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Rupprecht CE, Buchanan T, Cliquet F, King R, Müller T, Yakobson B, Yang DK. A Global Perspective on Oral Vaccination of Wildlife against Rabies. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:241-284. [PMID: 38381612 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The long-term mitigation of human-domestic animal-wildlife conflicts is complex and difficult. Over the last 50 yr, the primary biomedical concepts and actualized collaborative global field applications of oral rabies vaccination to wildlife serve as one dramatic example that revolutionized the field of infectious disease management of free-ranging animals. Oral vaccination of wildlife occurred in diverse locales within Africa, Eurasia, the Middle East, and North America. Although rabies is not a candidate for eradication, over a billion doses of vaccine-laden baits distributed strategically by hand, at baiting stations, or via aircraft, resulted in widespread disease prevention, control, or local disease elimination among mesocarnivores. Pure, potent, safe, and efficacious vaccines consisted of either modified-live, highly attenuated, or recombinant viruses contained within attractive, edible baits. Since the late 1970s, major free-ranging target species have included coyotes (Canis latrans), foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus; Vulpes vulpes), jackals (Canis aureus; Lupulella mesomelas), raccoons (Procyon lotor), raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), and skunks (Mephitis mephitis). Operational progress has occurred in all but the latter species. Programmatic evaluations of oral rabies vaccination success have included: demonstration of biomarkers incorporated within vaccine-laden baits in target species as representative of bait contact; serological measurement of the induction of specific rabies virus neutralizing antibodies, indicative of an immune response to vaccine; and most importantly, the decreasing detection of rabies virus antigens in the brains of collected animals via enhanced laboratory-based surveillance, as evidence of management impact. Although often conceived mistakenly as a panacea, such cost-effective technology applied to free-ranging wildlife represents a real-world, One Health application benefiting agriculture, conservation biology, and public health. Based upon lessons learned with oral rabies vaccination of mesocarnivores, opportunities for future extension to other taxa and additional diseases will have far-reaching, transdisciplinary benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Rupprecht
- College of Forestry, Wildlife and Environment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, 602 Duncan Drive, Auburn, Alabama 36849, USA
| | - Tore Buchanan
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Trent University, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9L1Z8, Canada
| | - Florence Cliquet
- ANSES, Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Technopôle Agricole et Vétérinaire, Domaine de Pixérécourt, CS 40009 Malzeville, France
| | - Roni King
- Israel Nature and Parks Authority, Am V'Olamo 3, Jerusalem 95463, Israel
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Boris Yakobson
- WOAH Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Ministry of Agriculture, Derech HaMaccabim 62, Rishon Lezion, 50250, Israel
| | - Dong-Kun Yang
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, 177, Hyeoksin 8-ro, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, 39660, Republic of Korea
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Efficacy of Oral Rabies Vaccine Baits Containing SPBN GASGAS in Domestic Dogs According to International Standards. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11020307. [PMID: 36851185 PMCID: PMC9967523 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The oral vaccination of free-roaming dogs against rabies has been developed as a promising complementary tool for mass dog vaccination. However, no oral rabies vaccine has provided efficacy data in dogs according to international standards. (2) Methods: To test the immunogenicity and efficacy of the third-generation oral rabies virus vaccine strain, SPBN GASGAS, in domestic dogs, dogs were offered an egg-flavoured bait containing 3.0 mL of the vaccine (107.5 FFU/mL) or a placebo egg-flavoured bait. Subsequently, these 25 vaccinated and 10 control animals were challenged approximately 6 months later with a dog rabies virus isolate. Blood samples were collected at different time points postvaccination and examined by ELISA and RFFIT. (3) Results: All but 1 of the 25 vaccinated dogs survived the challenge infection; meanwhile, all 10 control dogs succumbed to rabies. The serology results showed that all 25 vaccinated dogs seroconverted in ELISA (>40% PB); meanwhile, only 13 of the 25 vaccinated dogs tested seropositive ≥ 0.5 IU/mL) in RFFIT. (4) Conclusions: The SPBN GASGAS rabies virus vaccine meets the efficacy requirements for live oral rabies vaccines as laid down by the European Pharmacopoeia and the WOAH Terrestrial Manual. SPBN GASGAS already fulfilled the safety requirements for oral rabies vaccines targeted at dogs. Hence, the egg-flavoured bait containing SPBN GASGAS is the first oral vaccine bait that complies with WOAH recommendations for the intended use of oral vaccination of free-roaming dogs against rabies.
