Recent trends in rapid detection of influenza infections by bio and nanobiosensor

Nanomaterials-based immunosensors for avian influenza virus detection

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are capable of infecting a considerable proportion of the world's population each year, leading to severe epidemics with high rates of morbidity and mortality. The methods now used to diagnose influenza virus A include the Western blot test (WB), hemagglutination inhibition (HI), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). But because of their labor-intensiveness, lengthy procedures, need for costly equipment, and inexperienced staff, these approaches are considered inappropriate. The present review elucidates the recent advancements in the field of avian influenza detection through the utilization of nanomaterials-based immunosensors between 2014 and 2024. The classification of detection techniques has been taken into account to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature. The review encompasses a detailed illustration of the commonly employed detection mechanisms in immunosensors, namely, colorimetry, fluorescence assay, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), electrochemical detection, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) piezoelectric, and field-effect transistor (FET). Furthermore, the challenges and future prospects for the immunosensors have been deliberated upon. The present review aims to enhance the understanding of immunosensors-based sensing platforms for virus detection and to stimulate the development of novel immunosensors by providing novel ideas and inspirations. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to provide an updated information about biosensors, as a recent detection technique of influenza with its details regarding the various types of biosensors, which can be used for this review.

All-fiber label-free optical fiber biosensors: from modern technologies to current applications [Invited]

Biosensors are established as promising analytical tools for detecting various analytes important in biomedicine and environmental monitoring. Using fiber optic technology as a sensing element in biosensors offers low cost, high sensitivity, chemical inertness, and immunity to electromagnetic interference. Optical fiber sensors can be used in in vivo applications and multiplexed to detect several targets simultaneously. Certain configurations of optical fiber technology allow the detection of analytes in a label-free manner. This review aims to discuss recent advances in label-free optical fiber biosensors from a technological and application standpoint. First, modern technologies used to build label-free optical fiber-based sensors will be discussed. Then, current applications where these technologies are applied are elucidated. Namely, examples of detecting soluble cancer biomarkers, hormones, viruses, bacteria, and cells are presented.

Recent Progress in Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Biosensors

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the most common form of genetic variation in the human genome, are the main cause of individual differences. Furthermore, such attractive genetic markers are emerging as important hallmarks in clinical diagnosis and treatment. A variety of destructive abnormalities, such as malignancy, cardiovascular disease, inherited metabolic disease, and autoimmune disease, are associated with single-nucleotide variants. Therefore, identification of SNPs is necessary for better understanding of the gene function and health of an individual. SNP detection with simple preparation and operational procedures, high affinity and specificity, and cost-effectiveness have been the key challenge for years. Although biosensing methods offer high specificity and sensitivity, as well, they suffer drawbacks, such as complicated designs, complicated optimization procedures, and the use of complicated chemistry designs and expensive reagents, as well as toxic chemical compounds, for signal detection and amplifications. This review aims to provide an overview on improvements for SNP biosensing based on fluorescent and electrochemical methods. Very recently, novel designs in each category have been presented in detail. Furthermore, detection limitations, advantages and disadvantages, and challenges have also been presented for each type.

Advanced Theranostic Strategies for Viral Hepatitis Using Carbon Nanostructures

There are several treatment protocols for acute viral hepatitis, and it is critical to recognize acute hepatitis in its earliest stages. Public health measures to control these infections also rely on rapid and accurate diagnosis. The diagnosis of viral hepatitis remains expensive, and there is no adequate public health infrastructure, while the virus is not well-controlled. New methods for screening and detecting viral hepatitis through nanotechnology are being developed. Nanotechnology significantly reduces the cost of screening. In this review, the potential of three-dimensional-nanostructured carbon substances as promising materials due to fewer side effects, and the contribution of these particles to effective tissue transfer in the treatment and diagnosis of hepatitis due to the importance of rapid diagnosis for successful treatment, were extensively investigated. In recent years, three-dimensional carbon nanomaterials such as graphene oxide and nanotubes with special chemical, electrical, and optical properties have been used for the diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis due to their high potential. We expect that the future position of nanoparticles in the rapid diagnosis and treatment of viral hepatitis can be better determined.

Functional Nanomaterials Enhancing Electrochemical Biosensors as Smart Tools for Detecting Infectious Viral Diseases

Electrochemical biosensors are known as analytical tools, guaranteeing rapid and on-site results in medical diagnostics, food safety, environmental protection, and life sciences research. Current research focuses on developing sensors for specific targets and addresses challenges to be solved before their commercialization. These challenges typically include the lowering of the limit of detection, the widening of the linear concentration range, the analysis of real samples in a real environment and the comparison with a standard validation method. Nowadays, functional nanomaterials are designed and applied in electrochemical biosensing to support all these challenges. This review will address the integration of functional nanomaterials in the development of electrochemical biosensors for the rapid diagnosis of viral infections, such as COVID-19, middle east respiratory syndrome (MERS), influenza, hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and dengue, among others. The role and relevance of the nanomaterial, the type of biosensor, and the electrochemical technique adopted will be discussed. Finally, the critical issues in applying laboratory research to the analysis of real samples, future perspectives, and commercialization aspects of electrochemical biosensors for virus detection will be analyzed.

