Effects of injectable trace minerals on humoral and cell-mediated immune responses to Bovine viral diarrhea virus, Bovine herpes virus 1 and Bovine respiratory syncytial virus following administration of a modified-live virus vaccine in dairy calves

Graduate Student Literature Review: Role of antioxidants in calf immunity, growth, and health

The neonatal period for dairy calves is crucial for immune, metabolic, and physical development, which opens a window of disease susceptibility. Although the industry has relied on tools such as colostrum and vaccination to support early life immunity, there are several challenges when vaccinating neonatal calves: (1) the inability to mount an effective immune response, (2) interference with maternal antibodies, and (3) oxidative stress (OS). Oxidative stress is characterized as the imbalance of pro-oxidants to antioxidants that results in cellular oxidative damage or dysfunction. Oxidative stress has become a topic of interest in the neonatal period because it negatively affects lymphocyte function, which might affect vaccine response. Widely studied in mature cattle, antioxidant supplementation has the potential to improve reduction-oxidation balance and immune response. Evidence supporting the use of antioxidants such as vitamins and minerals in neonatal calves is far scarcer but necessary to optimize immunity and disease resistance. This review summarizes research on the effect of antioxidant supplementation on calf immunity, health, and productivity and highlights remaining gaps in knowledge. Overall, micronutrient supplementation, including vitamins and minerals, in preweaning and postweaning calves improved immune responses but there is conflicting evidence supporting the subsequent positive effect on calf health and growth performance.

Effect of parenteral micronutrient supplementation at birth on immunity, growth, and health in preweaning dairy heifers

This randomized clinical trial aimed to determine the extent to which injectable micronutrient supplementation at birth can improve intranasal vaccine response by ameliorating oxidative stress in dairy calves from birth to weaning. For this, 120 Holstein heifer calves were enrolled at birth and randomly allocated into one of 4 groups. The 4 groups included 3 commercially available micronutrient supplements (selenium, copper, zinc, and manganese; selenium and vitamin E; and vitamins E, A, and D) and one control (saline). Calves received an intranasal vaccine against the respiratory viruses parainfluenza 3, bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BHV-1), and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) within the first week of life. Body weight and hip height (HH) were recorded, and a blood sample and nasal secretion sample were collected at birth before treatment and vaccine administration, as well as weekly until weaning at 8 wk. Health scores, including thoracic ultrasound assessment, were recorded weekly from wk 1 to wk 8. Farm treatment records were collected after the completion of the study. Serum micronutrient concentrations were determined from birth to weaning to identify micronutrient status, and serum blood metabolites were analyzed as markers of nutrient utilization. Redox balance was determined in serum as a ratio of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species to antioxidant capacity, known as the oxidant status index (OSi). Intranasal vaccine response was quantified as anti-BRSV and anti-BHV-1 IgA concentrations in nasal secretions. Linear mixed models with repeated measures were built for micronutrient concentrations, blood metabolites, redox balance, IgA concentrations, BW, and HH. Pre-planned contrasts of the control and supplemented groups were also built for the primary outcome of IgA concentrations. A logistic regression mixed model was built for health events and treatment of disease. Serum selenium concentrations were greater in calves receiving supplements containing Se throughout the first 4 wk of life. However, we did not observe any consistent differences in the other micronutrients. The metabolic biomarkers indicate that supplemented calves had better energy status, as suggested by lower BHB and nonesterified fatty acids concentrations. Supplemented calves showed improved redox balance, as indicated by lower OSi throughout the first week of life. Calves supplemented with antioxidants at birth had higher anti-BRSV IgA than control calves. Our results indicate an improved immune response to vaccines in calves supplemented with antioxidants at birth. However, this did not translate to growth and health performance, as we did not find any differences in average daily gain or incidence of health events throughout the preweaning period. This study provides evidence that improving the antioxidant capacity might improve vaccine response, and further research is required to investigate the appropriate frequency and dose of supplementation to improve calf growth and health.

Impact of an Injectable Trace Mineral Supplement on the Immune Response and Outcome of Mannheimia haemolytica Infection in Feedlot Cattle

The study aimed to assess the impact of injectable trace mineral ("ITM"; Multimin90; Fort Collins, CO) supplementation on bacterial infection in cattle. Angus-crossbred steers (n = 32) were organized into two blocks by initial body weight. Steers were maintained on a ryelage and dry-rolled corn-based growing diet without supplementation of Zn, Cu, Mn, and Se for the duration of the study. The steers were transported 6 h, then randomized into three treatment groups: control received sterile saline ("CON"), ITM administered 1 day after transport (6 days before infection, "ITMPRE"), and ITM administered 2 days post infection (dpi) concurrent with antibiotic treatment ("ITMPOST"). Steers were infected with Mannheimia haemolytica on day 0, and all were treated with tulathromycin at 2 dpi. Plasma levels of Zn, Cu, and Se did not differ among treatments (P ≥ 0.74). Liver Se was higher in ITMPRE at 2 dpi (P < 0.05), and both ITM groups had higher liver Se at 5 dpi (P < 0.05) compared to CON. A time × treatment interaction was detected for liver Cu (P = 0.02). Clinical scores were lower (P < 0.05) in ITMPRE on 1 and 8 dpi and ITMPOST on 8 dpi compared to CON. Thoracic ultrasonography scores were lower in ITMPRE at 2 dpi compared to CON (P < 0.05) and ITMPOST (P < 0.1). No treatment effects (P > 0.10) were observed for bacterial detection from bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) or nasopharyngeal swabs. At 5 dpi, both ITMPRE and ITMPOST showed higher frequencies of γδ T cells and NK cells in BAL compared to CON (P < 0.05). Before infection, leukocytes from ITMPRE steers produced more IL-6 (P < 0.01) in response to stimulation with the TLR agonist, Pam3CSK4. Use of ITM may be an effective strategy for improving disease resistance in feedlot cattle facing health challenges.

