Modulation of macrophage activity by aflatoxins B1 and B2 and their metabolites aflatoxins M1 and M2

Influence of tumor mycobiome on cancer pathogenesis (Review)

Cancer tissues harbor a large microbiome. There is growing evidence that the tumor microbiome is significantly correlated with the prognosis of cancer patients, but the exact underlying mechanisms have remained elusive. Although the tumor mycobiome is less abundant than the biome of bacteria, it is prevalent in most cancers in humans. The present review describes in detail the impact of the tumor mycobiome on cancer pathogenesis. The tumor mycobiome promotes tumor progression and metastasis by affecting the human immune system, maintaining a pro-inflammatory environment, producing aflatoxins, attenuating cell adhesion mechanisms and fungal-bacterial interactions. Furthermore, the tumor mycobiome likewise has great potential for cancer prevention, diagnosis and treatment.

Product safety aspects of plant molecular farming

Plant molecular farming (PMF) has been promoted since the 1990s as a rapid, cost-effective and (most of all) safe alternative to the cultivation of bacteria or animal cells for the production of biopharmaceutical proteins. Numerous plant species have been investigated for the production of a broad range of protein-based drug candidates. The inherent safety of these products is frequently highlighted as an advantage of PMF because plant viruses do not replicate in humans and vice versa. However, a more nuanced analysis of this principle is required when considering other pathogens because toxic compounds pose a risk even in the absence of replication. Similarly, it is necessary to assess the risks associated with the host system (e.g., the presence of toxic secondary metabolites) and the production approach (e.g., transient expression based on bacterial infiltration substantially increases the endotoxin load). This review considers the most relevant host systems in terms of their toxicity profile, including the presence of secondary metabolites, and the risks arising from the persistence of these substances after downstream processing and product purification. Similarly, we discuss a range of plant pathogens and disease vectors that can influence product safety, for example, due to the release of toxins. The ability of downstream unit operations to remove contaminants and process-related toxic impurities such as endotoxins is also addressed. This overview of plant-based production, focusing on product safety aspects, provides recommendations that will allow stakeholders to choose the most appropriate strategies for process development.

Compliance between Food and Feed Safety: Eight-Year Survey (2013–2021) of Aflatoxin M1 in Raw Milk and Aflatoxin B1 in Feed in Northern Italy

Aflatoxins (AFs) are fungal metabolites that are found in feed and food. When ruminants eat feed contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), it is metabolised and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is excreted in the milk. Aflatoxins can result in hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, and immunosuppressive effects. The European Union thus set a low threshold limit (50 ng/L) for presence of AFM1 in milk. This was in view of its possible presence also in dairy products and that quantification of these toxins is mandatory for milk suppliers. In the present study, a total of 95,882 samples of whole raw milk, collected in northern Italy between 2013 and 2021, were evaluated for presence of AFM1 using an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) method. The study also evaluated the relationship between feed materials collected from the same farms in the same area during the same period (2013–2021) and milk contamination. Only 667 milk samples out of 95,882 samples analysed (0.7%) showed AFM1 values higher than the EU threshold limit of 50 ng/L. A total of 390 samples (0.4%) showed values between 40 and 50 ng/L, thus requiring corrective action despite not surpassing the regulatory threshold. Combining feed contamination and milk contamination data, some feedingstuffs seem to be more effective in defying potential carryover of AFs from feed to milk. Combining the results, it can be concluded that a robust monitoring system that covers both feed, with a special focus on high risk/sentinel matrices, and milk is essential to guarantee high quality and safety standards of dairy products.

HPLC–MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of aflatoxins in blood: toxicokinetics of aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M1 in rats

Mycotoxins are highly toxic fungal metabolites that can pose health threats to humans and animals. Aflatoxins are a type of mycotoxin produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. A sensitive high performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC–MS/MS) method with multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) modes was developed for the determination of aflatoxins in blood after acetonitrile precipitation extraction. The limits of quantification of aflatoxins ranged from 0.05 to 0.2 ng/mL. Intra-day accuracy ranged from 92 to 111.0%, and intra-day precision (n = 6) ranged from 1 to 8%. Inter-day accuracy and precision were 94.0–102.0% and 2.0–8.0%, respectively. The toxicokinetics of AFB1 and its metabolite AFM1 after a single oral administration (AFB1 1 mg/kg body weight) were studied in male Sprague–Dawley rats. The blood AFB1 and AFM1 profiles could be adequately described by a noncompartmental model. The highest concentration of AFB1 (Cmax 93.42 ± 23.01 ng/mL) was observed with Tmax at 0.15 ± 0.034 h. AFB1 was rapidly metabolized to AFM1 which reached its peak blood concentration (Cmax 53.86 ± 12.12 ng/mL) at 0.33 ± 0.11 h. The HPLC–MS/MS method was simple and sensitive, appropriate for studying the in vivo toxicokinetics of aflatoxins.

Altered Mycobiota Signatures and Enriched Pathogenic Aspergillus rambellii Are Associated With Colorectal Cancer Based on Multicohort Fecal Metagenomic Analyses

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The enteric mycobiota is a major component of the human gut microbiota, but its role in colorectal cancer (CRC) remains largely elusive. We conducted a meta-analysis to uncover the contribution of the fungal mycobiota to CRC.

METHODS

We retrieved fecal metagenomic data sets from 7 previous publications and established an additional in-house cohort, totaling 1329 metagenomes (454 with CRC, 350 with adenoma, and 525 healthy individuals). Mycobiota composition and microbial interactions were analyzed. Candidate CRC-enriched fungal species (Aspergillus rambellii) was functionally validated in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

Multicohort analysis revealed that the enteric mycobiota was altered in CRC. We identified fungi that were associated with patients with CRC or adenoma from multiple cohorts. Signature CRC-associated fungi included 6 enriched (A rambellii, Cordyceps sp. RAO-2017, Erysiphe pulchra, Moniliophthora perniciosa, Sphaerulina musiva, and Phytophthora capsici) and 1 depleted species (A kawachii). Co-occurrent interactions among CRC-enriched fungi became stronger in CRC compared with adenoma and healthy individuals. Moreover, we reported the transkingdom interactions between enteric fungi and bacteria in CRC progression, of which A rambellii was closely associated with CRC-enriched bacteria Fusobacterium nucleatum. A rambellii promoted CRC cell growth in vitro and tumor growth in xenograft mice. We further identified that combined fungal and bacterial biomarkers were more accurate than panels with pure bacterial species to discriminate patients with CRC from healthy individuals (the area under the curve relative change increased by 1.44%-10.60%).