Recent advances in airborne pathogen detection using optical and electrochemical biosensors

The world is currently facing an adverse condition due to the pandemic of airborne pathogen SARS-CoV-2. Prevention is better than cure; thus, the rapid detection of airborne pathogens is necessary because it can reduce outbreaks and save many lives. Considering the immense role of diverse detection techniques for airborne pathogens, proper summarization of these techniques would be beneficial for humans. Hence, this review explores and summarizes emerging techniques, such as optical and electrochemical biosensors used for detecting airborne bacteria (Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae) and viruses (Influenza A, Avian influenza, Norovirus, and SARS-CoV-2). Significantly, the first section briefly focuses on various diagnostic modalities applied toward airborne pathogen detection. Next, the fabricated optical biosensors using various transducer materials involved in colorimetric and fluorescence strategies for infectious pathogen detection are extensively discussed. The third section is well documented based on electrochemical biosensors for airborne pathogen detection by differential pulse voltammetry, cyclic voltammetry, square-wave voltammetry, amperometry, and impedance spectroscopy. The unique pros and cons of these modalities and their future perspectives are addressed in the fourth and fifth sections. Overall, this review inspected 171 research articles published in the last decade and persuaded the importance of optical and electrochemical biosensors for airborne pathogen detection.

Recent Advances in Early Diagnosis of Viruses Associated with Gastroenteritis by Biosensors

Gastroenteritis, as one of the main worldwide health challenges, especially in children, leads to 3-6 million deaths annually and causes nearly 20% of the total deaths of children aged ˂5 years, of which ~1.5 million gastroenteritis deaths occur in developing nations. Viruses are the main causative agent (~70%) of gastroenteritis episodes and their specific and early diagnosis via laboratory assays is very helpful for having successful antiviral therapy and reduction in infection burden. Regarding this importance, the present literature is the first review of updated improvements in the employing of different types of biosensors such as electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric for sensitive, simple, cheap, rapid, and specific diagnosis of human gastroenteritis viruses. The Introduction section is a general discussion about the importance of viral gastroenteritis, types of viruses that cause gastroenteritis, and reasons for the combination of conventional diagnostic tests with biosensors for fast detection of viruses associated with gastroenteritis. Following the current laboratory detection tests for human gastroenteritis viruses and their limitations (with subsections: Electron Microscope (EM), Cell Culture, Immunoassay, and Molecular Techniques), structural features and significant aspects of various biosensing methods are discussed in the Biosensor section. In the next sections, basic information on viruses causing gastroenteritis and recent developments for fabrication and testing of different biosensors for each virus detection are covered, and the prospect of future developments in designing different biosensing platforms for gastroenteritis virus detection is discussed in the Conclusion and Future Directions section as well.

Genosensors as an alternative diagnostic sensing approaches for specific detection of various certain viruses: a review of common techniques and outcomes

Viral infections are responsible for the deaths of millions of people throughout the world. Since outbreak of highly contagious and mutant viruses such as contemporary sars-cov-2 pandemic, has challenged the conventional diagnostic methods, the entity of a thoroughly sensitive, specific, rapid and inexpensive detecting technique with minimum level of false-positivity or -negativity, is desperately needed more than any time in the past decades. Biosensors as minimized devices could detect viruses in simple formats. So far, various nucleic acid, immune- and protein-based biosensors were designed and tested for recognizing the genome, antigen, or protein level of viruses, respectively; however, nucleic acid-based sensing techniques, which is the foundation of constructing genosensors, are preferred not only because of their ultra-sensitivity and applicability in the early stages of infections but also for their ability to differentiate various strains of the same virus. To date, the review articles related to genosensors are just confined to particular pathogenic diseases; In this regard, the present review covers comprehensive information of the research progress of the electrochemical, optical, and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) genosensors that applied for human viruses' diseases detection and also provides a well description of viruses' clinical importance, the conventional diagnosis approaches of viruses and their disadvantages. This review would address the limitations in the current developments as well as the future challenges involved in the successful construction of sensing approaches with the functionalized nanomaterials and also allow exploring into core-research works regarding this area.