Effects of Trace Mineral Injections on Measures of Growth and Trace Mineral Status of Primiparous Cows and their Calves

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of injectable trace minerals (ITM) administrations at strategic moments in the beef cattle production cycle. At calving, 50 primiparous cows (Angus × Hereford) and their calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: 1) ITM: cattle assigned to the ITM treatment received an ITM injection at calving and a subsequent administration at breeding (cattle over 2 yr: 1.0 mL/90 kg body weight [BW]; calves: 1.0 mL/45 kg BW); or 2) Control: cattle assigned to the control treatment were administered with saline following the same procedure as the cattle assigned to the ITM treatment. Body weight, blood, and liver samples were collected from dams and calves at multiple time points to evaluate the growth and mineral status of cow-calf pairs. All variables were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. A treatment effect (P = 0.02) was observed for Cu liver concentration of primiparous cows at breeding. Cows assigned to ITM treatment had greater Cu status than cohorts assigned to Control treatment. No treatment effects were observed for the mineral status or growth of calves. The administration of ITM to primiparous cows enhanced Cu status when grazing Cu forages scarce of Cu.

Trace Mineral Supplementation for Beef Cows: Dry Range Environment

Range mineral supplementation is based on providing trace minerals not adequately provided from grazed forage in meeting beef cattle needs throughout life cycle stages. Supplementation programs should be developed with consideration of ranch production goals, economics, and practicality for implementation. Factors such as season of grazing, forage analysis, water analysis including antagonistic elements, and measured animal responses are used in mineral supplement formulation for range cattle. Mineral intake is a critical factor to a supplement program's success. Salt-based mineral products are most used under range conditions, yet there is much individual intake variation.

Repeated injection of multivitamins and multiminerals during the transition period enhances immune response by suppressing inflammation and oxidative stress in cows and their calves

Periparturient dairy cows undergo major physiological and metabolic changes as well as immunosuppression, associated with decrease in plasma concentrations of various minerals and vitamins. The present study was conducted to investigate effects of repeated injections of vitamins and minerals on oxidative stress, innate and adaptive immune response in periparturient dairy cows and their offspring. Experiment was carried out on 24 peripartum Karan-Fries cows, randomly divided into four groups (n=6): control, Multi-mineral (MM), Multi-vitamin (MV) and Multi-minerals and Multi-vitamin (MMMV). Five ml of MM (Zinc 40 mg/ml, Manganese 10 mg/ml, Copper 15 mg/ml, Selenium 5 mg/ml) and five ml of MV (Vitamin E 5 mg/ml, Vitamin A 1000 IU/ml, B-Complex 5 mg/ml, and Vitamin D₃ 500 IU/ml) were injected intramuscularly (IM) to the MM and MV groups. MMMV group cows were injected with both. In all treatment groups, injections and blood sampling were carried out on 30^th, 15^th, 7^th days before and after expected date of parturition and at calving. In calves, blood was collected at calving and on 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 15, 30 and 45 days post-calving. Colostrum/milk were collected at calving and at days 2, 4, and 8 post-calving. A lower percentage of total neutrophils and immature neutrophils, higher percentage of lymphocytes together with increased phagocytic activity of neutrophils and proliferative capacity of lymphocytes found in blood of MMMV cows/calves. Lower relative mRNA expression of TLRs and CXCRs and higher mRNA expression of GR-α, CD62L, CD11b, CD25 and CD44 found in blood neutrophils of MMMV groups. Total antioxidant capacity was higher, activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT), TBARS levels were lower in the blood plasma of treated cows/calves. In both cows/calves, plasma pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17A, IFN-γ and TNF-α) increased, whereas anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) decreased in MMMV groups. Total immunoglobulins increased in colostrum/milk of MMMV injected cows and plasma of their calves. Results indicate that repeated injections of multivitamins and multiminerals to peripartum dairy cows could be a major strategy to improve immune response and decrease in inflammation and oxidative stress in transition dairy cows and their calves.

Trace Minerals Supplementation with Great Impact on Beef Cattle Immunity and Health

Simple Summary

Supplementation with trace minerals (TM) is a husbandry strategy to improve cattle health. There is solid evidence of the beneficial effects of TM supplementation on the immune system. The concentration of TM in the soil is variable across the USA, with several regions having deficient levels in forages. Therefore, TM supplementation is highly recommended especially in areas where forages do not supply the mineral requirements. Before starting TM supplementation, it is important to evaluate the herd’s mineral profile, and the amount of TM the animals are consuming. Oral free-choice TM may not be sufficient to satisfy the requirements in certain situations, and could lead to TM deficiencies. This is due to a high variability in TM composition and intake, binding to undigested feed particles, reduced absorption, and antagonisms. Single, oral pulse-dose supplementation provides a controlled and homogeneous amount of TM intended to remove such a variation. However, this strategy does not efficiently increase circulating and hepatic TM levels. Parenteral TM supplementation has resulted in a more efficient increase in TM concentration. The strategic supplementation combining injectable TM during critical times of cattle management (e.g., vaccination) in conjunction with oral free-choice supplements has shown significant benefits for the immune response and protection against respiratory disease in beef cattle, reducing morbidity and treatment costs.

Abstract

Trace minerals (TM) play an important role in cattle immunity, health and performance. Although TM are needed in small quantities, they are fundamental for enzymes involved in antioxidant protection against cellular damage and several pathways of the immune response. Cattle TM status results from the balance between TM dietary intake and their requirements. Free-choice oral TM supplementation is a common practice in beef cattle production systems. However, there is a high variation in TM intake and thus TM status and bioavailability in animals receiving free-choice oral TM supplements. Strategic pulse-dose supplementation during critical points of beef cattle management provides a controlled amount of TM intended to remove such a variation. Adequate TM supplementation should not only satisfy the basal requirements but also provide a source of TM when there is a higher demand of the antioxidant systems or during the development of the immune response. This paper reviews the research-based evidence of the effects of TM supplementation on immunity and its impact on beef cattle health. This review highlights the benefits of a novel approach of strategic administration of injectable trace minerals (Se, Zn, Cu and Mn) during critical episodes of cattle management (e.g., around weaning or at vaccination) in combination with free-choice oral supplementation to maintain adequate TM and oxidative status, enhanced immunity and overall cattle health. This strategy has proven to decrease morbidity, which would positively impact the productivity of the beef cattle systems.

