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Kumar R, Bera BC, Anand T, Pavulraj S, Kurian Mathew M, Gupta RP, Tripathi BN, Virmani N. Evaluation of immunogenicity and protective efficacy of bacteriophage conjugated haemagglutinin based subunit vaccine against equine influenza virus in a murine model. Vet Res Commun 2024; 48:1707-1726. [PMID: 38528300 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-024-10356-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease of equines caused by the H3N8 subtype of Influenza A virus i.e. equine influenza virus (EIV). Vaccination is an important and effective tool for the control of EI in equines. Most of the commercial influenza vaccines are produced in embryonated hen's eggs which has several inherent disadvantages. Hence, subunit vaccine based on recombinant haemagglutinin (HA) antigen, being the most important envelope glycoprotein has been extensively exploited for generating protective immune responses, against influenza A and B viruses. We hypothesized that novel vaccine formulation using baculovirus expressed recombinant HA1 (rHA1) protein coupled with bacteriophage will generate strong protective immune response against EIV. In the present study, the recombinant HA1 protein was produced in insect cells using recombinant baculovirus having cloned HA gene of EIV (Florida clade 2 sublineage) and the purified rHA1 was chemically coupled with bacteriophage using a crosslinker to produce rHA1-phage vaccine candidate. The protective efficacy of vaccine preparations of rHA1-phage conjugate and only rHA1 proteins were evaluated in mouse model through assessing serology, cytokine profiling, clinical signs, gross and histopathological changes, immunohistochemistry, and virus quantification. Immunization of vaccine preparations have stimulated moderate antibody response (ELISA titres-5760 ± 640 and 11,520 ± 1280 for rHA1 and rHA1-phage, respectively at 42 dpi) and elicited strong interferon (IFN)-γ expression levels after three immunizations of vaccine candidates. The immunized BALB/c mice were protected against challenge with wild EIV and resulted in reduced clinical signs and body weight loss, reduced pathological changes, decreased EIV antigen distribution, and restricted EIV replication in lungs and nasopharynx. In conclusion, the immune responses with moderate antibody titer and significantly higher cytokine responses generated by the rHA1-phage vaccine preparation without any adjuvant could be a novel vaccine candidate for quick vaccine preparation through further trials of vaccine in the natural host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramesh Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, LUVAS, Hisar, Haryana, 125004, India
| | | | - Taruna Anand
- ICAR- National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, Haryana, 125 001, India
| | - Selvaraj Pavulraj
- Louisiana State University School of Veterinary Medicine, Skip Bertman Dr, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803, USA
| | - Manu Kurian Mathew
- ICAR- National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, Haryana, 125 001, India
| | - R P Gupta
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, LUVAS, Hisar, Haryana, 125004, India
| | | | - Nitin Virmani
- ICAR- National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar, Haryana, 125 001, India.
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Kleij L, Bruder E, Raoux-Barbot D, Lejal N, Nevers Q, Deloizy C, Da Costa B, Legrand L, Barrey E, Chenal A, Pronost S, Delmas B, Dhorne-Pollet S. Genomic characterization of equine influenza A subtype H3N8 viruses by long read sequencing and functional analyses of the PB1-F2 virulence factor of A/equine/Paris/1/2018. Vet Res 2024; 55:36. [PMID: 38520035 PMCID: PMC10960481 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-024-01289-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) remains a threat to horses, despite the availability of vaccines. Strategies to monitor the virus and prevent potential vaccine failure revolve around serological assays, RT-qPCR amplification, and sequencing the viral hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes. These approaches overlook the contribution of other viral proteins in driving virulence. This study assesses the potential of long-read nanopore sequencing for fast and precise sequencing of circulating equine influenza viruses. Therefore, two French Florida Clade 1 strains, including the one circulating in winter 2018-2019 exhibiting more pronounced pathogenicity than usual, as well as the two currently OIE-recommended vaccine strains, were sequenced. Our results demonstrated the reliability of this sequencing method in generating accurate sequences. Sequence analysis of HA revealed a subtle antigenic drift in the French EIV strains, with specific substitutions, such as T163I in A/equine/Paris/1/2018 and the N188T mutation in post-2015 strains; both substitutions were in antigenic site B. Antigenic site E exhibited modifications in post-2018 strains, with the N63D substitution. Segment 2 sequencing also revealed that the A/equine/Paris/1/2018 strain encodes a longer variant of the PB1-F2 protein when compared to other Florida clade 1 strains (90 amino acids long versus 81 amino acids long). Further biological and biochemistry assays demonstrated that this PB1-F2 variant has enhanced abilities to abolish the mitochondrial membrane potential ΔΨm and permeabilize synthetic membranes. Altogether, our results highlight the interest in rapidly characterizing the complete genome of circulating strains with next-generation sequencing technologies to adapt vaccines and identify specific virulence markers of EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Kleij
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Elise Bruder
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Dorothée Raoux-Barbot
- CNRS UMR 3528, Biochemistry of Macromolecular Interactions Unit, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Lejal
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Quentin Nevers
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Charlotte Deloizy
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Bruno Da Costa
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Loïc Legrand
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, 14280, Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, 14000, Caen, France
| | - Eric Barrey
- AgroParisTech, Unité de Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Alexandre Chenal
- CNRS UMR 3528, Biochemistry of Macromolecular Interactions Unit, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO Frank Duncombe, 14280, Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie Univ, UNICAEN, 14000, Caen, France
| | - Bernard Delmas
- Unité de Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRAE, UVSQ, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France.