A PCR-free genosensing platform for detection of Shigella dysenteriae in human plasma samples by porous and honeycomb-like biochar decorated with ultrathin flower-like MoS2 nanosheets incorporated with Au nanoparticles

Shigella dysenteriae, a gram-negative bacterium, which results in the most infectious of bacterial shigellosis and dysenteries. In this study, an innovative gene detection platform based on label-free DNA sequences was developed to detect Shigella dysenteriae in human plasma samples. The porous and honeycomb-like structure of biochar (BC) was first synthesized through a pyrolysis process. Then, the produced biochar was effectively decorated with flower-like MoS₂ nanosheets (MoS₂/BC). The resulting nanocomposite was incorporated with Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) by applying chronoamperometry technique, and then the subsequent product including MoS₂ nanosheets, biochar and AuNPs were immobilized on the Au electrode surface and used for modifier agent in electrochemical bio-assays. Structural and morphological study of the synthesized compounds were investigated using various characterization methods such as FE-SEM, TEM, EDS, FTIR, and XRD. Various electrochemical techniques including cyclic voltammetry (CV) and Differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) have been used to investigate the applicability of the fabricated genosensing bio-assay. Under optimal conditions, LOD and LOQ were calculated 9.14 fM and 0.018 pM respectively. In addition, a linear range from 0.01 to 100 pM was obtained for single stranded-target DNA (ss-tDNA), with R² of 0.9992. The recoveries ranged from 98.0 to 101.3%. The fabricated bio-detection assay demonstrated high selectivity for 1, 2, and 3 base mismatch sequences. In addition, a negative control of the gene detection platform which was performed to study selectivity was provided by ss-tDNA from Haemophilusinfluenzae, and Salmonella typhimurium. Moreover, it is important to mention that the organized bioassay is simply reusable and reproducible with the RSD% (relative standard deviation) ˂ 5 to next detection assays.

Bimetallic Fe/Mn MOFs/MβCD/AuNPs stabilized on MWCNTs for developing a label-free DNA-based genosensing bio-assay applied in the determination of Salmonella typhimurium in milk samples

Monitoring of pathogenic bacteria plays a vital role in precluding foodborne disease outbreaks. In this research work, a genosensor based on innovative label-free DNA was developed for the detection of Salmonella. typhimurium (S. typhimurium) in the milk samples. To realize this objective, bimetallic Fe/Mn MOF is synthesized and mixed with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) and AuNPs which are then stabilized on multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and the obtained nanocomposite is immobilized on the Au electrode surface. Different characterization methods such as FE-SEM, TEM, EDS, FTIR, and XRD were used for investigating the particle size and morphological features. Electrochemical and impedimetric techniques were used for exploring the applicability of the fabricated genosensor. Under optimal circumstances, LOD and LOQ have acquired at 0.07 pM and 0.21 pM. Moreover, an extensive linear range of 1 pM-1 μM was resulted for ss-tDNA (single-stranded target DNA), R² obtained 0.9991. The recoveries were obtained 95.6-104%. Great selectivity against one, two, and three-base mismatched sequences was also shown for fabricated biosensing assay. Furthermore, negative genosensing assay control for investigating selectivity was provided by the ss-tDNAs of Haemophilusinfluenzae and Shigella dysenteriae bacteria. Well-fabricated genosensing bio-assay represents better performance, great specificity, high sensitivity, increased active sites, and finally results in an increase in the electron transfer rate. It is to be noted that the organized genosensing bio-assay is capable of being re-used and re-generated in a straightforward manner to estimate the hybridization process.

Lateral flow assays (LFA) as an alternative medical diagnosis method for detection of virus species: The intertwine of nanotechnology with sensing strategies

Viruses are responsible for multiple infections in humans that impose huge health burdens on individuals and populations worldwide. Therefore, numerous diagnostic methods and strategies have been developed for prevention, management, and decreasing the burden of viral diseases, each having its advantages and limitations. Viral infections are commonly detected using serological and nucleic acid-based methods. However, these conventional and clinical approaches have some limitations that can be resolved by implementing other detector devices. Therefore, the search for sensitive, selective, portable, and costless approaches as efficient alternative clinical methods for point of care testing (POCT) analysis has gained much attention in recent years. POCT is one of the ultimate goals in virus detection, and thus, the tests need to be rapid, specific, sensitive, accessible, and user-friendly. In this review, after a brief overview of viruses and their characteristics, the conventional viral detection methods, the clinical approaches, and their advantages and shortcomings are firstly explained. Then, LFA systems working principles, benefits, classification are discussed. Furthermore, the studies regarding designing and employing LFAs in diagnosing different types of viruses, especially SARS-CoV-2 as a main concern worldwide and innovations in the LFAs' approaches and designs, are comprehensively discussed here. Furthermore, several strategies addressed in some studies for overcoming LFA limitations like low sensitivity are reviewed. Numerous techniques are adopted to increase sensitivity and perform quantitative detection. Employing several visualization methods, using different labeling reporters, integrating LFAs with other detection methods to benefit from both LFA and the integrated detection device advantages, and designing unique membranes to increase reagent reactivity, are some of the approaches that are highlighted.