The titers, duration, and residual clinical protection of passively transferred nasal and serum antibodies are similar among beef calves that nursed colostrum from vaccinated or unvaccinated dams and were challenged experimentally with bovine respiratory syncytial virus at three months of age

OBJECTIVES

To compare initial titers, duration, and residual clinical protection of passively transferred bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) nasal immunoglobulin (Ig) G-1 and IgA, and serum neutralizing (SN) antibodies.

ANIMALS

40 three-month-old beef steers born either to unvaccinated or vaccinated cows.

PROCEDURES

During the last trimester of gestation, cows were assigned randomly to either vaccinated or unvaccinated groups. Calves were grouped on the basis of whether they nursed colostrum from unvaccinated dams (NO-VACC group; n = 20) versus dams vaccinated with 2 doses of an inactivated BRSV vaccine (VACC group; n = 20). At 3 months of age, calves were challenged with BRSV. Respiratory signs were scored. Nasal BRSV IgG-1 and IgA and SN antibodies were compared before and after the challenge. The presence of BRSV in nasal secretions was evaluated by reverse transcription-PCR assays.

RESULTS

Respiratory scores after BRSV challenge were similar between treatment groups. Nasal BRSV IgG-1 and SN antibodies were significantly greater in VACC calves at 48 hours of life; however, by 3 months of age, titers had decayed in both groups. Nasal BRSV IgA titers were minimal after colostrum intake and before the BRSV challenge, and increased in both groups after the challenge. The NO-VACC group had a significantly greater probability of shedding BRSV compared with VACC calves.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

At 3 months of age, titers of passively transferred BRSV antibodies in VACC and NO-VACC calves had decayed to nonprotective levels. Calves born to vaccinated dams had a decreased probability of BRSV shedding; however, this was not related to differences in SN or nasal BRSV antibody titers.

The effect of pre-calving injection of trace mineral supplements on periparturient disease incidence in pasture based dairy cows

Trace minerals, have a role in immune function and a trace mineral supplement (TMS) can improve animal health in dairy herds. This prospective randomised clinical study assessed whether subcutaneous injection of 5.5 mL of TMS (40 mg zinc, 10 mg manganese, 5 mg selenium, 15 mg copper per mL), 14-28 days before planned start of calving (PSC) reduced clinical mastitis (CM), subclinical mastitis (SCM) and purulent vaginal discharge (PVD). From four farms, half of 1700 cows stratified on somatic cell count, age and breed were randomly allocated to treatment or no treatment. Occurrence of CM from - 7 to PSC + 100 days, SCM at PSC + 60 days and PVD at PSC + 24 days was analysed using survival analysis and Bayesian generalised mixed multivariable models. From -7 to PSC +30 days, TMS reduced the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for CM at quarter and cow level (P < 0.001), with no evidence for an effect beyond 30 days. The adjusted OR (and 95% highest density interval, HDI) for the effect of TMS on CM from -7 to PSC +30 days was 0.40 (95% HDI, 0.26-0.63) at quarter level, 0.51 (95% HDI, 0.38-0.69) at cow level and for SCM, 0.72 (95% HDI, 0.54-0.95). The difference in CM incidence from TMS at the cow level was -2.0% (95% HDI, -3.4 to -1.1%) and -1.2% (95% HDI, -3.2 to - 0.6%) at quarter level. No clear effect was identified of TMS on cumulative incidence of PVD.

Zinc and Respiratory Viral Infections: Important Trace Element in Anti-viral Response and Immune Regulation

Influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and SARS-COV2 are among the most dangerous respiratory viruses. Zinc is one of the essential micronutrients and is very important in the immune system. The aim of this narrative review is to review the most interesting findings about the importance of zinc in the anti-viral immune response in the respiratory tract and defense against influenza, RSV, and SARS-COV2 infections. The most interesting findings on the role of zinc in regulating immunity in the respiratory tract and the relationship between zinc and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are reviewed, as well. Besides, current findings regarding the relationship between zinc and the effectiveness of respiratory viruses' vaccines are reviewed. The results of reviewed studies have shown that zinc and some zinc-dependent proteins are involved in anti-viral defense and immune regulation in the respiratory tract. It seems that zinc can reduce the viral titer following influenza infection. Zinc may reduce RSV burden in the lungs. Zinc can be effective in reducing the duration of viral pneumonia symptoms. Zinc may enhance the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in reducing mortality rate in COVID-19 patients. Besides, zinc has a positive effect in preventing ARDS and ventilator-induced lung damage. The relationship between zinc levels and the effectiveness of respiratory viruses' vaccines, especially influenza vaccines, is still unclear, and the findings are somewhat contradictory. In conclusion, zinc has anti-viral properties and is important in defending against respiratory viral infections and regulating the immune response in the respiratory tract.

Galyean Appreciation Club Review: Revisiting nutrition and health of newly received cattle - What have we learned in the last 15 years?

Our objective was to review the literature related to the health and management of newly received cattle published since a previous review by Duff and Galyean (2007). Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) continues to be a major challenge for the beef industry. Depending on disease severity, animals treated for BRD have decreased performance and lowered carcass value. Diagnosis of BRD is less effective than desired, and progress on developing real-time, chute-side methods to diagnose BRD has been limited. Systems that combine lung auscultation with temperature and BW data show promise. Assessment of blood metabolites and behavior monitoring offer potential for early identification of morbid animals. Vaccination and metaphylaxis continue to be important tools for prevention and control of BRD, but antimicrobial resistance is a concern with antibiotic use. Dietary energy concentration and roughage source/level continue to be important topics. Mineral supplementation has received considerable attention, particularly the use of organic vs. inorganic sources and injectable minerals or drenches given on arrival. Use of probiotics and prebiotics for newly received cattle has shown variable results, but further research is warranted. Health and nutrition of newly received cattle will continue to be an important research area in the years to come.