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Oral Rabies Vaccine Strain SPBN GASGAS: Genetic Stability after Serial In Vitro and In Vivo Passaging. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102136. [PMID: 36298691 PMCID: PMC9609770 DOI: 10.3390/v14102136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral vaccination of wildlife has shown to be a very effective management tool in rabies control. Evaluation of the genetic stability of vaccine viruses before distributing vaccine baits in the environment is essential because all available oral rabies vaccines, including the genetically engineered rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS (Rabitec), are based on replication-competent viruses. To evaluate the genetic stability of this vaccine strain, five serial passages of the Master Seed Virus (MSV) in the production cell line BHK21 Cl13 were performed. Furthermore, to test possible reversion to virulence, a back-passage study in suckling mouse brain (SMB) was performed. Subsequently, the pooled 5th SMB passage was inoculated intracerebrally (i.c.) in adult and suckling mice. The full genome sequences of the isolated 5th passage, in vivo and in vitro, were compared at both the consensus and the quasispecies level with the MSV. Additionally, the full genome sequence of the 6th SMB passage from the individual animals was determined and compared. Full-length integration of the double glycoprotein and modified base substitutions at amino acid position 194 and 333 of the glycoprotein could be verified in all 5th and 6th passage samples. Overall, 11 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected in the 5th pooled SMB passage, 4 with frequency between 10 and 20%, and 7 with between 2.5 and 10%. SNPs that resulted in amino acid exchange were found in genes: N (one SNP), G (four SNPs), and L (three SNPs). However, none of these SNPs were associated with reversion to virulence since all adult mice inoculated i.c. with this material survived. In the individual samples of the 6th SMB passage 24 additional SNPs (>2.5%) were found, of which only 1 SNP (L-gene, position 6969) had a prevalence of >50% in 3 of 17 samples. The obtained results confirmed the stable expression of genetic modifications and the genetic stability of the consensus strain after serial in vivo and in vitro passaging.
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Yale G, Lopes M, Isloor S, Head JR, Mazeri S, Gamble L, Dukpa K, Gongal G, Gibson AD. Review of Oral Rabies Vaccination of Dogs and Its Application in India. Viruses 2022; 14:155. [PMID: 35062358 PMCID: PMC8777998 DOI: 10.3390/v14010155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral rabies vaccines (ORVs) have been in use to successfully control rabies in wildlife since 1978 across Europe and the USA. This review focuses on the potential and need for the use of ORVs in free-roaming dogs to control dog-transmitted rabies in India. Iterative work to improve ORVs over the past four decades has resulted in vaccines that have high safety profiles whilst generating a consistent protective immune response to the rabies virus. The available evidence for safety and efficacy of modern ORVs in dogs and the broad and outspoken support from prominent global public health institutions for their use provides confidence to national authorities considering their use in rabies-endemic regions. India is estimated to have the largest rabies burden of any country and, whilst considerable progress has been made to increase access to human rabies prophylaxis, examples of high-output mass dog vaccination campaigns to eliminate the virus at the source remain limited. Efficiently accessing a large proportion of the dog population through parenteral methods is a considerable challenge due to the large, evasive stray dog population in many settings. Existing parenteral approaches require large skilled dog-catching teams to reach these dogs, which present financial, operational and logistical limitations to achieve 70% dog vaccination coverage in urban settings in a short duration. ORV presents the potential to accelerate the development of approaches to eliminate rabies across large areas of the South Asia region. Here we review the use of ORVs in wildlife and dogs, with specific consideration of the India setting. We also present the results of a risk analysis for a hypothetical campaign using ORV for the vaccination of dogs in an Indian state.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marwin Lopes
- Department of Animal Husbandry & Veterinary Services, Government of Goa, Panjim 403001, India;
| | - Shrikrishna Isloor
- Bangalore Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560024, Karnataka, India;
| | - Jennifer R. Head
- Division of Epidemiology, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA;
| | - Stella Mazeri
- The Roslin Institute, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Midlothian, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK; (S.M.); (A.D.G.)