| | - Sophie Dhorne-Pollet
- AgroParisTech, Unité de Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350, Jouy-en-Josas, France
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Ricci I, Tofani S, Lelli D, Vincifori G, Rosone F, Carvelli A, Diaconu EL, La Rocca D, Manna G, Sabatini S, Costantini D, Conti R, Pacchiarotti G, Scicluna MT. First Reported Circulation of Equine Influenza H3N8 Florida Clade 1 Virus in Horses in Italy. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:598. [PMID: 38396566 PMCID: PMC10886299 DOI: 10.3390/ani14040598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious viral disease of equids characterized by pyrexia and respiratory signs. Like other influenza A viruses, antigenic drift or shift could lead to a vaccine-induced immunity breakdown if vaccine strains are not updated. The aim of this study was to genetically characterize EIV strains circulating in Italy, detected in PCR-positive samples collected from suspected cases, especially in the absence of formal active surveillance. METHODS Between February and April 2019, blood samples and nasal swabs collected from each of the 20 symptomatic horses from North and Central Italy were submitted to the National Reference Centre for Equine Diseases in Italy to confirm preliminary analysis performed by other laboratories. RESULTS None of the sera analysed using haemagglutination inhibition and single radial haemolysis presented a predominant serological reactivity pattern for any antigen employed. All nasal swabs were positive with IAV RRT-PCR. Only one strain, isolated in an embryonated chicken egg from a sample collected from a horse of a stable located in Brescia, Lombardy, was identified as H3N8 Florida lineage clade 1 (FC1). In the constructed phylogenetic trees, this strain is located within the FC1, together with the virus isolated in France in 2018 (MK501761). CONCLUSIONS This study reports the first detection of H3N8 FC1 in Italy, highlighting the importance of monitoring circulating EIV strains to verify the vaccine composition appropriateness for maximum efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida Ricci
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Silvia Tofani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Davide Lelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell’Emilia Romagna “Bruno Ubertini”, Via Bianchi, 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy;
| | - Giacomo Vincifori
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale”, Campo Boario, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Francesca Rosone
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Andrea Carvelli
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Elena Lavinia Diaconu
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Davide La Rocca
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Giuseppe Manna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Samanta Sabatini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Donatella Costantini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Raffaella Conti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Giulia Pacchiarotti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
| | - Maria Teresa Scicluna
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Lazio e della Toscana “M. Aleandri”, Via Appia Nuova 1411, 00178 Rome, Italy; (I.R.); (F.R.); (A.C.); (E.L.D.); (D.L.R.); (G.M.); (S.S.); (D.C.); (R.C.); (G.P.); (M.T.S.)
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Elliott S, Olufemi OT, Daly JM. Systematic Review of Equine Influenza A Virus Vaccine Studies and Meta-Analysis of Vaccine Efficacy. Viruses 2023; 15:2337. [PMID: 38140577 PMCID: PMC10747572 DOI: 10.3390/v15122337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Vaccines against equine influenza have been available since the late 1960s, but outbreaks continue to occur periodically, affecting both vaccinated and unvaccinated animals. The aim of this study was to systematically evaluate the efficacy of vaccines against influenza A virus in horses (equine IAV). For this, PubMed, CAB abstracts, and Web of Science were searched for controlled trials of equine IAV vaccines published up to December 2020. Forty-three articles reporting equine IAV vaccination and challenge studies in previously naïve equids using an appropriate comparison group were included in a qualitative analysis of vaccine efficacy. A value for vaccine efficacy (VE) was calculated as the percentage reduction in nasopharyngeal virus shedding detected by virus isolation in embryonated hens' eggs from 38 articles. Among 21 studies involving commercial vaccines, the mean VE was 50.03% (95% CI: 23.35-76.71%), ranging from 0 to 100%. Among 17 studies reporting the use of experimental vaccines, the mean VE was 40.37% (95% CI: 19.64-62.44), and the range was again 0-100%. Overall, complete protection from virus shedding was achieved in five studies. In conclusion, although commercially available vaccines can, in some circumstances, offer complete protection from infection, the requirement for frequent vaccination in the field to limit virus shedding and hence transmission is apparent. Although most studies were conducted by a few centres, a lack of consistent study design made comparisons difficult.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Janet M. Daly
- One Virology, Wolfson Centre for Global Virus Research, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington LE12 5RD, UK
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Wasik BR, Rothschild E, Voorhees IEH, Reedy SE, Murcia PR, Pusterla N, Chambers TM, Goodman LB, Holmes EC, Kile JC, Parrish CR. Understanding the divergent evolution and epidemiology of H3N8 influenza viruses in dogs and horses. Virus Evol 2023; 9:vead052. [PMID: 37692894 PMCID: PMC10484056 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vead052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cross-species virus transmission events can lead to dire public health emergencies in the form of epidemics and pandemics. One example in animals is the emergence of the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), first isolated in 1963 in Miami, FL, USA, after emerging among horses in South America. In the early 21st century, the American lineage of EIV diverged into two 'Florida' clades that persist today, while an EIV transferred to dogs around 1999 and gave rise to the H3N8 canine influenza virus (CIV), first reported in 2004. Here, we compare CIV in dogs and EIV in horses to reveal their host-specific evolution, to determine the sources and connections between significant outbreaks, and to gain insight into the factors controlling their different evolutionary fates. H3N8 CIV only circulated in North America, was geographically restricted after the first few years, and went extinct in 2016. Of the two EIV Florida clades, clade 1 circulates widely and shows frequent transfers between the USA and South America, Europe and elsewhere, while clade 2 was globally distributed early after it emerged, but since about 2018 has only been detected in Central Asia. Any potential zoonotic threat of these viruses to humans can only be determined with an understanding of its natural history and evolution. Our comparative analysis of these three viral lineages reveals distinct patterns and rates of sequence variation yet with similar overall evolution between clades, suggesting epidemiological intervention strategies for possible eradication of H3N8 EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian R Wasik
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Evin Rothschild
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ian E H Voorhees
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Stephanie E Reedy
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Pablo R Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G61 1QH, Scotland
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Thomas M Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA
| | - Laura B Goodman
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Public and Ecosystems Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Edward C Holmes
- Sydney Institute for Infectious Diseases, School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - James C Kile
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Colin R Parrish
- Baker Institute for Animal Health, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Pellegrini F, Buonavoglia A, Omar AH, Diakoudi G, Lucente MS, Odigie AE, Sposato A, Augelli R, Camero M, Decaro N, Elia G, Bányai K, Martella V, Lanave G. A Cold Case of Equine Influenza Disentangled with Nanopore Sequencing. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071153. [PMID: 37048408 PMCID: PMC10093709 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive sequencing techniques have allowed us to develop straightforward approaches for the whole genome sequencing of viruses, including influenza viruses, generating information that is useful for improving the levels and dimensions of data analysis, even for archival samples. Using the Nanopore platform, we determined the whole genome sequence of an H3N8 equine influenza virus, identified from a 2005 outbreak in Apulia, Italy, whose origin had remained epidemiologically unexplained. The virus was tightly related (>99% at the nucleotide level) in all the genome segments to viruses identified in Poland in 2005–2008 and it was seemingly introduced locally with horse trading for the meat industry. In the phylogenetic analysis based on the eight genome segments, strain ITA/2005/horse/Bari was found to cluster with sub-lineage Florida 2 in the HA and M genes, whilst in the other genes it clustered with strains of the Eurasian lineage, revealing a multi-reassortant nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Pellegrini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Alessio Buonavoglia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Ahmed H. Omar
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Georgia Diakoudi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Maria S. Lucente
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Amienwanlen E. Odigie
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Alessio Sposato
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | | | - Michele Camero
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Nicola Decaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Gabriella Elia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
| | - Krisztián Bányai
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute, 1143 Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1400 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Vito Martella
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Gianvito Lanave
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, 70010 Valenzano, Italy (G.L.)