Effects of Selenium Supplementation on Rumen Microbiota, Rumen Fermentation, and Apparent Nutrient Digestibility of Ruminant Animals: A Review

Enzymes excreted by rumen microbiome facilitate the conversion of ingested plant materials into major nutrients (e.g., volatile fatty acids (VFA) and microbial proteins) required for animal growth. Diet, animal age, and health affect the structure of the rumen microbial community. Pathogenic organisms in the rumen negatively affect fermentation processes in favor of energy loss and animal deprivation of nutrients in ingested feed. Drawing from the ban on antibiotic use during the last decade, the livestock industry has been focused on increasing rumen microbial nutrient supply to ruminants through the use of natural supplements that are capable of promoting the activity of beneficial rumen microflora. Selenium (Se) is a trace mineral commonly used as a supplement to regulate animal metabolism. However, a clear understanding of its effects on rumen microbial composition and rumen fermentation is not available. This review summarized the available literature for the effects of Se on specific rumen microorganisms along with consequences for rumen fermentation and digestibility. Some positive effects on total VFA, the molar proportion of propionate, acetate to propionate ratio, ruminal NH3-N, pH, enzymatic activity, ruminal microbiome composition, and digestibility were recorded. Because Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) were more effective than other forms of Se, more studies are needed to compare the effectiveness of synthetic SeNPs and lactic acid bacteria enriched with sodium selenite as a biological source of SeNPs and probiotics. Future studies also need to evaluate the effect of dietary Se on methane emissions.

Parenteral Antioxidant Supplementation at Birth Improves the Response to Intranasal Vaccination in Newborn Dairy Calves

Newborn calves experience oxidative stress throughout the first month of their life, which is known to decrease lymphocyte functions relevant to vaccine responsiveness. Thus, this study aimed to determine the extent to which parenteral antioxidant supplementation given at birth improves the response to an intranasal viral vaccine in the first month of life of newborn dairy calves. For this, 21 calves were randomly assigned at birth to one of two commercially available antioxidant micronutrient supplements or a placebo group receiving 0.9% sterile saline (n = 7/group). Serum and nasal secretion samples were collected before administration of treatments and an intranasal vaccine against respiratory viruses (bovine herpesvirus type 1, bovine syncytial respiratory virus, and parainfluenza 3), and once weekly for the first four weeks of age. Systemic redox balance was determined in serum. Immunoglobulin A specific for bovine herpesvirus 1 and bovine syncytial respiratory virus was quantified in nasal secretions as a proxy to intranasal vaccine responsiveness. Our results showed that parenteral administration of antioxidants at birth improved calves' redox balance. Additionally, calves receiving antioxidant supplementation had higher concentrations of immunoglobulin A in their nasal secretions than calves in the control group. Thus, we conclude that supplementation of calves with antioxidants at birth could be a practical strategy to improve intranasal vaccine response. Future larger studies should evaluate the extent to which this increased mucosal response to intranasal vaccination could result in decreased calf morbidity and mortality.

Effect of injectable trace mineral supplementation on peripheral polymorphonuclear leukocyte function, antioxidant enzymes, health, and performance in dairy cows in semi-arid conditions

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of subcutaneous injections of 15 mg/mL Cu, 5 mg/mL Se, 60 mg/mL Zn, and 10 mg/mL Mn on health, performance, polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL) function, circulating glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) concentrations, and inflammation of dairy cows undergoing the transition period in high temperature-humidity index. A total of 923 multiparous cows from 2 commercial dairy farms were randomly allocated into 1 of 2 treatment groups as follows: control and injectable trace mineral supplementation (ITMS). Cows in the ITMS group received 7 mL of subcutaneous injections at dry-off (208 ± 3 d of gestation), 260 ± 3 d of gestation, and at 35 ± 3 d in milk (DIM). Data regarding health traits, reproductive performance, milk yield, and survivability were extracted from farm database software, and animals were followed-up until 300 DIM. For a subset of 142 cows from one herd, blood samples were collected at enrollment, and at 3 ± 1, 7 ± 1, 10 ± 1, and 35 ± 3 DIM to evaluate hematology, PMNL function, GPx and SOD concentrations, and circulating haptoglobin. Logistic regression was used to assess health and pregnancy per artificial insemination at first service. Cox proportional hazards models were used to evaluate hazard of pregnancy and culling. Mixed linear regression models accounting for repeated measures were used to assess all continuous variables collected over time. Parity, twinning, and previous gestation length were considered as potential confounders. Farm was included as a random effect. The ITMS cows tended to have lower incidence of metritis and stillbirth compared with control group. However, ITMS treatment did not influence the incidence of other diseases (e.g., mastitis, retained placenta), milk yield, reproductive performance, culling, and leukocyte count. Neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio, PMNL phagocytosis, and oxidative burst as well as intensity of the oxidative burst were greater for ITMS-treated cows in comparison to control cows. The ITMS cows had decreased expression of the adhesion molecule L-selectin on PMNL surface. The serum concentration of GPx and SOD were not affected by ITMS treatment. In conclusion, ITMS tended to reduce the incidence of metritis and stillbirth parturition, improved PMNL function, and improved the inflammatory status of dairy cows undergoing the transition period in high temperature-humidity index conditions. However, these findings did not translate into improved milk yield, reproductive performance, and survivability.