- Mission Rabies, Dorset, Cranborne BH21 5PZ, UK;
| | - Luke Gamble
- Mission Rabies, Dorset, Cranborne BH21 5PZ, UK;
| | - Kinzang Dukpa
- World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE), Regional Representation for Asia and the Pacific, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan;
| | - Gyanendra Gongal
- World Health Organization (WHO), Regional Office for South East Asia, New Delhi 110002, India;
| | - Andrew D. Gibson
- The Roslin Institute, The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Midlothian, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK; (S.M.); (A.D.G.)
- Mission Rabies, Dorset, Cranborne BH21 5PZ, UK;
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Langguth A, Leelahapongsathon K, Wannapong N, Kasemsuwan S, Ortmann S, Vos A, Böer M. Comparative Study of Optical Markers to Assess Bait System Efficiency Concerning Vaccine Release in the Oral Cavity of Dogs. Viruses 2021; 13:v13071382. [PMID: 34372588 PMCID: PMC8310038 DOI: 10.3390/v13071382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Oral vaccination of dogs against rabies has the potential to achieve mass coverage and thus deplete the virus of its most important reservoir host species. There is, however, no established non-invasive method to evaluate vaccine release in the oral cavity, following bait ingestion. In this study, two pre-selected marker methods in conjunction with their acceptance were assessed in local Thai dogs. Shelter dogs (n = 47) were offered one of four randomized bait formulations; bait type A-, containing Green S (E142) in a fructose solution; type B-, containing Patent Blue V (E131) in a fructose solution; type C-, containing the medium used for delivery of oral rabies vaccine in baits commercially produced; and type D-, containing denatonium benzoate, which was to serve as the negative control, due to its perceived bitterness. Patent Blue V was found to possess overall stronger dyeing capacities compared to Green S. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the acceptance or bait handling of Patent Blue V baits compared to those containing the oral rabies vaccine medium alone, suggesting the potential use of this dye as a surrogate for rabies vaccine when testing newly developed bait formats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Langguth
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 2, 30559 Hannover, Germany
- Correspondence:
| | - Kansuda Leelahapongsathon
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (K.L.); (N.W.); (S.K.)
| | - Napasaporn Wannapong
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (K.L.); (N.W.); (S.K.)
| | - Suwicha Kasemsuwan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; (K.L.); (N.W.); (S.K.)
| | - Steffen Ortmann
- Ceva Innovation Center GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06830 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany; (S.O.); (A.V.)
| | - Ad Vos
- Ceva Innovation Center GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06830 Dessau-Rosslau, Germany; (S.O.); (A.V.)