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Whitlock F, Grewar J, Newton R. An epidemiological overview of the equine influenza epidemic in Great Britain during 2019. Equine Vet J 2023; 55:153-164. [PMID: 36054725 PMCID: PMC10087154 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During 2019, an epidemic of equine influenza (EI) occurred in Europe. OBJECTIVES To describe the epidemiology of the 2019 EI epidemic within Great Britain (GB). STUDY DESIGN Retrospective descriptive study of laboratory confirmed EI cases. METHODS Epidemiological data were obtained from veterinary surgeons referring samples for EI virus testing. Where available, data on confirmed cases and their wider resident population on EI-infected premises were collated and described. On a national level, spatial and temporal representations, consisting of choropleth maps and epidemic curves, described the spread of EI. EI-infected premises-level factors associated with the first of two epidemic phases were investigated using ordinary logistic regression analysis. RESULTS There were 412 confirmed cases and 234 EI-infected premises, with the first of two epidemic phases occurring between January and April, followed by a second phase through to August. The median age of confirmed cases was 5 years and Sports horses (24%) and Cobs (16%) made up the highest proportions by general horse type and breed. Among confirmed cases 72% were unvaccinated and 18% were vaccinated against EI. New horses arriving within 2 weeks of a confirmed case were reported by 42% of EI-infected premises. Investigation of EI-infected premises biosecurity measures indicated that 23% quarantined new arrivals, 37% had isolation facilities and 57% of resident horses were vaccinated. EI-infected premises were more likely in the first than second epidemic phase to be classified as professional, have a vaccinated confirmed case and EI confirmed in a newly arrived animal. MAIN LIMITATIONS Data were collected at a single time point for each EI-infected premises with no follow ups performed. CONCLUSIONS During 2019, EI-infected premises generally had low levels of population vaccine coverage and implemented limited preventive biosecurity measures, particularly linked to horse movements. Without substantial improvements in infectious disease prevention and control, the GB equine population remains at risk of future EI epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Richard Newton
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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8
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Seroprevalence of Equine Influenza and Its Associated Risk Factors in Northwest Nigeria. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11111372. [PMID: 36422623 PMCID: PMC9699259 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11111372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is a fast-spreading respiratory disease of equids caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV), often resulting in high morbidity and a huge economic impact on the equine industry globally. In this cross-sectional study to determine the seroprevalence of EI and its associated risk factors, sera from 830 horses bled on a single occasion in Northwest Nigeria between October 2019 and January 2020 were screened for antibodies to A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 (H3N8) using the single radial haemolysis (SRH) assay. Antibodies were detected in 71.3% (592/830, 95% CI: 68−74%) of horses (SRH area ≥ 0.5 mm2). Although there were statistically significant univariable associations between seropositivity and age, sex, breed, purpose and coat colour, only age remained significant when included with each of the other variables in bivariable analyses. There was a clear trend for increasing odds of seropositivity with increasing age: OR 1.6, 95% CI: 1.05−2.40 (p = 0.03) for 5−14-year-olds and OR 8.13, 95% CI: 2.75−24.1 (p < 0.001) for ≥15-year-olds compared to horses <5 years old. The mean SRH value was 78.2 mm2 (median = 88 mm2, interquartile range = 0−121 mm2) with only 9% of the horses having an SRH value > 150 mm2, considered sufficient to protect against clinical disease and virus shedding. Comparative screening of a subset of the horses (n = 118) with a 2019 H3N8 virus (A/equine/Worcestershire/2019) revealed a significantly greater seropositivity (p = 0.0001) than A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 consistent with exposure of the population during a widespread outbreak of EI in the region in 2019. In conclusion, there was an insufficient level of protection against EI in the region and introduction of a vaccination programme with vaccines containing recently circulating virus is recommended to mitigate against further outbreaks of EI in Nigeria.
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Ahmed BM, Bayoumi MM, Farrag MA, Elgamal MA, Daly JM, Amer HM. Emergence of equine influenza virus H3Nx Florida clade 2 in Arabian racehorses in Egypt. Virol J 2022; 19:185. [PMID: 36371185 PMCID: PMC9652821 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-022-01917-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equine influenza is an important cause of respiratory disease in equids. The causative virus; EIV, is highly variable and can evolve by accumulation of mutations, particularly in the haemagglutinin (HA) gene. Currently, H3N8 is the sole subtype circulating worldwide with Florida clade 1 (FC1) is most prevalent in the Americas and FC2 in Asia and Europe. In Egypt, EIV was detected in two occasions: subtype H7N7 in 1989 and subtype H3N8 (FC1) in 2008. No data is available on the circulation pattern of EIV during the last decade despite frequent observation of suspected cases.