Trace Mineral Nutrition of Grazing Beef Cattle

Simple Summary

The trace mineral nutrition of grazing beef cattle is an essential, but often complicated component of the management program. Throughout the annual cycle, forage is the primary source of trace mineral supply to grazing cattle, but concentrations vary depending on a multitude of factors. Trace mineral deficiencies are common when relying solely on forage to meet cattle requirements. Selenium, Cu, Zn, Mn, Co, and I are the trace minerals most commonly found to be deficient in forage. Trace mineral antagonists, such as Fe, Mo, and S, are commonly found in forage and exist in varying concentrations further complicating the success of satisfying the requirement of grazing cattle. Trace mineral-fortified, salt-based, free-choice supplements are the most common supplementation strategies available. Cattle voluntarily consume these supplements to satisfy their salt craving and thus indirectly receive supplemental trace minerals. Managing salt inclusion and seasonal variation in voluntary intake are essential to the success of this management system. Supplements can be formulated with a variety of trace mineral ingredients available to the industry, which are generally grouped into different source categories. Other supplementation strategies to supply trace minerals to grazing cattle include fortification of energy and protein supplements, biofortification, injectable trace minerals, and boluses.

Abstract

The trace mineral requirements of grazing beef cattle are often complicated by different environmental factors, such as the lack of specific trace minerals or the presence of trace mineral antagonists in forage. Nearly every region of the world has specific implications related to trace mineral nutrition of grazing cattle. Since forage is the most significant contributor to trace mineral nutrition, it is important to consider the concentrations of trace minerals and antagonists and how they may impact the performance of cattle consuming them. This review attempts to provide an update on the trace minerals commonly found to be inadequate in forage, supplementation strategies to address deficiency including a discussion on supplemental trace mineral source, and the complications presented by mineral antagonists. Although the review focuses on beef cattle grazing systems of the United States, the information herein is derived from both extensive native range and intensive planted pasture.

Comparison of the immune response following subcutaneous versus intranasal modified-live virus booster vaccination against bovine respiratory disease in pre-weaning beef calves that had received primary vaccination by the intranasal route

This study was performed to elucidate whether the route of booster vaccination affects the immune response against respiratory vaccine viruses in pre-weaning beef calves that receive primary intranasal (IN) vaccination during the first month of life. The objective was to compare the serum neutralizing antibody (SNA) titers to BHV1, BRSV, and BPI3V, cytokine mRNA expression and mucosal BHV1- and BRSV-specific IgA in nasal secretions following administration of IN or subcutaneous (SC) modified-live virus (MLV) booster vaccines 60 days after primary IN vaccination in young beef calves. Twenty-one beef calves were administered 2 mL of an IN MLV vaccine containing BHV1, BRSV, and BPI3V (Inforce3®) between one and five weeks of age. Sixty days after primary vaccination, calves were randomly assigned to one of two groups: IN-MLV (n = 11): Calves received 2 mL of the same IN MLV vaccine used for primary vaccination and 2 mL of a SC MLV vaccine containing BVDV1 & 2 (Bovi- Shield GOLD® BVD). SC-MLV (n = 10): Calves were administered 2 mL of a MLV vaccine containing, BHV1, BRSV, BPI3V, and BVDV1 & 2 (Bovi-Shield GOLD® 5). Blood and nasal secretion samples were collected on days -61 (primary vaccination), -28, -14, 0 (booster vaccination), 14, 21, 28, 42 and 60 for determination of SNA titers, cytokine gene expression analysis and nasal virus-specific IgA concentrations. Statistical analysis was performed using a repeated measures analysis through PROC GLIMMIX of SAS®. Booster vaccination by neither IN nor SC routes induced a significant increase in SNA titers against BHV1, BRSV, and BPI3V. Subcutaneous booster vaccination induced significantly greater BRSV-specific SNA titers (on day 42) and IgA concentration in nasal secretions (on days 21 and 42) compared to calves receiving IN booster vaccination. Both IN and SC booster vaccination were able to stimulate the production of BHV1-specific IgA in nasal secretions. In summary, booster vaccination of young beef calves using either SC or IN route two months after IN MLV primary vaccination resulted in comparable SNA titers, cytokine gene expression profile and virus-specific IgA concentration in nasal secretions. Only a few differences in the systemic and mucosal immune response against BHV1 and BRSV were observed. Subcutaneous booster vaccination induced significantly greater BRSV-specific SNA and secretory IgA titers compared to IN booster vaccination.

Effects of Injectable Trace Minerals (ITMs) on Th1/Th2 Cytokine Balance of Newborn Calves with Tropical Theileriosis

Injectable trace minerals (ITMs) could provide a potential alternative way of trace mineral delivery for sick animals. Therefore, evaluation of ameliorative potentials of ITMs (copper, manganese, selenium, and zinc) on the circulating Th1/Th2 cytokine misbalance in Theileria annulata-infected calves was aimed. Forty-three T. annulata-infected newborn calves were randomly allocated into four groups: buparvaquone alone-treated group (BUPA), buparvaquone + oxytetracycline (BUPA + OXY)-treated group, buparvaquone + injectable trace minerals (BUPA + ITMs)-treated group, and BUPA + OXY + ITM-treated group. Blood samples were collected from each of the calves before the start of therapy (day 0) and on day 14 post-therapy. Serum contents of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines were estimated by bovine specific ELISA kits. On day 14 post-therapy, significant amelioration in the circulating levels of the studied cytokines was not observed in the calves treated with BUPA, while the calves treated with BUPA + OXY revealed significant (P ≤ 0.04) amelioration in the circulating tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) level. The calves treated with BUPA + ITMs revealed significant (P ≤ 0.041) elevation in the circulating interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and significant (P ≤ 0.011) reduction in the interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels. Moreover, the calves treated with BUPA + OXY + ITMs revealed significant reduction in TNF-α (P ≤ 0.0001) and IL-10 (P ≤ 0.012) contents, and significant elevation in IFN-γ (P ≤ 0.0002) content on day 14 post-therapy. None of the treated calve group revealed significant alteration in the circulating level of transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) on day 14 post-therapy. In conclusion, administration of ITMs to the therapeutic regimen of newborn calves with tropical theileriosis could be a promising therapeutic strategy. ITMs can be recommended for the amelioration of immunological misbalance due to tropical theileriosis in newborn calves.