| | - Michael Böer
- Department of Ethology, University of Osnabrück, Barbarastraße 11, 49076 Osnabrück, Germany;
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bünteweg 2, 30559 Hannover, Germany
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Feasibility and Effectiveness Studies with Oral Vaccination of Free-Roaming Dogs against Rabies in Thailand. Viruses 2021; 13:v13040571. [PMID: 33805404 PMCID: PMC8065424 DOI: 10.3390/v13040571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Thailand has made significant progress in reducing the number of human and animal rabies cases. However, control and elimination of the last remaining pockets of dog-mediated rabies have shown to be burdensome, predominantly as a result of the large numbers of free-roaming dogs without an owner that cannot be restrained without special efforts and therefore remain unvaccinated. To reach these dogs, the feasibility, and benefits of oral rabies vaccination (ORV) as a complementary tool has been examined under field conditions. (2) Methods: ORV of dogs was tested in five study areas of four provinces in Thailand. In these areas, sites with free-roaming dogs were identified with the support of local municipal workers and dog caretakers. ORV teams visited each of five study areas and distributed rabies vaccine (SPBN GASGAS) in three bait formats that were offered to the dogs using a hand-out and retrieval model. The three bait types tested included: egg-flavored baits, egg-flavored baits pasted with commercially available cat liquid snack, and boiled-intestine baits. A dog offered a vaccine bait was considered vaccinated when the discarded sachet was perforated or if a dog chewed vaccine bait at least 5 times before it swallowed the bait, including the sachet. (3) Results: A total of 2444 free-roaming dogs considered inaccessible for parenteral vaccination were identified at 338 sites. As not all dogs were approachable, 79.0% were offered a bait; of these dogs, 91.6% accepted the bait and subsequently 83.0% were considered successfully vaccinated. (4) Conclusion: Overall, 65.6% of the free-roaming dogs at these sites were successfully vaccinated by the oral route. Such a significant increase of the vaccination coverage of the free-roaming dog population could interrupt the rabies transmission cycle and offers a unique opportunity to reach the goal to eliminate dog-mediated human rabies in Thailand by 2030.
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Te Kamp V, Freuling CM, Vos A, Schuster P, Kaiser C, Ortmann S, Kretzschmar A, Nemitz S, Eggerbauer E, Ulrich R, Schinköthe J, Nolden T, Müller T, Finke S. Responsiveness of various reservoir species to oral rabies vaccination correlates with differences in vaccine uptake of mucosa associated lymphoid tissues. Sci Rep 2020; 10:2919. [PMID: 32076025 PMCID: PMC7031338 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-59719-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is highly effective in foxes and raccoon dogs, whereas for unknown reasons the efficacy of ORV in other reservoir species is less pronounced. To investigate possible variations in species-specific cell tropism and local replication of vaccine virus, different reservoir species including foxes, raccoon dogs, raccoons, mongooses, dogs and skunks were orally immunised with a highly attenuated, high-titred GFP-expressing rabies virus (RABV). Immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR screenings revealed clear differences among species suggesting host specific limitations to ORV. While for responsive species the palatine tonsils (tonsilla palatina) were identified as a main site of virus replication, less virus dissemination was observed in the tonsils of rather refractory species. While our comparison of vaccine virus tropism emphasizes the important role that the tonsilla palatina plays in eliciting an immune response to ORV, our data also indicate that other lymphoid tissues may have a more important role than originally anticipated. Overall, these data support a model in which the susceptibility to oral live RABV vaccine infection of lymphatic tissue is a major determinant in vaccination efficacy. The present results may help to direct future research for improving vaccine uptake and efficacy of oral rabies vaccines under field conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Te Kamp
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Thescon GmbH, 48653, Coesfeld, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ad Vos
- Ceva Innovation Center GmbH, 06861, Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | - Peter Schuster
- Ceva Innovation Center GmbH, 06861, Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Sabine Nemitz
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- BioNTech IMFS GmbH, 55743, Idar-Oberstein, Germany
| | - Elisa Eggerbauer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Thüringer Landesamt für Verbraucherschutz, 99947, Bad Langensalza, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Schinköthe
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tobias Nolden
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
- ViraTherapeutics GmbH, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Stefan Finke
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Sobey KG, Jamieson SE, Walpole AA, Rosatte RC, Donovan D, Fehlner-Gardiner C, Nadin-Davis SA, Davies JC, Kyle CJ. ONRAB® oral rabies vaccine is shed from, but does not persist in, captive mammals. Vaccine 2019; 37:4310-4317. [PMID: 31248686 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