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals enteric mycobiota signatures and pathogenic fungi in stages of colorectal tumorigenesis. Fecal fungi can be used, in addition to bacteria, for noninvasive diagnosis of patients with CRC.

Metabolic Disruption by Naturally Occurring Mycotoxins in Circulation: A Focus on Vascular and Bone Homeostasis Dysfunction

Naturally occurring food/feed contaminants have become a significant global issue due to animal and human health implications. Despite risk assessments and legislation setpoints on the mycotoxins' levels, exposure to lower amounts occurs, and it might affect cell homeostasis. However, the inflammatory consequences of this possible everyday exposure to toxins on the vascular microenvironment and arterial dysfunction are unexplored in detail. Circulation is the most accessible path for food-borne toxins, and the consequent metabolic and immune shifts affect systemic health, both on vascular apparatus and bone homeostasis. Their oxidative nature makes mycotoxins a plausible underlying source of low-level toxicity in the bone marrow microenvironment and arterial dysfunction. Mycotoxins could also influence the function of cardiomyocytes with possible injury to the heart. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins can modulate the metabolic pathways favoring osteoblast dysfunction and bone health losses. This review provides a novel insight into understanding the complex events of coexposure to mixed (low levels) mycotoxicosis and subsequent metabolic/immune disruptions contributing to chronic alterations in circulation.

Advances in the Total Synthesis of Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins, which are produced by Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus nomius, and Aspergillus parasiticus, are a group of pentacyclic natural products with difuran and coumarin skeletons. They mainly include aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2. Biologically, aflatoxins are of concern to human health as they can be present as contaminants in food products. The unique skeletons of aflatoxins and their risk to human health have led to the publication of nine remarkable total syntheses (including three asymmetric syntheses) and ten formal total syntheses (including four asymmetric formal syntheses) of aflatoxins in the past 55 years. To better understand the mechanism of the biological activity of aflatoxins and their presence in samples from the food industry, this review summarizes progress in the total synthesis of aflatoxins.

Aflatoxin Biosynthesis, Genetic Regulation, Toxicity, and Control Strategies: A Review

Aflatoxins (AFs) are highly toxic and cancer-causing compounds, predominantly synthesized by the Aspergillus species. AFs biosynthesis is a lengthy process that requires as minimum as 30 genes grouped inside 75 kilobytes (kB) of gene clusters, which are regulated by specific transcription factors, including aflR, aflS, and some general transcription factors. This paper summarizes the status of research on characterizing structural and regulatory genes associated with AF production and their roles in aflatoxigenic fungi, particularly Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, and enhances the current understanding of AFs that adversely affect humans and animals with a great emphasis on toxicity and preventive methods.

Fungal Toxins and Host Immune Responses

Fungi are ubiquitous organisms that thrive in diverse natural environments including soils, plants, animals, and the human body. In response to warmth, humidity, and moisture, certain fungi which grow on crops and harvested foodstuffs can produce mycotoxins; secondary metabolites which when ingested have a deleterious impact on health. Ongoing research indicates that some mycotoxins and, more recently, peptide toxins are also produced during active fungal infection in humans and experimental models. A combination of innate and adaptive immune recognition allows the host to eliminate invading pathogens from the body. However, imbalances in immune homeostasis often facilitate microbial infection. Despite the wide-ranging effects of fungal toxins on health, our understanding of toxin-mediated modulation of immune responses is incomplete. This review will explore the current understanding of fungal toxins and how they contribute to the modulation of host immunity.

CYP1A2, 2A13, and 3A4 network and interaction with aflatoxin B1

Aspergillus fungi are known to produce aflatoxins, among which aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent carcinogen that is metabolised by cytochrome P450 (CYP450). In the liver, AFB1 is metabolised into exo-8,9-epoxide by the CYP1A2 enzymes. The resulting epoxide can react with guanine to cause DNA damage. Natural inhibitors are being identified. However, the modes of action are poorly understood. In the current study, we have investigated the mode of action of AFB1 with CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2A13 using molecular dynamic simulation (MD simulation) approaches. The interaction network and paths among CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2A13 have been investigated using the STRING database and PathLinker plugin of Cytoscape. CYP3A4 is the most active protein involved in interactions with AFB1 during its metabolism. Residues 362ARG, 445SER, 450LEU and 451PHE of CYP1A2 are important, interacting with AFB1 and converting it to toxic exo-AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFBEX). The pathway shows that microsomal epoxide hydrolase (EPHX1) may acts as initiator in the signalling pathway where CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2A13 interact in a sequential order. The interaction network shows there to be a strong association in expression among CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2A13 along with other metabolising enzymes. The complex of AFB1 and CYP1A2 was found to be stable during the MD simulation. This study provides a better understanding of the mode of action between AFB1 and CYP1A2, CYP3A4 and CYP2A13 which relates to the effective management of AFB1 toxicity. EPHX1 in the protein network may be an ideal target when designing inhibitors to prevent the toxin’s activation. Peptide inhibitors may be designed to block the substrate site residues of CYP1A2 in order to prevent the conversion from AFB1 into AFBEX. This would either neutralise or reduce its toxicity.