Methods Twenty-two nasal swabs were collected from vaccinated and non-vaccinated horses showing respiratory signs suggestive of EIV infection in 2017–18. Three additional swabs were retrieved during a national race event in January 2018 from Arabian mares with high fever, gait stiffness and dry cough. Samples were screened by RT-qPCR and HA1 domain of the hemagglutinin gene was amplified and sequenced for sequence and phylogenetic analysis. Results RT-qPCR screening revealed that only the 3 samples from the race were positive with cycle thresholds ranging from 16 to 21 indicating high viral load. Isolation attempts in hen’s eggs were unsuccessful. Sequence analysis of the HA1 domain gene has revealed two identical nucleotide sequences, while the third contained 3 synonymous mutations. Phylogenetic analysis clustered study sequences with recent FC2 sequences from Europe. Amino acid alignments revealed 14 and 13 amino acid differences in the study sequences compared to A/equine/Egypt/6066NANRU-VSVRI/08 (H3N8) and A/equine/Kentucky/1997 (H3N8), respectively, available as EIV vaccines in Egypt. Nine amino acids were different from A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 (H3N8), the recommended FC2 vaccine strain by the world organization of animal health expert surveillance panel (OIE-ESP), two of which were unique to the Egyptian sequences while the remaining 7 changes were shared with the FC2-144V subgroup detected in the United Kingdom from late 2015 to 2016. Conclusions The study represents the first reported detection of FC2-144V related EIV from Arabian mares in Egypt, and probably from the entire middle east region. The presented information about EIV epidemiology and spread may require reconsideration of the vaccine strains used in the national vaccination programs. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12985-022-01917-9.
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Alaql FA, Alhafufi AN, Kasem S, Alhammad YMO, Albaqshi H, Alyousaf A, Alsubaie FM, Alghamdi AN, Abdel-Moneim AS, Alharbi SA. Full-Length Genome of the Equine Influenza A Virus Subtype H3N8 from 2019 Outbreak in Saudi Arabia. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12192720. [PMID: 36230462 PMCID: PMC9558945 DOI: 10.3390/ani12192720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Equine influenza is a highly contagious respiratory viral disease. The current study is the first to provide a description of the full-length genome sequence and surveillance of recent exposure to the equine influenza virus (EIV) during the 2019 epidemic in Saudi Arabia. This epidemic was benign, since it resulted in low case fatality (0.45%, 1/224). The viruses detected in the current study were found to be related to subtype H73N8 clade 1 of the Florida sublineage. Full-length genome sequencing revealed no evidence of major genetic changes or of reassortment among the eight segments of the viral genome. However, the Saudi strains showed a considerable number of amino acid substitutions in the signal peptide (2 amino acid substitutions), HA1 (10 amino acid substitutions) and HA2 (4 amino acid substitutions) in the haemagglutinin glycoprotein in comparison to clade 1 Florida sublineage vaccinal strains. These findings should be considered during selection of the equine influenza vaccine strains approved for use in Saudi Arabia. Abstract Equine influenza is a major cause of respiratory infections in horses and can spread rapidly despite the availability of commercial vaccines. This study aimed to screen the incidence of equine influenza virus (EIV) and molecularly characterize the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase from positive EIV field samples collected from Saudi Arabia. Six-hundred twenty-one horses from 57 horse barns were screened for the presence of the clinical signs, suggestive for equine influenza, from different parts of Saudi Arabia. Nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from each horse showing respiratory distress. Samples from the same horse barn were pooled together and screened for the presence of the influenza A virus using quantitative real time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Selective positive samples were subjected to full-length genome sequencing using MiSeq Illumina. Out of the total 57 pools, 39 were found positive to EIV using qRT-PCR. Full-length gene sequences were compared with representative EIV strains selected from the GenBank database. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA and NA genes revealed that the identified virus strains belong to H3N8 clade 1 of the Florida sublineage and were very similar to viruses identified in USA in 2019, with no current evidence for reassortment. This is one of the first reports providing detailed description and characterization of EIVs in Saudi Arabia. Detailed surveillance and genetic information sharing could allow genetic evolution of equine influenza viruses to be monitored more effectively on a global basis and aid in refinement of vaccine strain selection for EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanan A. Alaql
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
- Botany & Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 12372, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali N. Alhafufi
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
| | - Samy Kasem
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, El Geish Street, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
- Correspondence: (S.K.); (A.S.A.-M.)
| | - Yousef M. O. Alhammad
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
| | - Hassan Albaqshi
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
| | - Ameen Alyousaf
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
| | - Faisal M. Alsubaie
- Virology and Genome Department in Central Veterinary Laboratory (CVL), Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture (MEWA), P.O. Box 15831, Riyadh 11454, Saudi Arabi
| | - Ahmed N. Alghamdi
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed S. Abdel-Moneim
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Taif University, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (S.K.); (A.S.A.-M.)
| | - Sulaiman A. Alharbi
- Botany & Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 12372, Saudi Arabia
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Kareche H, Daly JM, Laabassi F. Epidemiology of equine influenza in the Maghreb area. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 89:101868. [PMID: 36087448 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2022.101868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is one of the most contagious respiratory infections in horses, donkeys and mules, caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV). It remains a disease with a strong economic stake for the equine industry. This review focuses on the epidemiological situation of EIV in the Maghreb area, which includes Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. There is serological evidence for extensive circulation of EIV in the Maghreb area since the early 1970s, but reports of detailed investigation of outbreaks are scarce with no documented isolation or molecular characterization of EIV from Tunisia. Isolates of EIV were obtained from outbreaks in Algeria in 1971/1972 and 2011. Similarly, in Morocco, isolates were obtained from outbreaks in 1997 and 2004. The viruses isolated in 2004 showed evidence of 'evolutionary stasis', with haemagglutinin and non-structural protein 1 sequences most similar to those of viruses isolated decades earlier. In conclusion, effective surveillance of equids in the Maghreb region, where there is potential for virus re-emergence, should be encouraged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadda Kareche
- ESPA Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Sciences and Agronomic Sciences, University of Batna1-El-Hadj Lakhdar, 05000 Batna, Algeria.