Role of plasmonics in detection of deadliest viruses: a review

Viruses have threatened animal and human lives since a long time ago all over the world. Some of these tiny particles have caused disastrous pandemics that killed a large number of people with subsequent economic downturns. In addition, the quarantine situation itself encounters the challenges like the deficiency in the online educational system, psychiatric problems and poor international relations. Although viruses have a rather simple protein structure, they have structural heterogeneity with a high tendency to mutation that impedes their study. On top of the breadth of such worldwide worrying issues, there are profound scientific gaps, and several unanswered questions, like lack of vaccines or antivirals to combat these pathogens. Various detection techniques like the nucleic acid test, immunoassay, and microscopy have been developed; however, there is a tradeoff between their advantages and disadvantages like safety in sample collecting, invasiveness, sensitivity, response time, etc. One of the highly resolved techniques that can provide early-stage detection with fast experiment duration is plasmonics. This optical technique has the capability to detect viral proteins and genomes at the early stage via highly sensitive interaction between the biological target and the plasmonic chip. The efficiency of this technique could be proved using commercialized techniques like reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques. In this study, we aim to review the role of plasmonic technique in the detection of 11 deadliest viruses besides 2 common genital viruses for the human being. This is a rapidly moving topic of research, and a review article that encompasses the current findings may be useful for guiding strategies to deal with the pandemics. By investigating the potential aspects of this technique, we hope that this study could open new avenues toward the application of point-of-care techniques for virus detection at early stage that may inhibit the progressively hygienic threats.

Advanced mechanotherapy: Biotensegrity for governing metastatic tumor cell fate via modulating the extracellular matrix

Mechano-transduction is the procedure of mechanical stimulus translation via cells, among substrate shear flow, topography, and stiffness into a biochemical answer. TAZ and YAP are transcriptional coactivators which are recognized as relay proteins that promote mechano-transduction within the Hippo pathway. With regard to healthy cells in homeostasis, mechano-transduction regularly restricts proliferation, and TAZ and YAP are totally inactive. During cancer development a YAP/TAZ - stimulating positive response loop is formed between the growing tumor and the stiffening ECM. As tumor developments, local stromal and cancerous cells take advantage of mechanotransduction to enhance proliferation, induce their migratory into remote tissues, and promote chemotherapeutic resistance. As a newly progresses paradigm, nanoparticle-conjunctions (such as magnetic nanoparticles, and graphene derivatives nanoparticles) hold significant promises for remote regulation of cells and their relevant events at molecular scale. Despite outstanding developments in employing nanoparticles for drug targeting studies, the role of nanoparticles on cellular behaviors (proliferation, migration, and differentiation) has still required more evaluations in the field of mechanotherapy. In this paper, the in-depth contribution of mechano-transduction is discussed during tumor progression, and how these consequences can be evaluated in vitro.

An Overview on Recent Progress of Metal Oxide/Graphene/CNTs-Based Nanobiosensors

Nanobiosensors are convenient, practical, and sensitive analyzers that detect chemical and biological agents and convert the results into meaningful data between a biologically active molecule and a recognition element immobilized on the surface of the signal transducer by a physicochemical detector. Due to their fast, accurate and reliable operating characteristics, nanobiosensors are widely used in clinical and nonclinical applications, bedside testing, medical textile industry, environmental monitoring, food safety, etc. They play an important role in such critical applications. Therefore, the design of the biosensing interface is essential in determining the performance of the nanobiosensor. The unique chemical and physical properties of nanomaterials have paved the way for new and improved sensing devices in biosensors. The growing demand for devices with improved sensing and selectivity capability, short response time, lower limit of detection, and low cost causes novel investigations on nanobiomaterials to be used as biosensor scaffolds. Among all other nanomaterials, studies on developing nanobiosensors based on metal oxide nanostructures, graphene and its derivatives, carbon nanotubes, and the widespread use of these nanomaterials as a hybrid structure have recently attracted attention. Nanohybrid structures created by combining these nanostructures will directly meet the future biosensors' needs with their high electrocatalytic activities. This review addressed the recent developments on these nanomaterials and their derivatives, and their use as biosensor scaffolds. We reviewed these popular nanomaterials by evaluating them with comparative studies, tables, and charts.