Enhancement of β-Glucan Biological Activity Using a Modified Acid-Base Extraction Method from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Beta glucan (β-glucan) has promising bioactive properties. Consequently, the use of β-glucan as a food additive is favored with the dual-purpose potential of increasing the fiber content of food products and enhancing their health properties. Our aim was to evaluate the biological activity of β-glucan (antimicrobial, antitoxic, immunostimulatory, and anticancer) extracted from Saccharomyces cerevisiae using a modified acid-base extraction method. The results demonstrated that a modified acid-base extraction method gives a higher biological efficacy of β-glucan than in the water extraction method. Using 0.5 mg dry weight of acid-base extracted β-glucan (AB extracted) not only succeeded in removing 100% of aflatoxins, but also had a promising antimicrobial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria, fungi, and yeast, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of 0.39 and 0.19 mg/mL in the case of resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively. In addition, AB extract exhibited a positive immunomodulatory effect, mediated through the high induction of TNFα, IL-6, IFN-γ, and IL-2. Moreover, AB extract showed a greater anticancer effect against A549, MDA-MB-232, and HepG-2 cells compared to WI-38 cells, at high concentrations. By studying the cell death mechanism using flow-cytometry, AB extract was shown to induce apoptotic cell death at higher concentrations, as in the case of MDA-MB-231 and HePG-2 cells. In conclusion, the use of a modified AB for β-glucan from Saccharomyces cerevisiae exerted a promising antimicrobial, immunomodulatory efficacy, and anti-cancer potential. Future research should focus on evaluating β-glucan in various biological systems and elucidating the underlying mechanism of action.

Carcinogenesis: Failure of resolution of inflammation?

Inflammation in the tumor microenvironment is a hallmark of cancer and is recognized as a key characteristic of carcinogens. However, the failure of resolution of inflammation in cancer is only recently being understood. Products of arachidonic acid and related fatty acid metabolism called eicosanoids, including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, lipoxins, and epoxyeicosanoids, critically regulate inflammation, as well as its resolution. The resolution of inflammation is now appreciated to be an active biochemical process regulated by endogenous specialized pro-resolving lipid autacoid mediators which combat infections and stimulate tissue repair/regeneration. Environmental and chemical human carcinogens, including aflatoxins, asbestos, nitrosamines, alcohol, and tobacco, induce tumor-promoting inflammation and can disrupt the resolution of inflammation contributing to a devastating global cancer burden. While mechanisms of carcinogenesis have focused on genotoxic activity to induce mutations, nongenotoxic mechanisms such as inflammation and oxidative stress promote genotoxicity, proliferation, and mutations. Moreover, carcinogens initiate oxidative stress to synergize with inflammation and DNA damage to fuel a vicious feedback loop of cell death, tissue damage, and carcinogenesis. In contrast, stimulation of resolution of inflammation may prevent carcinogenesis by clearance of cellular debris via macrophage phagocytosis and inhibition of an eicosanoid/cytokine storm of pro-inflammatory mediators. Controlling the host inflammatory response and its resolution in carcinogen-induced cancers will be critical to reducing carcinogen-induced morbidity and mortality. Here we review the recent evidence that stimulation of resolution of inflammation, including pro-resolution lipid mediators and soluble epoxide hydrolase inhibitors, may be a new chemopreventive approach to prevent carcinogen-induced cancer that should be evaluated in humans.

Transcriptomics and flow cytometry reveals the cytotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M1 in bovine mammary epithelial cells

Aflatoxin is a known mycotoxin that pollutes various grains widely in the environment. Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and Aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) have been shown to induce cytotoxicity in many cells, yet their effects on mammary epithelial cells remain unclear. In this study, we examined the toxicity and the effects of AFB₁ and AFM₁ on bovine mammary epithelial cells (BME cells). The cells were treated with AFB₁ or AFM₁ at a concentration of 0-10 mg/L for 24 or 48 h, followed by cytotoxicity assays, flow cytometry, and transcriptomics. Our results demonstrated that AFB₁ and AFM₁ induced cell proliferation inhibition, apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. However, the level of intracellular reactive oxygen species has no significant difference. The RNA-Seq results also showed that AFB₁ and AFM₁ changed many related gene expressions like apoptosis and oxidative stress, cycle, junction, and signaling pathway. Taken together, AFB₁ and AFM₁ were found to affect cytotoxicity and related gene changes in BME cells. Notably, this study reported that 2 mg/L of AFB₁ and AFM₁ affected the expression of methylation-related genes, and ultimately altered the rate of m⁶A methylation in RNA. It may provide a potential direction for toxins to indirectly regulate gene expression by affecting RNA methylation modification. Our research provides some novel insights and data about AFB₁ and AFM₁ toxicity in BME cells.

Acute aflatoxin B1-induced gastro-duodenal and hepatic oxidative damage is preceded by time-dependent hyperlactatemia in rats

Elevated serum lactate concentration has been used to predict the risk of fatality in various disease states in acutely ill patients or poisoning with different chemicals. However, its utility in predicting disease progression during acute aflatoxicosis has not been investigated. This study was designed to evaluate changes in blood lactate levels following acute exposure to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and to determine whether changes in blood lactate levels bear any relationship with biochemical and/or morphological lesions in the stomach, duodenum, and liver. Twenty-one male Wistar rats were randomly divided into three groups (n = 7 rats /group) including Group A (control) receiving vehicle alone and Groups B and C treated with single oral doses of AFB₁ at 2.5 and 5 mg/kg, respectively. AFB₁ produced significant (p < 0.05) time- and dose-dependent increase in blood lactate concentration as early as 1 h following its administration, with further increases observed at 3 h and 6 h. The hyperlactatemia accompanied tissue oxidative changes including increased H₂O₂ and MDA, as well as depletion in glutathione, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and total thiols in gastro-duodenal and hepatic tissues. The oxidative changes were reflected in morphological alterations observed at histopathology with more severe lesions observed with the higher dose of AFB₁. Serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-1β) were, however, differently modified by AFB₁ administration. Taken together, the results from this study gives indication that hyperlactatemia may find utility in predicting the severity of tissue damage induced by acute AFB₁ exposure.

Immunological effects of AFM1 in experimental subchronic dosing in mice prevented by lactic acid bacteria

AIM

Recently, higher contamination by aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) has been detected in many countries. Unfortunately, many tons of contaminated milk and milk byproducts are removed from the food chain to avoid human contamination; as a consequence of higher economic losses. Fewest number of studies are interested to AFM1 detoxification using lactic acid bacteria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, AFM1-degradation using Lactobacillus paracasei BEJ01 (LPBEJ01) was tested in vitro. The preventive effect of LPBEJ01 against AFM1 immunobiological effects in mice are treated orally during 3 weeks with 100 µg AFM1, LPBEJ01 (2 × 10⁹ CFU/ml∼2 mg/kg p.c.) and a mixture of AFM1 and LPBEJ01.