| | - Janet M Daly
- One Virology, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science and Wolfson Centre for Global Virus Research, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Farouk Laabassi
- ESPA Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Sciences and Agronomic Sciences, University of Batna1-El-Hadj Lakhdar, 05000 Batna, Algeria
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Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061312. [PMID: 35746783 PMCID: PMC9229935 DOI: 10.3390/v14061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have a main natural reservoir in wild birds. IAVs are highly contagious, continually evolve, and have a wide host range that includes various mammalian species including horses, pigs, and humans. Furthering our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and cross-species transmissions is therefore essential. This review focuses on what is known regarding equine influenza virus (EIV) virology, pathogenesis, immune responses, clinical aspects, epidemiology (including factors contributing to local, national, and international transmission), surveillance, and preventive measures such as vaccines. We compare EIV and human influenza viruses and discuss parallels that can be drawn between them. We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. Finally, as vaccination in both species remains the cornerstone of disease mitigation, vaccine technologies and vaccination strategies against influenza in horses and humans are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
- Correspondence:
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13
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El-Hage C, Hartley C, Savage C, Watson J, Gilkerson J, Paillot R. Assessment of Humoral and Long-Term Cell-Mediated Immune Responses to Recombinant Canarypox-Vectored Equine Influenza Virus Vaccination in Horses Using Conventional and Accelerated Regimens Respectively. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10060855. [PMID: 35746463 PMCID: PMC9229645 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10060855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
During Australia's first and only outbreak of equine influenza (EI), which was restricted to two northeastern states, horses were strategically vaccinated with a recombinant canarypox-vectored vaccine (rCP-EIV; ProteqFlu™, Merial P/L). The vaccine encoded for haemagglutinin (HA) belonging to two equine influenza viruses (EIVs), including an American and Eurasian lineage subtype that predated the EIV responsible for the outbreak (A/equine/Sydney/07). Racehorses in Victoria (a southern state that remained free of EI) were vaccinated prophylactically. Although the vaccine encoded for (HA) belonged to two EIVs of distinct strains of the field virus, clinical protection was reported in vaccinated horses. Our aim is to assess the extent of humoral immunity in one group of vaccinated horses and interferon-gamma ((EIV)-IFN-γ)) production in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of a second population of vaccinated horses. Twelve racehorses at work were monitored for haemagglutination inhibition antibodies to three antigenically distinct equine influenza viruses (EIVs) The EIV antigens included two H3N8 subtypes: A/equine/Sydney/07) A/equine/Newmarket/95 (a European lineage strain) and an H7N7 subtype (A/equine/Prague1956). Cell-mediated immune responses of: seven racehorses following an accelerated vaccination schedule, two horses vaccinated using a conventional regimen, and six unvaccinated horses were evaluated by determining (EIV)-IFN-γ levels. Antibody responses following vaccination with ProteqFlu™ were cross-reactive in nature, with responses to both H3N8 EIV strains. Although (EIV)IFN-γ was clearly detected following the in vitro re-stimulation of PBMC, there was no significant difference between the different groups of horses. Results of this study support reports of clinical protection of Australian horses following vaccination with Proteq-Flu™ with objective evidence of humoral cross-reactivity to the outbreak viral strain A/equine/Sydney/07.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles El-Hage
- Centre for Equine Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (C.H.); (C.S.); (J.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-417166029
| | - Carol Hartley
- Centre for Equine Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (C.H.); (C.S.); (J.G.)
| | - Catherine Savage
- Centre for Equine Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (C.H.); (C.S.); (J.G.)
| | - James Watson
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia;
| | - James Gilkerson
- Centre for Equine Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia; (C.H.); (C.S.); (J.G.)
| | - Romain Paillot
- School of Equine and Veterinary Physiotherapy, Writtle University College, Lordship Road, Writtle, Chelmsford CM1 3RR, UK;
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Lee K, Pusterla N, Barnum SM, Lee DH, Martínez-López B. Investigation of cross-regional spread and evolution of equine influenza H3N8 at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography based on balanced subsampling. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:e1734-e1748. [PMID: 35263501 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a highly contagious pathogen of equids, and a well-known burden in global equine health. EIV H3N8 variants seasonally emerged and resulted in EIV outbreaks in the United States (US) and worldwide. The present study evaluated the pattern of cross-regional EIV H3N8 spread and evolutionary characteristics at US and global scales using Bayesian phylogeography with balanced subsampling based on regional horse population size. A total of 297 Haemagglutinin (HA) sequences of global EIV H3N8 were collected from 1963 to 2019 and subsampled to global subset (n = 67), raw US sequences (n = 100) and US subset (n = 44) datasets. Discrete trait phylogeography analysis was used to estimate the transmission history of EIV using four global and US genome datasets. The North American lineage was the major source of globally dominant EIV variants and spread to other global regions. The US EIV strains generally spread from the southern and midwestern regions to other regions. The EIV H3N8 accumulated approximately three nucleotide substitutions per year in the HA gene under heterogenous local positive selection. Our findings will guide better decision making of target intervention strategies of EIV H3N8 infection and provide the better scheme of genomic surveillance in the US and global equine health. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuyoung Lee
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Samantha M Barnum
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
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Abstract
Horses are the third major mammalian species, along with humans and swine, long known to be subject to acute upper respiratory disease from influenza A virus infection. The viruses responsible are subtype H7N7, which is believed extinct, and H3N8, which circulates worldwide. The equine influenza lineages are clearly divergent from avian influenza lineages of the same subtypes. Their genetic evolution and potential for interspecies transmission, as well as clinical features and epidemiology, are discussed. Equine influenza is spread internationally and vaccination is central to control efforts. The current mechanism of international surveillance and virus strain recommendations for vaccines is described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Science, Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40546, USA
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16