Biosensing strategies for the electrochemical detection of viruses and viral diseases - A review

Viruses are the causing agents for many relevant diseases, including influenza, Ebola, HIV/AIDS, and COVID-19. Its rapid replication and high transmissibility can lead to serious consequences not only to the individual but also to collective health, causing deep economic impacts. In this scenario, diagnosis tools are of significant importance, allowing the rapid, precise, and low-cost testing of a substantial number of individuals. Currently, PCR-based techniques are the gold standard for the diagnosis of viral diseases. Although these allow the diagnosis of different illnesses with high precision, they still present significant drawbacks. Their main disadvantages include long periods for obtaining results and the need for specialized professionals and equipment, requiring the tests to be performed in research centers. In this scenario, biosensors have been presented as promising alternatives for the rapid, precise, low-cost, and on-site diagnosis of viral diseases. This critical review article describes the advancements achieved in the last five years regarding electrochemical biosensors for the diagnosis of viral infections. First, genosensors and aptasensors for the detection of virus and the diagnosis of viral diseases are presented in detail regarding probe immobilization approaches, detection methods (label-free and sandwich), and amplification strategies. Following, immunosensors are highlighted, including many different construction strategies such as label-free, sandwich, competitive, and lateral-flow assays. Then, biosensors for the detection of viral-diseases-related biomarkers are presented and discussed, as well as point of care systems and their advantages when compared to traditional techniques. Last, the difficulties of commercializing electrochemical devices are critically discussed in conjunction with future trends such as lab-on-a-chip and flexible sensors.

Management of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: From Diagnosis to Treatment Strategies

Following the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2002 and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2012, the world is now combating a third large-scale outbreak caused by a coronavirus, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). After the rapid spread of SARS-coronavirus (CoV)-2 (the virus causing COVID-19) from its origin in China, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on January 30, 2020. From the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of studies have been conducted to better understand the biology and pathogenesis of the novel coronavirus, and to aid in developing effective treatment regimens, therapeutics, and vaccines. This review focuses on the recent advancements in the rapidly evolving areas of clinical care and management of COVID-19. The emerging strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of this disease are explored, and the development of effective vaccines is reviewed.

Electrochemical prostate-specific antigen biosensors based on electroconductive nanomaterials and polymers

Prostate cancer (PCa), the second most malignant neoplasm in men, is also the fifth leading cause of cancer-related deaths in men globally. Unfortunately, this malignancy remains largely asymptomatic until late-stage emergence when treatment is limited due to the lack of effective metastatic PCa therapeutics. Due to these limitations, early PCa detection through prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening has become increasingly important, resulting in a more than 50% decrease in mortality. Conventional assays for PSA detection, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), are labor intensive, relatively expensive, operator-dependent and do not provide adequate sensitivity. Electrochemical biosensors overcome these limitations because they are rapid, cost-effective, simple to use and ultrasensitive. This article reviews electrochemical PSA biosensors using electroconductive nanomaterials such as carbon-, metal-, metal oxide- and peptide-based nanostructures, as well as polymers to significantly improve conductivity and enhance sensitivity. Challenges associated with the development of these devices are discussed thus providing additional insight into their analytic strength as well as their potential use in early PCa detection.

Laboratory detection methods for the human coronaviruses

Coronaviruses are a group of envelop viruses which lead to diseases in birds and mammals as well as human. Seven coronaviruses have been discovered in humans that can cause mild to lethal respiratory tract infections. HCoV-229E, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, and HCoV-HKU1 are the low-risk members of this family and the reason for some common colds. Besides, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and newly identified SARS-CoV-2, which is also known as 2019-nCoV, are the more dangerous viruses. Due to the rapid spread of this novel coronavirus and its related disease, COVID-19, a reliable, simple, fast, and low-cost detection method is necessary for patient diagnosis and tracking worldwide. Human coronaviruses detection methods were classified and presented in this article. The laboratory detection techniques include RT-PCR, RT-LAMP, electrochemical and optical biosensors for RNA detection, and whole virus or viral proteins detection assays.

Rapid diagnostics of coronavirus disease 2019 in early stages using nanobiosensors: Challenges and opportunities

The rapid outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) around the world is a tragic and shocking event that demonstrates the unpreparedness of humans to develop quick diagnostic platforms for novel infectious diseases. In fact, statistical reports of diagnostic tools show that their accuracy, specificity and sensitivity in the detection of COVID hampered by some challenges that can be eliminated by using nanoparticles (NPs). In this study, we aimed to present an overview on the most important ways to diagnose different kinds of viruses followed by the introduction of nanobiosensors. Afterward, some methods of COVID-19 detection such as imaging, laboratory and kit-based diagnostic tests are surveyed. Furthermore, nucleic acids/protein- and immunoglobulin (Ig)-based nanobiosensors for the COVID-19 detection infection are reviewed. Finally, current challenges and future perspective for the development of diagnostic or monitoring technologies in the control of COVID-19 are discussed to persuade the scientists in advancing their technologies beyond imagination. In conclusion, it can be deduced that as rapid COVID-19 detection infection can play a vital role in disease control and treatment, this review may be of great help for controlling the COVID-19 outbreak by providing some necessary information for the development of portable, accurate, selectable and simple nanobiosensors.