Effects of Maternal Supplementation with an Injectable Trace Mineral Containing Copper, Manganese, Zinc, and Selenium on Subsequent Steer Finishing Phase Performance and Carcass Characteristics

Simple Summary

The persistent effects of maternal nutrition on subsequent offspring health and performance have drawn great attention in both the livestock industry and human health field in recent years. Trace minerals play very important roles in nutrition and regulate many critical biological processes. Therefore, trace mineral status of the dam has the potential to influence early growth and development of the fetus, which leads to long-lasting effects on animal health and growth performance. This study demonstrated that maternal supplementation of trace minerals increased the percentage of carcasses graded as USDA Choice or greater, but maternal trace mineral injections had limited effects on finishing phase growth performance and other carcass characteristics of the offspring. Stakeholders of the cow/calf and feedlot operations should consider these results as they make decisions on maternal trace mineral administrations.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to investigate effects of maternal supplementation with an injectable trace mineral (Cu, Mn, Zn, and Se) on subsequent steer performance during the finishing phase. Seventy-six Angus cross steers (initial body weight 249 ± 41.5 kg) from dams administered either an injectable trace mineral (TM; Multimin 90) or sterilized physiological saline (CON) during prepartum stage were used. Individual feed intake during the finishing phase were recorded with GrowSafe feed bunks. Blood and liver biopsy samples were collected to evaluate trace mineral status. Steers were slaughtered at 413 ± 26 days of age and carcass data were obtained at a commercial abattoir. Growth performance or mineral status of the steers during the finishing phase was not affected (p ≥ 0.14) by maternal treatments. Carcass characteristics were not different (p ≥ 0.18), except steers from TM dams had greater (p = 0.05) percentage of carcasses graded as Choice or greater. In conclusion, maternal supplementation of an injectable trace mineral increased the percentage of carcasses graded as Choice or greater, other than that, maternal supplementation had limited influence on finishing phase growth performance, trace mineral status, or carcass characteristics of the subsequent steer progeny.

Importance of Dietary Changes During the Coronavirus Pandemic: How to Upgrade Your Immune Response

The new coronavirus pandemic continues to spread causing further public health, social, and economic issues. The disparities in the rates of death between countries poses questions about the importance of lifestyle habits and the immune status of populations. An exploration of dietary habits and COVID-19-related death might unravel associations between these two variables. Indeed, while both nutritional excess and deficiency are associated with immunodeficiency, adequate nutrition leading to an optimally functioning immune system may be associated with better outcomes with regards to preventing infection and complications of COVID-19, as well as developing a better immune response to other pathogenic viruses and microorganisms. This article outlines the key functions of the immune system and how macronutrients, micronutrients, and metabolites from the gut microbiome can be essential in the development of an efficient immune system. In addition, the effects of intermittent fasting on the inflammatory state as well as metabolic parameters will be discussed.

Effects of Parenteral Supplementation with Minerals and Vitamins on Oxidative Stress and Humoral Immune Response of Weaning Calves

Simple Summary

Weaning is a stressful phase for calves; the stress due to separation from the cow results in weight loss and may lead to a decrease in the immune system, making calves more prone to diseases, even in a low-stress (fence-line) weaning system. Mineral and vitamin supplementation can improve the immune system and could therefore be of assistance for calves during weaning. We studied the effects of injectable (subcutaneous) supplementation with copper, zinc, selenium, manganese, and vitamins A and E. Calves were supplemented twice, before weaning and on the day of weaning. We evaluated variables related to the immune status and the immune response to a vaccine containing bovine herpesvirus type 1, as well as body weight and average daily gain. Parenteral supplementation of minerals and vitamins with antioxidant effects in a low-stress weaning system prevented the decrease in variables related to the immune system, improved antibody response, and had positive effects on body weight.

Abstract

We aimed to evaluate the effects of injectable mineral and vitamin supplementation on weaning calves subjected to a low-stress (fence-line) weaning system. Seven-month-old Aberdeen Angus female calves (n = 40, 152 ± 11 kg body weight) from a selenium-deficient area of extensive cattle production on natural grass were randomly assigned to two groups (n = 20 each). One group received subcutaneous supplementation with copper, zinc, selenium, manganese and vitamins A and E (SG), and the other was given sterile saline solution (CG). The animals were supplemented twice, seven days before weaning (day −7) and on the day of weaning (day 0), and they were evaluated 30 (+30) and 60 (+60) days after weaning. Total antioxidant status (TAS), selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, body weight, and average daily gain (ADG) were evaluated. Additionally, antibody titers were assessed prior to and after each immunization with a vaccine containing bovine herpes virus type 1 (BoHV-1). On day +30, body weight (p = 0.03) was higher in SG, whereas TAS (p = 0.02) and GPx (p = 0.0038) activity were lower in CG and remained constant in SG. Antibody titers increased in SG and CG following immunization, being higher in SG on days +30 and +60 (p < 0.05). In conclusion, parenteral supplementation of minerals and vitamins with antioxidant effects in a low-stress weaning system prevented the decrease in TAS and GPx activity, improved antibody response and had positive effects on body weight.

Immune response and onset of protection from Bovine viral diarrhea virus 2 infection induced by modified-live virus vaccination concurrent with injectable trace minerals administration in newly received beef calves