RESULTS

In vitro LPBEJ01 was found able to absorb 98% of AFM1 (100 µg/ml) in liquid medium after 24 h and more than 95% of AFM1 could be eliminated after 24 h in a solid-state fermentation. Animals treated with AFM1 obtained lower body weight than the control ones. The mitogenic response of spleen mononuclear cells (SMCs) in vivo was higher in mice treated with AFM1. The SMC of mice treated with AFM1 produced lower levels of IL-2, higher levels IL-4 and no effect on IL-10 production. The peritoneal macrophages of mice that treated with AFM1 released less H₂O₂, while mice exposed orally with the mixture of AFM1 and LPBEJ01 produced higher levels.

CONCLUSION

LPBEJ01 was safe and it did not have any sign of toxicity. It can be used as an additive for AFM1-detoxification contamination in the food chain in countries suffering from this problem.

Advances in Antibody Preparation Techniques for Immunoassays of Total Aflatoxin in Food

Aflatoxin (AF) contamination is a major concern in the food and feed industry because of its prevalence and toxicity. Improved aflatoxin detection methods are still needed. Immunoassays are an important method for total aflatoxin (TAF) analysis in food due to its technical advantages such as high specificity, sensitivity, and simplicity, but require high-quality antibodies. Here, we first review the three ways to prepare high-quality antibodies for TAF immunoassay, second, compare the advantages and disadvantages of antigen synthesis methods for B-group and G-group aflatoxins, and third, describe the status of novel genetic engineering antibodies. This review can provide new methods and ideas for the development of TAF immunoassays.

Bioactive compounds from Aspergillus niger extract enhance the antioxidant activity and prevent the genotoxicity in aflatoxin B1-treated rats

This study aimed to identify the bioactive compounds of the ethyl acetate extract of Aspergillus niger SH2-EGY using GC-MS and to evaluate their protective role against aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁)-induced oxidative stress, genotoxicity and cytotoxicity in rats. Six groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats were treated orally for 4 weeks included the control group, AFB₁-treated group (80 μg/kg b.w); fungal extract (FE)-treated groups at low (140) or high dose (280) mg/kg b.w and the groups treated with AFB₁ plus FE at the two tested doses. The GC-MS analysis identified 26 compounds. The major compounds found were 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-trimethylsilyl Glucopyranose, Fmoc-L-3-(2-Naphthyl)-alanine, D-(-)-Fructopyranose, pentakis (trimethylsilyl) ether, bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, trimethylsilyl ether-glucitol, and octadecanamide, N-(2- methylpropyl)-N-nitroso. The in vivo results showed that AFB₁ significantly increased serum ALT, AST, creatinine, uric acid, urea, cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL, carcinoembryonic antigen, alpha-fetoprotein, interleukin-6, Malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, Bax, caspase-3 and P53 mRNA expression, chromosomal aberrations and DNA fragmentation. It decreased serum TP, albumin, HDL, Bcl-2 mRNA expression, hepatic and renal TAC, SOD and GPx content and induced histological changes in the liver and kidney. FE prevented these disturbances in a dosage-dependent manner. It could be concluded that A. niger SH2-EGY extract is safe a promising agent for pharmaceutical and food industries.

Versicolorin A, a precursor in aflatoxins biosynthesis, is a food contaminant toxic for human intestinal cells

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is the most potent carcinogen among mycotoxins. Its biosynthesis involves the formation of versicolorin A (VerA), whose chemical structure shares many features with AFB₁. Our data revealed significant levels of VerA in foodstuff from Central Asia and Africa. Given this emerging food risk, it was of prime interest to compare the toxic effects of the two mycotoxins against cells originating from the intestinal tract. We used human colon cell lines (Caco-2, HCT116) to investigate the cytotoxic process induced by the two mycotoxins. Contrary to AFB₁, a low dose of VerA (1 µM) disturbed the expression level of thousands of genes (18 002 genes). We show that the cytotoxic effects of low doses of VerA (1-20 µM) were stronger than the same low doses of AFB₁ in both Caco-2 and HCT116 cell lines. In Caco-2 cells, VerA induced DNA strand breaks that led to apoptosis and reduced DNA replication of dividing cells, consequently inhibiting cell proliferation. Although VerA was able to induce the p53 signaling pathway in p53 wild-type HCT116 cells, its toxicity process did not mainly rely on p53 expression since similar cytotoxic effects were also observed in HCT116 cells that do not express p53. In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the risk of food contamination by VerA and shed light on its toxicological effect on human colon cells.

Current research and prevention of aflatoxins in China

Since their discovery in the 1960s, aflatoxins were found to have a considerable impact on the health of humans and animals as well as the country’s economy and international trade. Aflatoxins are often found in nuts, cereals and animal feeds, which has a significant danger to the food industry. Over the years, several steps have been undertaken worldwide to minimise their contamination in crops and their exposure to humans and animals. China is one of the largest exporters and importers of food and animal feed. As a result, many studies have been carried out in China related to aflatoxins, including their distribution, pollution, detection methods, monitoring, testing and managing. Chinese scientists studied aflatoxins in microbiological, toxicological, ecological effects as well as policies relating to their controlling. China has thus put into practice a number of strategies aiming at the prevention and control of aflatoxins in order to protect consumers and ensure a safe trade of food and feed, and the status and enlargement of these strategies are very important and useful for many consumers and stakeholders in China. Therefore, this article aims at the detriment assessments, regulations, distribution, detection methods, prevention and control of aflatoxins in China. It equally provides useful information about the recent safety management systems in place to fight the contamination of aflatoxins in food and feed in China.

Macrophages in Bone Homeostasis

Aberrant or prolonged immune responses has been proved to be involved in bone homeostasis. As a component of the innate immune system, macrophages play a critical role in bone homeostasis. Conventionally, according to response to the various panel of stimuli, macrophages can be plastically classified into two major phenotypes: M1 and M2. M1 macrophages are generally proinflammatory, whereas M2 are anti-inflammatory. Although studies demonstrated that both M1 and M2 phenotypes have been implicated in various inflammatory bone diseases, their direct role in bone homeostasis remains unclear. Thus, in this review, we briefly discuss the term "osteoimmunology", which deals with the crosstalk and shared mechanisms of the bone and immune systems. In addition, we overview M1 and M2 macrophages for their role in osteoclastogenesis and osteogenesis as well as relevant signaling cascades involved.