ONRAB® is a human adenovirus rabies glycoprotein recombinant vaccine developed to control rabies in wildlife. To support licensing and widespread use of the vaccine, safety studies are needed to assess its potential residual impact on wildlife populations. We examined the persistence of the ONRAB® vaccine virus in captive rabies vector and non-target mammals. This research complements work on important rabies vector species (raccoon, striped skunk, and red fox) but also adds to previous findings with the addition of some non-target species (Virginia opossum, Norway rats, and cotton rats) and a prolonged period of post vaccination monitoring (41 days). Animals were directly inoculated orally with the vaccine and vaccine shedding was monitored using quantitative real-time PCR applied to oral and rectal swabs. ONRAB® DNA was detected in both oral and rectal swabs from 6 h to 3 days post-inoculation in most animals, followed by a resurgence of shedding between days 17 and 34 in some species. Overall, the duration over which ONRAB® DNA was detectable was shorter for non-target mammals, and by day 41, no animal had detectable DNA in either oral or rectal swabs. All target species, as well as cotton rats and laboratory-bred Norway rats, developed robust humoral immune responses as measured by competitive ELISA, with all individuals being seropositive at day 31. Similarly, opossums showed good response (89% seropositive; 8/9), whereas only one of nine wild caught Norway rats was seropositive at day 31. These results support findings of other safety studies suggesting that ONRAB® does not persist in vector and non-target mammals exposed to the vaccine. As such, we interpret these data to reflect a low risk of adverse effects to wild populations following distribution of ONRAB® to control sylvatic rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirk G Sobey
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 2140 East Bank Drive, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - Sarah E Jamieson
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 2140 East Bank Drive, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - Aaron A Walpole
- Wildlife Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 300 Water Street, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 8M5, Canada.
| | - Rick C Rosatte
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 2140 East Bank Drive, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - Dennis Donovan
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 2140 East Bank Drive, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - Christine Fehlner-Gardiner
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, PO Box 11300, Station H, Nepean, Ontario K2H 8P9, Canada.
| | - Susan A Nadin-Davis
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, PO Box 11300, Station H, Nepean, Ontario K2H 8P9, Canada.
| | - J Chris Davies
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, 2140 East Bank Drive, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - Christopher J Kyle
- Natural Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, 2140 East Bank Drive, DNA Building, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 7B8, Canada.
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Smith SP, Wu G, Fooks AR, Ma J, Banyard AC. Trying to treat the untreatable: experimental approaches to clear rabies virus infection from the CNS. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:1171-1186. [PMID: 31237530 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Rabies virus causes an invariably fatal encephalitis following the onset of clinical disease. Despite the availability of safe and effective vaccines, the clinical stages of rabies encephalitis remain untreatable, with few survivors being documented. A principal obstacle to the treatment of rabies is the neurotropic nature of the virus, with the blood-brain barrier size exclusion limit rendering the delivery of antiviral drugs and molecules to the central nervous system inherently problematic. This review focuses on efforts to try and overcome barriers to molecule delivery to treat clinical rabies and overviews current progress in the development of experimental live rabies virus vaccines that may have future applications in the treatment of clinical rabies, including the attenuation of rabies virus vectors through either the duplication or mutation of existing genes or the incorporation of non-viral elements within the genome. Rabies post-infection treatment (PIT) remains the holy grail of rabies research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P Smith
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.,Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Julian Ma
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of West Sussex, Falmer, West Sussex, UK.,Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
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10
