [D-Leu1] microcystin-LR variant, these two strains produced a new microcystin that was identified as [Met1] microcystin-LR. Conclusions Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that both point mutations and gene conversion result in functional mcy gene clusters that produce the same rare [D-Leu1] variant of microcystin in strains of the genera Microcystis, Nostoc, and Phormidium. Engineering pathways to produce recombinant non-ribosomal peptides could provide new natural products or increase the activity of known compounds. Our results suggest that the replacement of entire adenylation domains could be a more successful strategy to obtain higher specificity in the modification of the non-ribosomal peptides than point mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tânia Keiko Shishido
- Department of Food and Environmental Sciences, Division of Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Viikki Biocenter (Viikinkaari 9), PO Box 56, Helsinki, FIN-00014, Finland
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