Strategies to improve the onset of protective immunity induced by vaccination against respiratory pathogens may have a significant impact on health of newly received beef calves. The objective was to determine if the use of injectable trace minerals (ITM; Se, Zn, Cu, and Mn) concurrent with a modified-live virus (MLV) vaccine enhances the immune response and onset of protection in beef calves challenged with BVDV2 five days after vaccination. Forty-five calves were randomly assigned to one of three groups (15/group): VAC + ITM, received MLV-vaccine and ITM (Multimin®90) subcutaneously (SC); VAC + SAL, received the same vaccine and saline SC; or UNVAC, unvaccinated. Five days after vaccination (d.0), calves were challenged with BVDV2 strain 890. Health status was evaluated and blood samples were collected for leukocyte counts, BVDV1 and 2 serum neutralizing antibodies (SNA), BVDV-PCR, and percentage of CD4⁺, CD8⁺, WC1⁺ and CD25⁺ T-cells. VAC + ITM had lower health scores than UNVAC (d.8 and 9). VAC + ITM had higher BVDV1 & 2 SNA titers than VAC + SAL and UNVAC on d.21 and 28. Lymphocyte counts decreased in UNVAC but not in VAC + ITM or VAC + SAL (d.3 to 11). CD4⁺ T-cells significantly decreased in UNVAC and VAC + SAL (d.3). VAC + ITM had higher percentage of CD4⁺ T-cells than UNVAC (d.3 and 7). VAC + ITM had lower percentage of activated CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T-cells than UNVAC (d.7). In summary, vaccination induced a rapid protection against BVDV2 infection. Administration of ITM was associated with increased SNA response to BVDV1 & 2, enhanced health status, mitigation of CD4⁺ T-cells decrease, and reduction of T-cell activation in calves challenged with BVDV2 five days after immunization. These results support the strategic use of ITM concurrent with vaccination, especially when a rapid protection is needed in newly received beef calves.

Effect of an injectable trace mineral supplement on the immune response of dairy calves

On a spring calving, pastoral dairy farm, the first 40 heifer calves born after calving mid-point (50% of the herd calved) were blood sampled within 24 h. Thirty were selected, using stratified randomisation to form two equal groups (treatment and control) with the same distribution of serum total protein, copper, selenium, zinc, and manganese concentrations, age and breed. From the remaining 10 calves, five were randomly selected into a sentinel group to assess field exposure to Salmonella spp. All calves received two injections of a killed vaccine containing Salmonella spp. antigens at 2 and 6 weeks of age. Concurrently, the treatment group were injected with 1 mL/50 kg trace mineral supplement (TMS) containing 40 mg zinc, 10 mg manganese, 5 mg selenium, 15 mg copper per mL. Sentinel animals received no injections. All animals were bled from 2 to 9 weeks for assay of immune function. At three and four weeks, white blood cells from TMS calves had an increased percentage of cells phagocytosing (effect size = 9.36 and 4.35) and increased number of bacteria ingested per cell (effect size = 0.93 and 1.52). No differences were detected in gamma interferon response (effect size <0.15) or Salmonella sp. antibody titres (effect size <0.20).

An immunomodulatory feed additive enhances in vitro viral vaccine recall antigen responses in dairy heifers

Enhancing immunological responses to vaccination is an important goal in many herd health management systems. OmniGen-AF®(OG) is an immunomodulatory feed additive that has been shown to enhance innate immune function in ruminants and its effects on adaptive immunity require additional study. The objective of this study was to evaluate post-vaccine antibody titers and circulating cellular memory development in heifers fed OG and administered a commercially available modified-live bovine respiratory disease (BRD) vaccine. Twenty-four Holstein heifers were assigned to one of two diets for 170 days: Control TMR (CON; n = 11), or TMR plus OG (TRT; 9 g/100 kg BW/day; n = 13). Samples for hematology, serology, and cellular assays were collected on D-110, 0, 21, 42, and 60 of the trial. Heifers were administered two priming doses of a modified-live BRD vaccine, with a third dose given on D0. There were no significant differences in total WBC and absolute number or the percentage of circulating lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, RBC, or platelets on D-110 through D21. On D42 and D60, CON had significantly higher numbers of lymphocytes. On D0, mean serum neutralizing (SN) titer to BHV-1 was significantly higher for CON compared to TRT. SN titers were not significantly different between CON and TRT at any other time point for BHV-1, BVDV type 1, or BVDV type 2. TRT mounted a significantly stronger recall proliferative response to 0.5 multiplicity of infection (MOI) of BHV-1, BVDV type 1 and BVDV type 2 on D42 and D60; 0.25 MOI of BVDV type 1 on D21 and D42; and 0.25 MOI BVDV type 2 on D42 compared to CON. IL-4 production induced by 0.5 and 1.0 MOI BHV-1 (D42 and D60); 0.25 MOI of BVDV type 1 (D21); and 0.25 and 0.5 MOI of BVDV type 2 (D60) were significantly higher for TRT than CON. IL-17 production induced by 0.25 MOI of BVDV type 1 was significantly higher on D60 for TRT compared to CON. IFN-gamma and IL-10 were not significantly different between treatments. These data indicate feeding OG has a beneficial effect on responses to vaccine antigens in Holstein dairy heifers.

Effects of 3 Different Commercial Vaccines Formulations against BVDV and BHV-1 on the Inflammatory Response of Holstein Heifers

After vaccination, vaccine components must activate the immune response, but the ideal vaccine should not result in undesirable effects in cattle. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inflammatory and humoral responses and adverse reactions induced by three adjuvanted commercial vaccines against bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV-1). Holstein heifers (n = 35) were divided into four groups by adjuvant compounds: Vaccine A (Alum; n = 9), Vaccine B (Oil-in-water; n = 10), Vaccine C (Amphigen/Quil A cholesterol and dimethyl-dioctadecyl ammonium (DDA) bromide (QAD; n = 10), and Control (n = 6). Heifers were assessed at 0 h, 6, 24, 48, 72 and 168 h post-vaccination; serology was evaluated at first dose (D0), booster (D21) and D42. Heifers vaccinated with Vaccine B (p = 0.0001) and C (p = 0.0001) had a more intense local reaction, while there was a higher rectal temperature detected in heifers vaccinated with Vaccine C (p = 0.020). There was greater systemic reaction observed for heifers vaccinated with Vaccines B and C at 48 h (p = 0.002) after a second dose. Clinical pathology parameters [white blood count (WBC) (p = 0.001), neutrophils (p = 0.0001) and haptoglobin concentrations (p = 0.0001)] were higher in animals vaccinated with Vaccine C. Neutralizing Abs against BVDV type 1 strains, NADL and Singer, were detected in animals vaccinated with Vaccines A or C at D42, while BVDV-2 antibodies were detected only in animals vaccinated with Vaccine C. A BHV-1 antibody was detected in all three vaccine groups (Vaccines A, B or C) at day 42 (21 days post booster vaccination). The findings of this research were based on three different commercial laboratory formulations and also according to the conditions which the study was conducted. In this context, vaccine containing mineral oil or Amphigen/QAD presented greater local reactivity and induced a significant systemic inflammatory response. Vaccinated heifers with Alum and Amphigen/QAD commercial vaccines enhanced humoral immune response against BVDV and BHV-1.