Chronic and Acute Toxicities of Aflatoxins: Mechanisms of Action

There are presently more than 18 known aflatoxins most of which have been insufficiently studied for their incidence, health-risk, and mechanisms of toxicity to allow effective intervention and control means that would significantly and sustainably reduce their incidence and adverse effects on health and economy. Among these, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has been by far the most studied; yet, many aspects of the range and mechanisms of the diseases it causes remain to be elucidated. Its mutagenicity, tumorigenicity, and carcinogenicity-which are the best known-still suffer from limitations regarding the relative contribution of the oxidative stress and the reactive epoxide derivative (Aflatoxin-exo 8,9-epoxide) in the induction of the diseases, as well as its metabolic and synthesis pathways. Additionally, despite the well-established additive effects for carcinogenicity between AFB1 and other risk factors, e.g., hepatitis viruses B and C, and the hepatotoxic algal microcystins, the mechanisms of this synergy remain unclear. This study reviews the most recent advances in the field of the mechanisms of toxicity of aflatoxins and the adverse health effects that they cause in humans and animals.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Protective Role of Se on the G0/G1 Phase Arrest Caused by AFB1 in Broiler's Thymocytes

This research was designed to explore the protective effects of sodium selenite on G₀/G₁ phase arrest induced by AFB₁ in thymocytes of broilers. Two hundred eighty-eight Cobb broilers were divided into control group, + Se group (0.4 mg/kg Se), AFB₁ group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁), and AFB₁ + Se group (0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ + 0.4 mg/kg Se). The results revealed that 0.4 mg/kg Se supplement in diets could improve the AFB₁-induced histological lesions in the thymus consisting of the more vacuoles and nuclear debris in thymic cortical area. The results of flow cytometric detect showed that 0.4 mg/kg Se relieved the G₀/G₁ phase arrest caused by AFB₁ in thymocytes. The results of transcription levels of ATM, p53, p21, p27, p15, p16, CyclinD₁, CyclinE, Cdk6, Cdk2, and PCNA genes by qRT-PC, and protein expression level of PCNA by immunohistochemistry demonstrated that 0.4 mg/kg Se could reduce the adverse effects of AFB₁ on these parameters. In conclusion, Se could relieve AFB₁-induced G₀/G₁ phase arrest by p15 (or p16)-CyclinD₁/Cdk6, ATM-p53-p21-CyclinE/Cdk2, p27-CyclinE/Cdk2 pathways.

Transcriptome analysis revealed that aflatoxin M1 could cause cell cycle arrest in differentiated Caco-2 cells

Being a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and the most threatening aspect of AFB1 contamination, aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) can lead to hepatotoxicity and hepato-carcinogenicity, and possess intestinal cytotoxicity. However, little is known about the potential mechanisms of the extrahepatic effect. The aim of this study was to investigate intestinal dysfunction induced by AFM1 via transcriptome analysis. Gene expression profiling was analyzed to comparatively characterize the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) after differentiated Caco-2 cells were exposed to different concentrations of AFM1 for 48 h. A total of 165 DEGs were significantly clustered into two down-regulated patterns. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis based on Search Tool for Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING)suggested that 23 key enzymes mainly participated in the regulation of the cell cycle. Q-PCR analysis was performed to validate that key 12 genes (BUB1, BUB1B, MAD2L1, CCNA2, RB1, CDK1, ANAPC4, ATM, KITLG, PRKAA2, SIRT1, and SOS1) were involved. This study firstly revealed that the toxicity of AFM1 to intestinal functions may be partly due to the occurrence of cell cycle arrest, which is linked to changes in CDK1, SOS1/Akt, and AMPK signaling molecules.

Frequency and levels of aflatoxin M1 in urine of children in Bogota, Colombia

A study was conducted to investigate the frequency and levels of AFM₁ and AFM₂ in urine from children who attended the emergency service of a pediatric referral hospital in Bogota, Colombia. A survey on the consumption of foods likely to be a source of aflatoxins and on sociodemographic variables was conducted as well. The frequency of AFM₁ in urine was found to be 41.7% with an average concentration in positive samples of 16 pg mL^-1 ± 10.7 pg mL^-1 (range > LOD-48.5 pg mL^-1). The presence of AFM₁ in the urine was related to the consumption of cereals likely to be contaminated with AFB₁, especially corn and rice. No detectable levels of AFM₂ were found in any sample. The results show that children's exposure to aflatoxins in Colombia is indeed a problem and should be one of the priorities of the health authorities. Continuous monitoring of aflatoxins in foods should be carried out, in compliance with Colombian regulations, using analytical methods that allow determination and quantification of aflatoxins in different biological and non-biological matrices at trace levels.

Immunotoxicity of aflatoxin M1 : as a potent suppressor of innate and acquired immune systems in a subacute study

BACKGROUND

Although, to date, there have been several in vitro and in vivo studies of immunomodulatory effects of aflatoxin M₁ (AFB₁ ), little is known about the effect of AFM₁ on various aspects of innate and acquired immunity. In the present study, AFM₁ was administered intraperitoneally, at doses of 25 and 50 μg kg^-1 , body mass for 28 days and various immunological parameters were measured.

RESULTS

Several parameters related to immune function were suppressed: organ mass, cellularity of spleen, proliferation response to lipopolysaccaride and phytohemagglutinin-A, hemagglutination titer, delayed type of hypersensitivity response, spleen cell subtypes, serum hemolytic activity, serum immunoglobulin G level and cytokine production. AFM₁ did not cause changes in body mass, hematological parameters or the concentration of immunoglobulin M in blood serum.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the data suggested that AFM₁ suppressed innate and acquired immunity. Therefore, with respect to consumer safety, it is extremely important to further control the level of AFM₁ in milk, and this should be considered as a precedence for risk management actions. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Preparation and characterization of yeast cell wall beta-glucan encapsulated humic acid nanoparticles as an enhanced aflatoxin B1 binder

This study aimed to assess the effect of encapsulating humic acid inside yeast cell walls (YCW) to detoxify AFB₁ in in vitro gastrointestinal models. Glucan Mannan Lipid Particles (GMLPs) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls showed the highest AFB₁ adsorption in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) after 10 min, and in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) after 1 h. GMLPs are hollow 3-4 micron porous microspheres that provide an efficient system for the synthesis and encapsulation of AFB₁-absorbing nanoparticles (NPs). Humic acid nanoparticles (HA-NPs) were synthesized within the GMLP cavity by complexation with ferric chloride. Encapsulating HA-NPs in GMLPs increased HA-NP stability in SIF. The hybrid GMLP HA-NP formulation synergistically enhanced AFB₁ binding compared to individual GMLP and HA components in SGF and in SIF. Cytotoxicity on a murine macrophage cell line demonstrated that GMLP HA-NP-AFB₁ complexes were stable in both SGF and SIF, detoxified AFB₁ and are suitable for in vivo testing.