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Head JR, Vos A, Blanton J, Müller T, Chipman R, Pieracci EG, Cleaton J, Wallace R. Environmental distribution of certain modified live-virus vaccines with a high safety profile presents a low-risk, high-reward to control zoonotic diseases. Sci Rep 2019; 9:6783. [PMID: 31043646 PMCID: PMC6494895 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-42714-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral vaccines aid immunization of hard to reach animal populations but often contain live-attenuated viruses that pose risks of reversion to virulence or residual pathogenicity. Human risk assessment is crucial prior to vaccine field distribution but there is currently no standardized approach. We mapped exposure pathways by which distribution of oral vaccines may result in inoculation into people and applied a Markov chain to estimate the number of severe adverse events. We simulated three oral rabies vaccination (ORV) campaigns: (1) first generation ORV (SAD-B19) in foxes, (2) SAD-B19 in dogs, and (3) third generation ORV (SPBN GASGAS) in dogs. The risk of SAD-B19-associated human deaths was predicted to be low (0.18 per 10 million baits, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.36) when distributed to foxes, but, consistent with international concern, 19 times greater (3.35 per 10 million baits, 95% CI: 2.83, 3.98) when distributed to dogs. We simulated no deaths from SPBN GAS-GAS. Human deaths during dog campaigns were particularly sensitive to dog bite rate, and during wildlife campaigns to animal consumption rate and human contact rate with unconsumed baits. This model highlights the safety of third generation rabies vaccines and serves as a platform for standardized approaches to inform risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R Head
- Division of Global Health Protection, Center for Global Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Public Health Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Ad Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, 06861, Dessau, Rosslau, Germany
| | - Jesse Blanton
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Richard Chipman
- Wildlife Services Rabies Management, Animal Plant and Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Emily G Pieracci
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Julie Cleaton
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ryan Wallace
- Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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11
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Rupprecht CE, Kuzmin IV, Yale G, Nagarajan T, Meslin FX. Priorities in applied research to ensure programmatic success in the global elimination of canine rabies. Vaccine 2019; 37 Suppl 1:A77-A84. [PMID: 30685249 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The elimination of human rabies mediated by dogs is attainable in concept, based upon current sensitive and specific diagnostic methods, existing safe and effective human and veterinary vaccines and a sound virological, pathological and epidemiological understanding of the disease. Globally, all developed countries achieved this goal. Regionally, major progress occurred throughout the Americas. However, less advancement is evident in Africa and Asia. Our objective was to concentrate upon those salient improvements to extant tools and methods over the next five years which could assist and simplify the task for both those developing countries that have already begun the process, as well as other localities in the earlier stages of consideration. We considered several categories of applied research which could be accomplished in the short term, based upon the available scientific evidence and recent recommendations from subject matter experts and key opinion leaders, focused upon perceived major limitations to prior program success. Areas of concentration included: laboratory-based surveillance, pathogen detection and characterization; human rabies prophylaxis; veterinary biologics; implementation of canine vaccination; and oral vaccination of free-ranging community dogs. Further real-time application in these core areas with proven techniques and technology would simplify attaining not only the global goal focused subtly upon human mortality, but the actual elimination of canine rabies as well.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gowri Yale
- Mission Rabies, Panaji, Goa 403002, India
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12
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Cliquet F, Guiot AL, Aubert M, Robardet E, Rupprecht CE, Meslin FX. Oral vaccination of dogs: a well-studied and undervalued tool for achieving human and dog rabies elimination. Vet Res 2018; 49:61. [PMID: 30005701 PMCID: PMC6045873 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-018-0554-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mass vaccination of dogs is a proven tool for rabies prevention. Besides parenteral delivery of inactivated vaccines, over the past several decades, several self-replicating biologics, including modified-live, attenuated and recombinant viruses, have been evaluated for the oral vaccination of dogs against rabies. Vaccines are included within an attractive bait for oral consumption by free-ranging dogs. Due to the high affinity between dogs and humans, such biologics intended for oral vaccination of dogs (OVD) need to be efficacious as well as safe. Baits should be preferentially attractive to dogs and not to non-target species. Although many different types have been evaluated successfully, no universal bait has been identified to date. Moreover, high bait acceptance does not necessarily mean that vaccine efficacy and programmatic success is predictable. The use of OVD in the laboratory and field has demonstrated the safety and utility of this technology. Within a One Health context, OVD should be considered as part of a holistic plan for the global elimination of canine rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Cliquet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire de Pixérécourt, CS 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France