Effect of Injectable Copper and Zinc Supplementation on Weight, Hematological Parameters, and Immune Response in Pre-weaning Beef Calves

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) deficiency may cause poor weight gain, hematological changes, and immune failure in extensive beef cattle breeding systems. Diagnosis of the deficiency is based on plasma Cu and Zn concentrations; however, there are discrepancies regarding data interpretation. Here, plasma Cu and Zn concentrations are discussed as risk markers. We evaluated the effect of parenteral Cu and Zn supplementation on their plasma concentrations, weight gain, hematological parameters, and antibody titers to bovine herpes virus 1 (BoHV-1). Pre-weaning calves (n = 40; 99 ± 8 kg bw) from a typical breeding area of Argentina with background Cu and Zn deficiency were used. They were assigned to two homogeneous groups in a completely randomized design. Calves were subcutaneously injected with 0.3 mg/kg Cu and 1 mg/kg Zn (supplemented group), or saline solution (control), every 40 days during 120 days. Plasma Cu and Zn concentrations, hematological parameters, and weight were recorded. On days 40 and 80 of the trial, calves were vaccinated with inactivated BoHV-1. Antibody immune response was measured on days 80 and 120. Data were analyzed with a mixed model for repeated measures over time. Before treatment, plasma Cu was low and Zn was adequate in both groups. After treatment, plasma Cu increased and remained within a normal range, whereas plasma Zn remained constant. Supplemented animals had higher weight gain (p < 0.01); higher hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin levels (p < 0.05); and higher immune response to BoHV-1 (p < 0.05). Our results suggest that Cu and Zn supplementation improved daily weight gain and the immune response of pre-weaning calves.

Reduction in morbidity and mortality of dairy calves from an injectable trace mineral supplement

The effect of a multimineral preparation on the health and growth of spring born, dairy calves was investigated on four New Zealand pastoral farms. Calves were randomly allocated injections within 24 hours of birth, 35 days and 70 days after birth. Injections contained 40 mg zinc, 10 mg manganese, 5 mg selenium, 15 mg copper and 5 mg chromium per ml (Multimin+Se+ Cu+Cr Cattle, Virbac South Africa) at 1 ml/50 kg body weight. Morbidity, mortality from natural challenge and growth rates were recorded for 140 days. There were no differences in morbidity and mortality within 48 hours of birth for treated calves compared with controls, P=0.192. Morbidity and mortality were highest at 3-35 days (7.5 per cent [95 per cent CI 5.00 to 9.99] treated calves sick and 15.6 per cent [95 per cent CI 12.48 to 18.73] controls sick, P<0.001). For this period, mortality was lower at 4.4 per cent (95 per cent CI 2.49 to 6.41) treated calves and 10.4 per cent (95 per cent CI 7.78 to 13.03) controls, P<0.001. Allowing for potential confounders, the adjusted OR of treated calves scouring between 3 and 35 days was 0.44 (95 per cent CI 0.24 to 0.82, P=0.009). Allowing for potential confounders, from 0 to 140 days a second model predicted treatment approximately halved the probability of morbidity and mortality (P<0.001). There was no difference in the daily rate of gain (0.67 kg/day [95 per cent CI 0.66 to 0.67] for treated calves).

Redox Biology in Transition Periods of Dairy Cattle: Role in the Health of Periparturient and Neonatal Animals

Dairy cows undergo various transition periods throughout their productive life, which are associated with periods of increased metabolic and infectious disease susceptibility. Redox balance plays a key role in ensuring a satisfactory transition. Nevertheless, oxidative stress (OS), a consequence of redox imbalance, has been associated with an increased risk of disease in these animals. In the productive cycle of dairy cows, the periparturient and neonatal periods are times of increased OS and disease susceptibility. This article reviews the relationship of redox status and OS with diseases of cows and calves, and how supplementation with antioxidants can be used to prevent OS in these animals.

Effects of injectable trace minerals administered concurrently with a modified live virus vaccine on long-term protection against bovine viral diarrhea virus acute infection in dairy calves

The objective was to evaluate the effects of injectable trace minerals (ITM) concurrent with modified-live virus (MLV) vaccination on protection from bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in dairy calves. In a previous study (Palomares et al., 2016), thirty dairy calves received two doses of a MLV vaccine subcutaneously (SC), concurrently with ITM (n = 15) or saline (n = 15), SC. Five months later, 20 of these calves received ITM (G1, n = 10) or saline (G2, n = 10) according to their previous groups and were challenged intranasally with BVDV2. Five unvaccinated calves were also challenged with BVDV2 (G3). Blood samples were collected on days 0 (BVDV challenge), 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 18, 21, 32 and 61 for leukocyte count, virus isolation and BVDV serum neutralizing antibodies (SNA). Mild-moderate clinical signs were observed in G3 after BVDV challenge. Group 1 showed lower sum health score and nasal score on d5 and fecal score on d8 compared to G2. Rectal temperature and leukocyte counts were not different between G1 and G2. In contrast, G3 calves had significant leukopenia and lymphopenia from d3 to d7 (P < .05) and higher rectal temperatures on d6 to d8, compared to values on d0 (P < .05). All unvaccinated calves became viremic, while viremia was not detected in G1 or G2. Average daily gain was not different between vaccinated groups, however, only G1 calves had significantly greater (P = .04) ADG compared to non-vaccinated calves during the first 14 days post challenge. Vaccinated calves treated or not with ITM were protected from BVDV2 infection five months post-vaccination.