Lactoferrin inhibits aflatoxin B1- and aflatoxin M1-induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage in Caco-2, HEK, Hep-G2, and SK-N-SH cells

Aflatoxins, including aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and M₁ (AFM₁), are natural potent carcinogens produced by Aspergillus spp. These compounds, which can often be detected in dairy foods, can cause diseases in human beings. However, the molecular mechanisms involved in cytotoxicity, as well as methods for intervention, remain largely unexplored. For example, it is unclear whether lactoferrin (LF), a major antioxidant in milk, can inhibit the cytotoxicity of AFB₁ and AFM₁. In this study, we assessed AFB₁- and AFM₁-induced cell toxicity by measuring cell viability, membrane permeability, and genotoxicity, and then investigated the ability of LF to protect cells against AFB₁ and AFM₁. In Caco-2, HEK, Hep-G2, and SK-N-SH cells, 4 μg/mL AFB₁ or AFM₁ significantly inhibited cell growth, increased the level of lactate dehydrogenase, induced genetic damage, and increased the levels of signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) (p < 0.05). AFB₁ was more genotoxic than AFM₁ in all four cell lines, especially in Hep-G2. In Caco-2, Hep-G2, and SK-N-SH, incubation of AF-treated cells with 1000 μg/mL LF significantly decreased cytotoxicity, oxidation level, DNA damage, and levels of ERK1/2 and JNK (p < 0.05). Our data demonstrate that AFB₁ or AFM₁ induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage in these four cell lines, and that LF alleviated toxicity by decreasing oxidative stress mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways.

Aflatoxin B1 and M1: Biological Properties and Their Involvement in Cancer Development

Aflatoxins are fungal metabolites found in feeds and foods. When the ruminants eat feedstuffs containing Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), this toxin is metabolized and Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is excreted in milk. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified AFB1 and AFM1 as human carcinogens belonging to Group 1 and Group 2B, respectively, with the formation of DNA adducts. In the last years, some epidemiological studies were conducted on cancer patients aimed to evaluate the effects of AFB1 and AFM1 exposure on cancer cells in order to verify the correlation between toxin exposure and cancer cell proliferation and invasion. In this review, we summarize the activation pathways of AFB1 and AFM1 and the data already reported in literature about their correlation with cancer development and progression. Moreover, considering that few data are still reported about what genes/proteins/miRNAs can be used as damage markers due to AFB1 and AFM1 exposure, we performed a bioinformatic analysis based on interaction network and miRNA predictions to identify a panel of genes/proteins/miRNAs that can be used as targets in further studies for evaluating the effects of the damages induced by AFB1 and AFM1 and their capacity to induce cancer initiation.

Mycotoxins co-contamination: Methodological aspects and biological relevance of combined toxicity studies

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. As evidenced by large-scale surveys, humans and animals are simultaneously exposed to several mycotoxins. Simultaneous exposure could result in synergistic, additive or antagonistic effects. However, most toxicity studies addressed the effects of mycotoxins separately. We present the experimental designs and we discuss the conclusions drawn from in vitro experiments exploring toxicological interactions of mycotoxins. We report more than 80 publications related to mycotoxin interactions. The studies explored combinations involving the regulated groups of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone and trichothecenes, but also the "emerging" mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins. Over 50 publications are based on the arithmetic model of additivity. Few studies used the factorial designs or the theoretical biology-based models of additivity. The latter approaches are gaining increased attention. These analyses allow determination of the type of interaction and, optionally, its magnitude. The type of interaction reported for mycotoxin combinations depended on several factors, in particular cell models and the tested dose ranges. However, synergy among Fusarium toxins was highlighted in several studies. This review indicates that well-addressed in vitro studies remain valuable tools for the screening of interactive potential in mycotoxin mixtures.

The molecular mechanism of G2M cell cycle arrest induced by AFB1 in the jejunum

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) has potent hepatotoxic, carcinogenic, genotoxic, immunotoxic and other adverse effects in human and animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanism of G2/M cell cycle arrest induced by AFB1 in the jejunum of broilers. Broilers, as experimental animals, were fed 0.6 mg/kg AFB1 diet for 3 weeks. Our results showed that AFB1 reduced the jejunal villus height, villus height/crypt ratio and caused G2/M cell cycle arrest. The G2/M cell cycle was accompanied by the increase of ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), p53, Chk2, p21 protein and mRNA expression, and the decrease of Mdm2, cdc25C, cdc2, cyclin B and proliferating cell nuclear antigen protein and mRNA expression. In conclusion, AFB1 blocked G2/M cell cycle by ATM pathway in the jejunum of broilers.