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Ohta M, Bannai H, Kambayashi Y, Tsujimura K, Tamura N, Iwamoto Y, Wakuno A, Yamayoshi S, Kawaoka Y, Nemoto M. Antibody Responses to a Reverse Genetics-Derived Bivalent Inactivated Equine Influenza Vaccine in Thoroughbred Horses. J Equine Vet Sci 2021; 109:103860. [PMID: 34973368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Updating vaccine strains is important to control equine influenza (EI). Previously, we reported that a monovalent inactivated EI vaccine derived from a virus generated by reverse genetics (RG) elicited immunogenicity in horses. In the present study, we compared antibody responses to a bivalent inactivated EI vaccine generated by RG and a commercially available bivalent inactivated EI (CO) vaccine derived from wild-type equine influenza viruses in Thoroughbred horses. The CO vaccine contained A/equine/Ibaraki/1/2007 (Florida sub-lineage clade 1) and A/equine/Yokohama/aq13/2010 (Florida sub-lineage clade 2) as vaccine strains. We generated two RG viruses possessing the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes from A/equine/Ibaraki/1/2007 or A/equine/Yokohama/aq13/2010. These viruses were inactivated by formalin, and the hemagglutinin titer of the RG vaccine was adjusted to be the same as that of the CO vaccine. Sixteen unvaccinated yearlings (7 for the RG vaccine group and 9 for the CO vaccine group) received two doses of a primary vaccination course four weeks apart. Thirty-two vaccinated adult horses (18 in the RG-vaccinated group and 14 in the CO vaccine group) received a single dose of a booster vaccination. The patterns of hemagglutination inhibition antibody response to the primary and booster vaccinations were similar for the RG and CO groups in unvaccinated yearlings and vaccinated adult horses. These results suggest that a bivalent vaccine derived from RG viruses elicits equivalent immunogenicity to that elicited by a CO vaccine derived from wild-type viruses. RG viruses can, therefore, be used in multivalent as well as monovalent vaccines for horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Ohta
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Bannai
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | | | - Koji Tsujimura
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Norihisa Tamura
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Yohei Iwamoto
- Hidaka Training and Research Center, Japan Racing Association, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Ai Wakuno
- The Horse Racing School, Japan Racing Association, Chiba, Japan
| | - Seiya Yamayoshi
- Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; The Research Center for Global Viral Diseases, National Center for Global Health and Medicine Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Kawaoka
- Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; The Research Center for Global Viral Diseases, National Center for Global Health and Medicine Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Manabu Nemoto
- Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan.
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Khan A, Mushtaq MH, Muhammad J, Ahmed B, Khan EA, Khan A, Zakki SA, Altaf E, Haq I, Saleem A, Warraich MA, Ahmed N, Rabaan AA. Global epidemiology of Equine Influenza viruses; "A possible emerging zoonotic threat in future" an extensive systematic review with evidence. BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 83:e246591. [PMID: 34468519 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.246591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
There are different opinions around the World regarding the zoonotic capability of H3N8 equine influenza viruses. In this report, we have tried to summarize the findings of different research and review articles from Chinese, English, and Mongolian Scientific Literature reporting the evidence for equine influenza virus infections in human beings. Different search engines i.e. CNKI, PubMed, ProQuest, Chongqing Database, Mongol Med, and Web of Knowledge yielded 926 articles, of which 32 articles met the inclusion criteria for this review. Analyzing the epidemiological and Phylogenetic data from these articles, we found a considerable experimental and observational evidence of H3N8 equine influenza viruses infecting human being in different parts of the World in the past. Recently published articles from Pakistan and China have highlighted the emerging threat and capability of equine influenza viruses for an epidemic in human beings in future. In this review article we have summarized the salient scientific reports published on the epidemiology of equine influenza viruses and their zoonotic aspect. Additionally, several recent developments in the start of 21st century, including the transmission and establishment of equine influenza viruses in different animal species i.e. camels and dogs, and presumed encephalopathy associated to influenza viruses in horses, have documented the unpredictable nature of equine influenza viruses. In sum up, several reports has highlighted the unpredictable nature of H3N8 EIVs highlighting the need of continuous surveillance for H3N8 in equines and humans in contact with them for novel and threatening mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Khan
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - M H Mushtaq
- The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - J Muhammad
- The University of Haripur, Department of Microbiology, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - B Ahmed
- Nanjing Medical University, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - E A Khan
- Lady Reading Hospital Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - A Khan
- Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
| | - S A Zakki
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - E Altaf
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - I Haq
- The University of Haripur, Department of Public Health & Nutrition, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - A Saleem
- The University of Haripur, Department of Microbiology, Haripur, Pakistan
| | - M A Warraich
- Marketing Rennes School of Business, Rennes, France
| | - N Ahmed
- Centre of Excellence in Molecular Biology, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - A A Rabaan
- Johns Hopkins Aramco Healthcare, Molecular Diagnostic Laboratory, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
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Alnaeem A, Shawaf T, Ali AM, Hemida MG. Clinical observations and molecular detection of Type-A influenza virus in some of the family Equidae in eastern Saudi Arabia winter-2019. Vet Res Commun 2021; 45:423-430. [PMID: 34435308 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-021-09822-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In the current study, we are investigating the viral causes of some respiratory clinical signs in some animals belongs to the family Equidae in eastern Saudi Arabia (ESA) during winter- 2019. We observed the progression of severe respiratory clinical signs among some horses, donkeys, and ponies in the ESA. Animals showed rapid respiration, fever, nasal discharges (started as serous then changed into mucopurulent with the progression of the infection per some animals). We conducted a longitudinal study to monitor the progression of this outbreak. We conducted molecular surveillance for the influenza virus Type-A using real-time PCR and regular RT-PCR. We also conducted a serosurveillance of the virus in sera of the tested animals using the commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS The molecular detection of the Influenza virus type-A virus from nasal swabs of the affected animals using the real-time PCR results clearly showing that 35.1% of the tested horses, donkeys, and ponies were positives. Further confirmation was achieved by reporting the seroconversion of some of the affected animals. Several attempts were conducted to isolate the circulating influenza strains using the embryonated chicken eggs were unsuccessful. This was based on the absence of any amplicons in the harvested embryonated egg fluids using some oligonucleotides for the common influenza virus genes (HA, NA, M, and N). Meanwhile, ELISA results revealed the detection of the antibodies in sera of horses and donkeys 72.9%. Seroconversion was reported in many animals several weeks after the onset of the outbreak. Taken together all these pieces of evidence, we confirm an influenza virus type-A outbreak among the tested animals during winter 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmohsen Alnaeem
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Turke Shawaf
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ali M Ali
- Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science, King Faisal University, Al Hofuf, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt
| | - Maged Gomaa Hemida
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahasa, Saudi Arabia. .,Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr Elsheikh, Egypt.