Novel insights into the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: An overview of current clinical trials

The emergence of the global pandemic caused by the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus has motivated scientists to find a definitive treatment or a vaccine against it in the shortest possible time. Current efforts towards this goal remain fruitless without a full understanding of the behavior of the virus and its adaptor proteins. This review provides an overview of the biological properties, functional mechanisms, and molecular components of SARS-CoV-2, along with investigational therapeutic and preventive approaches for this virus. Since the proteolytic cleavage of the S protein is critical for virus penetration into cells, a set of drugs, such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, camostat mesylate have been tested in clinical trials to suppress this event. In addition to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, the role of CD147 in the viral entrance has also been proposed. Mepolizumab has shown to be effective in blocking the virus's cellular entrance. Antiviral drugs, such as remdesivir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, darunavir, lopinavir, zanamivir, peramivir, and oseltamivir, have also been tested as treatments for COVID-19. Regarding preventive vaccines, the whole virus, vectors, nucleic acids, and structural subunits have been suggested for vaccine development. Mesenchymal stem cells and natural killer cells could also be used against SARS-CoV-2. All the above-mentioned strategies, as well as the role of nanomedicine for the diagnosis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, have been discussed in this review.

Biosensors for the Detection of Bacterial and Viral Clinical Pathogens

Biosensors are measurement devices that can sense several biomolecules, and are widely used for the detection of relevant clinical pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, showing outstanding results. Because of the latent existing risk of facing another pandemic like the one we are living through due to COVID-19, researchers are constantly looking forward to developing new technologies for diagnosis and treatment of infections caused by different bacteria and viruses. Regarding that, nanotechnology has improved biosensors' design and performance through the development of materials and nanoparticles that enhance their affinity, selectivity, and efficacy in detecting these pathogens, such as employing nanoparticles, graphene quantum dots, and electrospun nanofibers. Therefore, this work aims to present a comprehensive review that exposes how biosensors work in terms of bacterial and viral detection, and the nanotechnological features that are contributing to achieving a faster yet still efficient COVID-19 diagnosis at the point-of-care.

Recent Development of Aptasensor for Influenza Virus Detection

In nowadays, we have entered the new era of pandemics and the significance of virus detection deeply impacts human society. Viruses with genetic mutations are reported nearly every year, and people have prepared tools to detect the virus and vaccines to ensure proper treatments. Influenza virus (IV) is one of the most harmful viruses reporting various mutations, sub-types, and rapid infection speed for humans and animals including swine and poultry. Moreover, IV infection presents several harmful symptoms including cough, fever, diarrhea, chills, even causing death. To reduce the IV-induced harm, its proper and rapid detection is highly required. Conventional techniques were used against various IV sub-types including H1N1, H3N2, and H5N1. However, some of the techniques are time-consuming, expensive, or labor-intensive for detecting IV. Recently, the nucleic acid-based aptamer has gained attention as a novel bioprobe for constructing a biosensor. In this review, the authors discuss the recent progress in aptasensors for detecting IV in terms of an electrochemical and an optical biosensor.

An Overview on SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) and Other Human Coronaviruses and Their Detection Capability via Amplification Assay, Chemical Sensing, Biosensing, Immunosensing, and Clinical Assays

A novel coronavirus of zoonotic origin (SARS-CoV-2) has recently been recognized in patients with acute respiratory disease. COVID-19 causative agent is structurally and genetically similar to SARS and bat SARS-like coronaviruses. The drastic increase in the number of coronavirus and its genome sequence have given us an unprecedented opportunity to perform bioinformatics and genomics analysis on this class of viruses. Clinical tests like PCR and ELISA for rapid detection of this virus are urgently needed for early identification of infected patients. However, these techniques are expensive and not readily available for point-of-care (POC) applications. Currently, lack of any rapid, available, and reliable POC detection method gives rise to the progression of COVID-19 as a horrible global problem. To solve the negative features of clinical investigation, we provide a brief introduction of the general features of coronaviruses and describe various amplification assays, sensing, biosensing, immunosensing, and aptasensing for the determination of various groups of coronaviruses applied as a template for the detection of SARS-CoV-2. All sensing and biosensing techniques developed for the determination of various classes of coronaviruses are useful to recognize the newly immerged coronavirus, i.e., SARS-CoV-2. Also, the introduction of sensing and biosensing methods sheds light on the way of designing a proper screening system to detect the virus at the early stage of infection to tranquilize the speed and vastity of spreading. Among other approaches investigated among molecular approaches and PCR or recognition of viral diseases, LAMP-based methods and LFAs are of great importance for their numerous benefits, which can be helpful to design a universal platform for detection of future emerging pathogenic viruses.