The Molecular Mechanisms of Protective Role of Se on the G2/M Phase Arrest of Jejunum Caused by AFB1

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is the most toxic among the mycotoxins and causes detrimental health effects on human and animals. Selenium (Se) plays an important role in chemopreventive, antioxidant, anticarcinogen, and detoxification and involved in cell cycle regulation. The aim of this study was to explore the molecular mechanisms of selenium involved in inhibition of G₂/M cell cycle arrest of broiler's jejunum. A total of 240 one-day-old healthy Cobb broilers were randomly divided into four groups and fed with basal diet (control group), 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ (AFB₁ group), 0.4 mg/kg Se (+Se group), and 0.6 mg/kg AFB₁ + 0.4 mg/kg Se (AFB₁ + Se group) for 21 days, respectively. The histological observation and morphological analysis revealed that 0.4 mg/kg Se prevented the AFB₁-associated lesions of jejunum including the shedding of the apical region of villi, the decreased villus height, and villus height/crypt ratio. The cell cycle analysis by flow cytometry showed that 0.4 mg/kg Se ameliorated the AFB₁-induced G₂/M phase arrest in jejunal cells. Moreover, the expressions of ATM, Chk2, p53, Mdm2, p21, PCNA, Cdc25, cyclin B, and Cdc2 analyzed by immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR demonstrated that 0.4 mg/kg Se restored these parameters to be close to those in the control group. In conclusion, Se promoted cell cycle recovery from the AFB₁-induced G₂/M phase arrest by the molecular regulation of ATM pathway in the jejunum of broilers. The outcomes from the present study may lead to a better understanding of the nature of selenium's essentiality and its protective roles against AFB₁.

Impact of a Single Oral Acute Dose of Aflatoxin B₁ on Liver Function/Cytokines and the Lymphoproliferative Response in C57Bl/6 Mice

Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), a mycotoxin found in food and feed, exerts harmful effects on humans and animals. The liver is the earliest target of AFB₁, and its effects have been evaluated in animal models exposed to acute or chronic doses. Considering the possibility of sporadic ingestion of AFB₁-contaminated food, this study investigated the impact of a single oral dose of AFB₁ on liver function/cytokines and the lymphoproliferative response in mice. C57BL/6 mice were treated with a single oral AFB₁ dose (44, 442 or 663 μg AFB₁/kg of body weight) on the first day. Liver function (ALT, γ-GT, and total protein), cytokines (IL-4, IFN-γ, and IL-17), histopathology, and the spleen lymphoproliferative response to mitogens were evaluated on the 5th day. Although AFB₁ did not produce any significant changes in the biochemical parameters, 663 μg AFB₁/kg-induced hepatic upregulation of IL-4 and IFN-γ, along with liver tissue injury and suppression of the lymphoproliferative response to ConA (p < 0.05). In conclusion, a single oral dose of AFB₁ exposure can induce liver tissue lesions, liver cytokine modulation, and immune suppression in C57BL/6 mice.

Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Oxidant Potential of the Root Extract and Constituents of Doronicum austriacum

BACKGROUND

Doronicum austriacum Jacq., Asteraceae, is a plant which is used in traditional alpine medicine. Historical sources describe the medical use of the root, but up until now only a few studies evaluated its pharmacological properties. The evaluation of the dichloromethane extract, and its major compounds for their anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential was performed in macrophages J774A.1 and C6 astrocytes. Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) release, as well as nitrotyrosine formation, were evaluated. Moreover, in order to evaluate the potential anti-proliferative activity, under the same experimental conditions, 3-(4,5-dimethyltiazol-2yl)-2,5-phenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was also performed. Our results indicate that Doronicum austriacum has a significant effect in inhibiting both pro-inflammatory and pro-oxidative mediators. All isolated compounds were able to significantly inhibit NO and ROS release both in macrophage and in astrocytes cells, even if the effect was more pronounced in macrophage. In particular, among the tested compounds, 6,12-dihydroxy-(-)-2S-tremetone exerted stronger activity. Both extract and single compounds did not affect cellular viability. This study provides evidence for the pharmacological anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential of Doronicum austriacum extract. These effects could be due to the activity of its major constituents and subsequent identification of benzofurans as a promising compound class to combat inflammation and related diseases.

Indoxyl Sulfate Affects Glial Function Increasing Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease: Interaction between Astrocytes and Microglia

Indoxyl sulfate (IS) is a protein-bound uremic toxin resulting from the metabolism of dietary tryptophan which accumulates in patients with impaired renal function, such as chronic kidney disease (CKD). IS is a well-known nephrovascular toxin but little is known about its effects on central nervous system (CNS) cells. Considering the growing interest in the field of CNS comorbidities in CKD, we studied the effect of IS on CNS cells. IS (15–60 μM) treatment in C6 astrocyte cells increased reactive oxygen species release and decreased nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) activation, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H dehydrogenase quinone 1 expression. Moreover, IS increased Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) and Nuclear Factor-kB (NF-kB) activation in these cells. Similiar observations were made in primary mouse astrocytes and mixed glial cells. Inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression, tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 release and nitrotyrosine formation were increased by IS (15–60 μM) in primary mouse astrocytes and mixed glial cells. IS increased AhR and NF-kB nuclear translocation and reduced Nrf2 translocation and HO-1 expression in primary glial cells. In addition, IS induced cell death in neurons in a dose dependent fashion. Injection of IS (800 mg/kg, i.p.) into mice induced histological changes and increased COX-2 expression and nitrotyrosine formation in thebrain tissue. Taken together, our results show a significant contribution of IS in generating a neurotoxic enviroment and it could also have a potential role in neurodegeneration. IS could be considered also a potential therapeutical target for CKD-associated neurodegenerative complications.

Aflatoxin B1 Induces Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Autophagy and Extracellular Trap Formation in Macrophages

Aflatoxins are a group of highly toxic mycotoxins with high carcinogenicity that are commonly found in foods. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most toxic member of the aflatoxin family. A recent study reported that AFB1 can induce autophagy, but whether AFB1 can induce extracellular traps (ETs) and the relationships among innate immune responses, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and autophagy and the ETs induced by AFB1 remain unknown. Here, we demonstrated that AFB1 induced a complete autophagic process in macrophages (MΦ) (THP-1 cells and RAW264.7 cells). In addition, AFB1 induced the generation of MΦ ETs (METs) in a dose-dependent manner. In particular, the formation of METs significantly reduced the AFB1 content. Further analysis using specific inhibitors showed that the inhibition of either autophagy or ROS prevented MET formation caused by AFB1, indicating that autophagy and ROS were required for AFB1-induced MET formation. The inhibition of ROS prevented autophagy, indicating that ROS generation occurred upstream of AFB1-induced autophagy. Taken together, these data suggest that AFB1 induces ROS-mediated autophagy and ETs formation and an M1 phenotype in MΦ.

Aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin M1 induced cytotoxicity and DNA damage in differentiated and undifferentiated Caco-2 cells

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) are natural mycotoxins that frequently present in food and feed and pose risks to human health. There are few data in the literature regarding the impairment of them in the intestine. Therefore, the present study investigated their cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 cells, especially the differentiated ones that resemble mature small intestinal enterocytes. Both undifferentiated (UC) and differentiated (DC) cells were treated with AFB1 and AFM1 at various concentrations for up to 72 h. Cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and DNA damage were determined. Data showed that AFB1 and AFM1 significantly inhibited UC and DC cell growth, increased LDH and caused genetic damage in a time- and dose-dependent manner (p < 0.05). In comparison, AFB1 was found to be more toxic than AFM1 on both UC and DC. All these cytotoxic outcomes might be associated with intracellular ROS generation, leading to membrane damage and DNA strand break. Additionally, DC was found to be more sensitive to aflatoxins, which might be due to the alteration of enzymes during cell differentiation. The present study provided the first in vitro evidence of DNA damage of DC induced by AFB1 and AFM1.

Chitosan nanoparticles and quercetin modulate gene expression and prevent the genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 in rat liver

The aims of the current study were to prepare chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) and to evaluate its protective role alone or in combination with quercetin (Q) against AFB₁-induce cytotoxicity in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 12 groups and treated orally for 4 weeks as follow: the control group, the group treated with AFB₁ (80 μg/kg b.w.) in corn oil, the groups treated with low (140 mg/kg b.w.) or high (280 mg/kg b.w.) dose of CNPs, the group treated with Q (50 mg/kg b.w.), the groups treated with Q plus the low or the high dose of CNPs and the groups treated with AFB₁ plus Q and/or CNPs at the two tested doses. The results also revealed that administration of AFB₁ resulted in a significant increase in serum cytokines, Procollagen III, Nitric Oxide, lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmentation accompanied with a significant decrease in GPx I and Cu–Zn SOD-mRNA gene expression. Q and/or CNPs at the two tested doses overcome these effects especially in the group treated with the high dose of CNPs plus Q. It could be concluded that CNPs is a promise candidate as drug delivery enhances the protective effect of Q against the cytogenetic effects of AFB₁ in high endemic areas.

Cytotoxic activity and composition of petroleum ether extract from Magydaris tomentosa (Desf.) W. D. J. Koch (Apiaceae)

The petroleum ether extract of Magydaris tomentosa flowers (Desf.) W. D. J. Koch has been analyzed by GC-MS. It is mainly constituted by furanocoumarins such as xanthotoxin, xanthotoxol, isopimpinellin, and bergaptene. Other coumarins such as 7-methoxy-8-(2-formyl-2-methylpropyl) coumarin and osthole also occurred. The antiproliferative activity of Magydaris tomentosa flower extract has been evaluated in vitro on murine monocye/macrophages (J774A.1), human melanoma (A375) and human breast cancer (MCF-7) tumor cell lines, showing a major activity against the latter.

Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity and fast UHPLC-DAD-IT-TOF profiling of polyphenolic compounds extracted from green lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.; var. Maravilla de Verano)

Fresh cut vegetables represent a widely consumed food worldwide. Among these, lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is one of the most popular on the market. The growing interest for this "healthy" food is related to the content of bioactive compounds, especially polyphenols, that show many beneficial effects. In this study, we report the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential of polyphenols extracted from lettuce (var. Maravilla de Verano), in J774A.1 macrophages stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Lettuce extract significantly decreased reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide release, inducible nitric oxide synthase and cycloxygenase-2 expression. A detailed quali/quantitative profiling of the polyphenolic content was carried out, obtaining fast separation (10 min), good retention time and peak area repeatability, (RSD% 0.80 and 8.68, respectively) as well as linearity (R(2)⩾ 0.999) and mass accuracy (⩽ 5 ppm). Our results show the importance in the diet of this cheap and popular food for his healthy properties.

Anti-inflammatory activity of horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) root extracts in LPS-stimulated macrophages

Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) is a perennial crop belonging to the Brassicaceae family.

Individual and combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 on BRL 3A rat liver cells

This study was performed to determine the individual and combined cytotoxic effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisin B1 (FB1) on BRL 3A rat liver cells. After the mycotoxins treated the BRL 3A cells for 12, 24 and 48 h, cell viability was determined using the MTT assay. The cytotoxicity of individual mycotoxins on BRL 3A cell viability in decreasing order were DON > AFB1 > ZEA > FB1. The central composite design (CCD) was used to assess the toxicity of binary and ternary mixtures of these mycotoxins. The mixtures of AFB1+ZEA and AFB1+DON showed the synergetic toxic effects on BRL 3A cells. These toxins decreased the viability of cells by inducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and promoting apoptosis in the BRL 3A cells. This effect was mediated by an upregulation of the stress and apoptotic genes Hsp70, p53, Bax, Caspase-3 and Caspase-8, along with a downregulation of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2. In conclusion, our results suggested that the coexistence of AFB1 and ZEA or DON in agricultural products could be more hepatotoxic than individually, suggests that the toxicological interactions of these toxins need to be better understood to assess health risks.

Histological lesions, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and T cell subsets changes of spleen in chicken fed aflatoxin-contaminated corn

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of corn naturally contaminated with aflatoxin B1 and aflatoxin B2 on pathological lesions, apoptosis, cell cycle phases and T lymphocyte subsets of spleen, and to provide an experimental basis for understanding the mechanism of aflatoxin-induced immunosuppression. A total of 900 COBB500 male broilers were randomly allocated into five groups with six replicates per group and 30 birds per replicate. The experiment lasted for 6 weeks and the five dietary treatments consisted of control, 25% contaminated corn, 50% contaminated corn, 75% contaminated corn and 100% contaminated corn groups. The histopathological spleen lesions from the contaminated corn groups was characterized as congestion of red pulp, increased necrotic cells and vacuoles in the splenic corpuscle and periarterial lymphatic sheath. The contaminated corn intake significantly increased relative weight of spleen, percentages of apoptotic splenocytes, induced cell cycle arrest of splenocytes, increased the percentages of CD3⁺CD8⁺ T cells and decreased the ratios of CD3⁺CD4⁺ to CD3⁺CD8⁺. The results suggest that AFB-induced immunosuppression maybe closely related to the lesions of spleen.