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19
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Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081657. [PMID: 34452521 PMCID: PMC8402878 DOI: 10.3390/v13081657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a constantly evolving viral pathogen that is responsible for yearly outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses termed equine influenza (EI). There is currently no evidence of circulation of the original H7N7 strain of EIV worldwide; however, the EIV H3N8 strain, which was first isolated in the early 1960s, remains a major threat to most of the world's horse populations. It can also infect dogs. The ability of EIV to constantly accumulate mutations in its antibody-binding sites enables it to evade host protective immunity, making it a successful viral pathogen. Clinical and virological protection against EIV is achieved by stimulation of strong cellular and humoral immunity in vaccinated horses. However, despite EI vaccine updates over the years, EIV remains relevant, because the protective effects of vaccines decay and permit subclinical infections that facilitate transmission into susceptible populations. In this review, we describe how the evolution of EIV drives repeated EI outbreaks even in horse populations with supposedly high vaccination coverage. Next, we discuss the approaches employed to develop efficacious EI vaccines for commercial use and the existing system for recommendations on updating vaccines based on available clinical and virological data to improve protective immunity in vaccinated horse populations. Understanding how EIV biology can be better harnessed to improve EI vaccines is central to controlling EI.
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Lee K, Pusterla N, Barnum SM, Lee DH, Martínez-López B. Genome-informed characterisation of antigenic drift in the haemagglutinin gene of equine influenza strains circulating in the United States from 2012 to 2017. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021; 69:e52-e63. [PMID: 34331828 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a major infectious pathogen causing significant respiratory signs in equids worldwide. Voluntary surveillances in the United States recently reported EIV detection in horses with respiratory signs even with adequate vaccine protocols and biosecurity programs and posed a concern about suboptimal effectiveness of EIV vaccine in the United States. This study aims to determine the genetic characteristics of 58 field EIV H3N8 strains in the United States from 2012 to 2017 using the phylogenetic analysis based on the haemagglutinin (HA) gene. Amino acid substitution and acquisition of N-glycosylation of the HA gene were also evaluated. Phylogenetic analysis identified that almost all US field strains belonged to the Florida clade 1 (FC1) except one Florida clade 2 strain from a horse imported in 2014. US EIV strains in 2017 shared 11 fixed amino acid substitutions in the HA gene, compared to the vaccine strain (A/equine/Ohio/2003), and two additional amino acid substitutions were detected in 2019. The introduction of foreign EIV strains into the United States was not detected, but antigenic drift without acquisition of N-glycosylation in the HA gene was observed in US field strains until 2017. Considering the global dominance of FC1 strains, subsequent antigenic drift of US EIV strains should be monitored for better effectiveness of the EIV vaccine in the United States and global equine industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyuyoung Lee
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Nicola Pusterla
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Samantha M Barnum
- Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, the University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Beatriz Martínez-López
- Center for Animal Disease Modeling and Surveillance (CADMS), Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
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21
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Abstract
Influenza is an extremely contagious respiratory disease, which predominantly affects the upper respiratory tract. There are four types of influenza virus, and pigs and chickens are considered two key reservoirs of this virus. Equine influenza (EI) virus was first identified in horses in 1956, in Prague. The influenza A viruses responsible for EI are H7N7 and H3N8. Outbreaks of EI are characterized by their visible and rapid spread, and it has been possible to isolate and characterize H3N8 outbreaks in several countries. The clinical diagnosis of this disease is based on the clinical signs presented by the infected animals, which can be confirmed by performing complementary diagnostic tests. In the diagnosis of EI, in the field, rapid antigen detection tests can be used for a first approach. Treatment is based on the management of the disease and rest for the animal. Regarding the prognosis, it will depend on several factors, such as the animal's vaccination status. One of the important points in this disease is its prevention, which can be done through vaccination. In addition to decreasing the severity of clinical signs and morbidity during outbreaks, vaccination ensures immunity for the animals, reducing the economic impact of this disease.
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Zhang P, Sun Y, Tan C, Ling M, Li X, Wang W, Cong Y. Preparation and evaluation of virus-like particle vaccine against H3N8 subtype equine influenza. Microb Pathog 2021; 157:104885. [PMID: 33991641 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.104885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
To prevent and control H3N8 subtype equine influenza, we prepared virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising the HA, NA and M1 proteins of H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV) through the insect cell-baculovirus expression system. The results of Western blot and hemagglutination analyses demonstrated that the constructed VLPs comprising HA, NA and M1 proteins have good hemagglutination activity. Immunoelectron microscope revealed that the VLPs share similar morphology and structure with natural virus particles. The hyperimmune serum from horses immunized with the VLPs were injected into mice by means of artificial passive immunization and then challenge, or challenge following by injecting hyperimmune serum. The results showed that the equine hyperimmune serum has good preventive and therapeutic efficacy against the infection of H3N8 EIV. The study provides a technical foundation for the development of H3N8 EIV VLP vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengju Zhang
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130033, China
| | - Yixue Sun
- Jilin Research & Development Center of Biomedical Engineering, Changchun University, Changchun, 130022, China
| | - Chengcheng Tan
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130033, China
| | - Mengmeng Ling
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Xintao Li
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130033, China
| | - Weixia Wang
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, 130033, China.