Plasmonic Sensors for Monitoring Biological and Chemical Threat Agents

Sensors are excellent options owing to their ability to figure out a large number of problems and challenges in several areas, including homeland security, defense, medicine, pharmacology, industry, environment, agriculture, food safety, and so on. Plasmonic sensors are used as detection devices that have important properties, such as rapid recognition, real-time analysis, no need labels, sensitive and selective sensing, portability, and, more importantly, simplicity in identifying target analytes. This review summarizes the state-of-art molecular recognition of biological and chemical threat agents. For this purpose, the principle of the plasmonic sensor is briefly explained and then the use of plasmonic sensors in the monitoring of a broad range of biological and chemical threat agents is extensively discussed with different types of threats according to the latest literature. A conclusion and future perspectives are added at the end of the review.

Glycan Nanobiosensors

This review paper comprehensively summarizes advances made in the design of glycan nanobiosensors using diverse forms of nanomaterials. In particular, the paper covers the application of gold nanoparticles, quantum dots, magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, hybrid types of nanoparticles, proteins as nanoscaffolds and various nanoscale-based approaches to designing such nanoscale probes. The article covers innovative immobilization strategies for the conjugation of glycans on nanoparticles. Summaries of the detection schemes applied, the analytes detected and the key operational characteristics of such nanobiosensors are provided in the form of tables for each particular type of nanomaterial.

Biosensing of microcystins in water samples; recent advances

Safety and quality of water are significant matters for agriculture, animals and human health. Microcystins, as secondary metabolite of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and cyclic heptapeptide cyanotoxin, are one of the main marine toxins in continental aquatic ecosystems. More than 100 microcystins have been identified, of which MC-LR is the most important type due to its high toxicity and common detection in the environment. Climate change is an impressive factor with effects on cyanobacterial blooms as source of microcystins. The presence of this cyanotoxin in freshwater, drinking water, water reservoir supplies and food (vegetable, fish and shellfish) has created a common phenomenon in eutrophic freshwater ecosystems worldwide. International public health organizations have categorized microcystins as a kind of neurotoxin and carcinogen. There are several conventional methods for detection of microcystins. The limitations of traditional methods have encouraged the development of innovative methods for detection of microcystins. In recent years, the developed sensor techniques, with advantages, such as accuracy, reproducibility, portability and low cost, have attracted considerable attention. This review compares the well-known of biosensor types for detection of microcystins with a summary of their analytical performance.

Electrochemical virus detections with nanobiosensors

Infectious diseases are caused from pathogens, which need a reliable and fast diagnosis. Today, expert personnel and centralized laboratories are needed to afford much time in diagnosing diseases caused from pathogens.

Recent progress in electrochemical studies shows that biosensors are very simple, accurate, precise, and cheap at virus detection, for which researchers find great interest in this field. The clinical levels of these pathogens can be easily analyzed with proposed biosensors. Their working principle is based on affinity between antibody and antigen in body fluids. The progress still continues on these biosensors for accurate, rapid, reliable sensors in future.

Dengue virus: a review on advances in detection and trends - from conventional methods to novel biosensors

Dengue virus is an important arbovirus infection which transmitted by the Aedes female mosquitoes. The attempt to control and early detection of this infection is a global public health issue at present. Because of the clinical importance of its detection, the main focus of this review is on all of the methods that can offer the new diagnosis strategies. The advantages and disadvantages of reported methods have been discussed comprehensively from different aspects like biomarkers type, sensitivity, accuracy, rate of detection, possibility of commercialization, availability, limit of detection, linear range, simplicity, mechanism of detection, and ability of usage for clinical applications. The optical, electrochemical, microfluidic, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and smartphone-based biosensors are the main approaches which developed for detection of different biomarkers and serotypes of Dengue virus. Future efforts in miniaturization of these methods open the horizons for development of commercial biosensors for early-diagnosis of Dengue virus infection. Graphical abstract Transmission of Dengue virus by the biting of an Aedes aegypti mosquito, the symptoms of Dengue hemorrhagic fever and the structure of Dengue virus and application of biosensors for its detection.