| | - Anne-Laure Guiot
- Conseils en Pharmacie et Biologie, 2 place des Quatre Vierges, 69110 Sainte Foy les Lyon, France
| | | | - Emmanuelle Robardet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Nancy Laboratory for Rabies and Wildlife, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies, European Union Reference Laboratory for Rabies Serology, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Management in Zoonoses Control, Technopôle agricole et vétérinaire de Pixérécourt, CS 40009, 54220 Malzéville, France
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13
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Ortmann S, Kretzschmar A, Kaiser C, Lindner T, Freuling C, Kaiser C, Schuster P, Mueller T, Vos A. In Vivo Safety Studies With SPBN GASGAS in the Frame of Oral Vaccination of Foxes and Raccoon Dogs Against Rabies. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:91. [PMID: 29868616 PMCID: PMC5968751 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to obtain Marketing Authorization for an oral rabies vaccine in the European Union, not only safety studies in the target species, red fox and raccoon dog, are required. Since baits are distributed unsupervised in the environment, specific safety studies in selected non-target species are compulsory. Furthermore, oral rabies vaccines are based on live, replication-competent viruses and thus distinct safety studies in the target species for such type of vaccines are also mandatory. Here, the results of these safety studies in target and selected non-target species for a 3rd generation oral rabies virus vaccine construct, SPBN GASGAS (Rabitec), are presented. The studies included the following species; red fox, raccoon dog, domestic dog, domestic cat, domestic pig, wild rodents. The following safety topics were investigated; overdose, repeated dose, dissemination, shedding, horizontal and vertical transmission. It was shown that SPBN GASGAS did not cause disease or any other adverse reaction in vaccinated animals and naïve contact animals. The vaccine did not disseminate within the host beyond the site of entry. No horizontal transmission was observed in wild rodents. In the target species, there was evidence that in a few cases horizontal transmission of vaccine virus could have occurred under these experimental conditions; most likely immediately after vaccine administration. The vaccine construct SPBN GASGAS meets therefore the latest revised minimal safety requirements as laid down in the European Pharmacopoeia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Conrad Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald, Germany
| | | | | | - Thomas Mueller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Ad Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Dessau-Rosslau, Germany
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14
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Ortmann S, Vos A, Kretzschmar A, Walther N, Kaiser C, Freuling C, Lojkic I, Müller T. Safety studies with the oral rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS in the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus). BMC Vet Res 2018. [PMID: 29534727 PMCID: PMC5850969 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-018-1417-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Oral vaccination of the small Indian mongoose against rabies has been suggested as a potential tool to eliminate mongoose-mediated rabies on several Caribbean islands. A recently developed oral rabies virus vaccine strain, SPBN GASGAS, has already been shown to be efficacious in this reservoir species. Since, all available oral rabies vaccines are based on replication-competent viruses and vaccine baits are distributed unsupervised in the environment, enhanced safety standards for such vaccine types are required. Results The results of safety studies, including overdose, repeated doses, dissemination and different routes of administration, in the target species are presented. It was shown that the construct was apathogenic, irrespective of dose and route of administration. Even when it was inoculated directly in the brain, it did not induce rabies infection. Furthermore, the vaccine strain did not spread within the target species after direct oral instillation beyond the site of entry. Conclusion The vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS meets the safety requirements for live rabies virus vaccines in this target species, the small Indian mongoose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Ortmann
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06861, Dessau Rosslau, Germany
| | - Ad Vos
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06861, Dessau Rosslau, Germany.
| | | | - Nomusa Walther
- IDT Biologika GmbH, Am Pharmapark, 06861, Dessau Rosslau, Germany
| | | | - Conrad Freuling
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Ivana Lojkic
- Department of Virology, Croatian Veterinary Institute, Svaská cesta 143, 10000, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
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