Development of the Troponin Detection System Based on the Nanostructure

During the last 30 years, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported a gradual increase in the number of patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD), not only in developed but also in developing countries. In particular, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is one of the severe CVDs because of the high death rate, damage to the body, and various complications. During these harmful effects, rapid diagnosis of AMI is key for saving patients with CVD in an emergency. The prompt diagnosis and proper treatment of patients with AMI are important to increase the survival rate of these patients. To treat patients with AMI quickly, detection of a CVD biomarker at an ultra-low concentration is essential. Cardiac troponins (cTNs), cardiac myoglobin (cMB), and creatine kinase MB are typical biomarkers for AMI detection. An increase in the levels of those biomarkers in blood implies damage to cardiomyocytes and thus is related to AMI progression. In particular, cTNs are regarded as a gold standard biomarker for AMI diagnosis. The conventional TN detection system for detection of AMI requires long measurement time and is labor-intensive and tedious. Therefore, the demand for sensitive and selective TN detection techniques is increasing at present. To meet this demand, several approaches and methods have been applied to develop a TN detection system based on a nanostructure. In the present review, the authors reviewed recent advances in TN biosensors with a focus on four detection systems: (1) An electrochemical (EC) TN nanobiosensor, (2) field effect transistor (FET)-based TN nanobiosensor, (3) surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based TN nanobiosensor and (4) surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)-based TN nanobiosensor.

Recent Advances in AIV Biosensors Composed of Nanobio Hybrid Material

Since the beginning of the 2000s, globalization has accelerated because of the development of transportation systems that allow for human and material exchanges throughout the world. However, this globalization has brought with it the rise of various pathogenic viral agents, such as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Zika virus, and Dengue virus. In particular, avian influenza virus (AIV) is highly infectious and causes economic, health, ethnical, and social problems to human beings, which has necessitated the development of an ultrasensitive and selective rapid-detection system of AIV. To prevent the damage associated with the spread of AIV, early detection and adequate treatment of AIV is key. There are traditional techniques that have been used to detect AIV in chickens, ducks, humans, and other living organisms. However, the development of a technique that allows for the more rapid diagnosis of AIV is still necessary. To achieve this goal, the present article reviews the use of an AIV biosensor employing nanobio hybrid materials to enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of the technique while also reducing the detection time and high-throughput process time. This review mainly focused on four techniques: the electrochemical detection system, electrical detection method, optical detection methods based on localized surface plasmon resonance, and fluorescence.

Bioassays: The best alternative for conventional methods in detection of Legionella pneumophila

Fastidious bacteria are group of bacteria that not only grow slowly but also have complex nutritional needs. In this review, recent progress made on development of biosensing strategies towards quantification of Legionella pneumophila as fastidious bacteria in microbiology was investigated. In coincidence with medical bacteriology, it is the most widely used bio-monitoring, biosensors based on DNA and antibody. Also, all of legionella pneumophila genosensors and immunosensors that developed in recent years were collected analyzed. This review is meant to provide an overview of the various types of bioassays have been developed for determination of Legionella Legionella, along with significant advances over the last several years in related technologies. In addition, this review described: i) Most frequently applied principles in bioassay/biosensing of Legionellaii) The aspects of fabrication in the perspective of bioassay/biosensing applications iii) The potential of various electrochemical and optical bioassay/biosensing for the determination of Legionella and the circumvention of the most serious problem in immunosensing/immunoassay was discussed. iv) Some of bioassay/biosensing has been discussed with and without labels. v) We also summarize the latest developments in the applications of bioassay/biosensing methods for detection of Legionella. vi) The development trends of optical and electrochemical based bioassay/biosensing are also introduced.

Nanoparticles for Signaling in Biodiagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases

Advances in nanoparticle-based systems constitute a promising research area with important implications for the treatment of bacterial infections, especially against multidrug resistant strains and bacterial biofilms. Nanosystems may be useful for the diagnosis and treatment of viral and fungal infections. Commercial diagnostic tests based on nanosystems are currently available. Different methodologies based on nanoparticles (NPs) have been developed to detect specific agents or to distinguish between Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms. Also, biosensors based on nanoparticles have been applied in viral detection to improve available analytical techniques. Several point-of-care (POC) assays have been proposed that can offer results faster, easier and at lower cost than conventional techniques and can even be used in remote regions for viral diagnosis. Nanoparticles functionalized with specific molecules may modulate pharmacokinetic targeting recognition and increase anti-infective efficacy. Quorum sensing is a stimuli-response chemical communication process correlated with population density that bacteria use to regulate biofilm formation. Disabling it is an emerging approach for combating its pathogenicity. Natural or synthetic inhibitors may act as antibiofilm agents and be useful for treating multi-drug resistant bacteria. Nanostructured materials that interfere with signal molecules involved in biofilm growth have been developed for the control of infections associated with biofilm-associated infections.