| | - Yanlong Cong
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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An Evaluation of Three Different Primary Equine Influenza Vaccination Intervals in Foals. J Equine Vet Sci 2021; 99:103397. [PMID: 33781435 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In order to evaluate the effect of three different primary vaccination intervals on EI vaccine response, 21 unvaccinated thoroughbred foals were randomly divided into three groups of 7 and vaccinated with three different intervals of primary immunization (i.e., with 1, 2 or 3 months intervals between V1 and V2, respectively). The antibody response was measured for up to 1 year after the third immunization V3 (administered 6 months after V2) by single radial hemolysis (SRH) assay. All weanlings had seroconverted and exceeded the clinical protection threshold 2 weeks after V2 and 1 month after V3 until the end of the study. Significant differences were measured at the peak of immunity after V2 and for the duration of the immunity gap between V2 and V3. The group with one month primary vaccination interval had a lower immunity peak after V2 (158.05 ± 6.63 mm2) and a wider immunity gap between V2 and V3 (18 weeks) when compared with other groups (i.e., 174.72 ± 6.86 mm2 and 16 weeks for a two months interval, 221.45 ± 14.48 mm2 and 12 weeks for a 3-month interval). The advantage observed in the group with 1 month primary vaccination interval, which induces an earlier protective immunity, is counterbalance with a lower peak of immunity and a wider immunity gap after V2, when compared with foals vaccinated with 2- and 3-month intervals.
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Ohta M, Bannai H, Kambayashi Y, Tamura N, Tsujimura K, Yamayoshi S, Kawaoka Y, Nemoto M. Growth properties and immunogenicity of a virus generated by reverse genetics for an inactivated equine influenza vaccine. Equine Vet J 2021; 54:139-144. [PMID: 33527477 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Keeping vaccine strains up to date is the key to controlling equine influenza (EI). Viruses generated by reverse genetics (RG) are likely to be effective for quickly updating a vaccine strain. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the growth properties of an RG virus in embryonated chicken eggs, and to evaluate antibody responses to a formalin-inactivated vaccine derived from the RG virus in Thoroughbred horses. STUDY DESIGN In vitro and in vivo experiments. METHODS Wild-type (WT) viruses (A/equine/Ibaraki/1/2007) or RG viruses (consisting of haemagglutinin [HA] and neuraminidase genes derived from A/equine/Ibaraki/1/2007 and the six other genes derived from high-growth A/Puerto Rico/8/34) were inoculated into embryonated chicken eggs, and the allantoic fluids were harvested at every 24 hours after inoculation. WT and RG viruses were inactivated by formalin for vaccine use. Ten unvaccinated yearlings (five each for WT or RG vaccine) received the first two doses of a primary vaccination course 4 weeks apart followed by their third dose 12 weeks later. Twenty vaccinated adult horses (10 each for WT or RG vaccine) received a single dose of a booster vaccination. RESULTS The RG virus had high growth properties in embryonated chicken eggs. Unvaccinated yearlings responded poorly to the first vaccination, especially those that received the RG vaccine, but mounted better responses to the second and the third vaccinations, and maintained relatively high haemagglutination inhibition (HI) titres up to 28 weeks after the first vaccination. Vaccinated adult horses did not respond remarkably to the booster vaccination, but no horses showed titres below their pre-booster values even at 12 weeks after vaccination. The RG virus elicited immunogenicity in horses adequate for vaccine use. MAIN LIMITATIONS No virus challenge study was performed. CONCLUSIONS The RG viruses are useful as an EI vaccine strain, and quick updates of an EI vaccine strain can be achieved by using RG techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Ohta
- Molecular Biology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Bannai
- Molecular Biology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Kambayashi
- Molecular Biology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Norihisa Tamura
- Clinical Veterinary Medicine Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Koji Tsujimura
- Molecular Biology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
| | - Seiya Yamayoshi
- Division of Virology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Kawaoka
- Division of Virology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Manabu Nemoto
- Molecular Biology Division, Equine Research Institute, Japan Racing Association, Tochigi, Japan
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Retrospective serological survey for influenza in horses from Brazil. Braz J Microbiol 2020; 52:461-466. [PMID: 33175343 PMCID: PMC7656090 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-020-00398-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) virus is one of the most economically important pathogens of respiratory diseases of horses worldwide. Despite availability of vaccines for control of EI, the highly contagious nature and variability properties of the virus mean global outbreaks occur. Thus, continuous surveillance programs, including seroprevalence studies of disease in different countries, may contribute to better control of the disease. In this study, the seroprevalence of equine influenza in 850 horses from Brazil was investigated. The serodiagnosis was based on the single radial hemolysis (SRH) assay using influenza A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 (H3N8) antigen. Antibodies against A/equine/Richmond/1/07 (H3N8) were detected in 44.7% (380/850, 95% CI: 41.4-48.1%) of horses. Seroprevalence was significantly lower (p = 0.001) in younger animals (< 5 years, 38.6%) than in "adult" animals (5-14 years, 52.1%). There was also a significant relationship between the year of sampling and seroprevalence (p < 0.0005). The mean SRH antibody value was 42.0 mm2 (range 4-238.9 mm2), with the majority of horses (95.3%) having an SRH value ≤ 150 mm2, which is considered an insufficient level for protection of equine hosts against influenza infections and potential virus shedding. These findings indicate the need to reinforce preventive/control measures against equine influenza in Brazil.
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26
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Diallo AA, Souley MM, Issa Ibrahim A, Alassane A, Issa R, Gagara H, Yaou B, Issiakou A, Diop M, Ba Diouf RO, Lo FT, Lo MM, Bakhoum T, Sylla M, Seck MT, Meseko C, Shittu I, Cullinane A, Settypalli TBK, Lamien CE, Dundon WG, Cattoli G. Transboundary spread of equine influenza viruses (H3N8) in West and Central Africa: Molecular characterization of identified viruses during outbreaks in Niger and Senegal, in 2019. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 68:1253-1262. [PMID: 32770642 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Since November 2018, several countries in West and Central Africa have reported mortalities in donkeys and horses. Specifically, more than 66,000 horses and donkeys have succumbed to disease in Burkina Faso, Chad, Cameroon, The Gambia, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal. Strangles caused by Streptococcus equi subsp equi, African Horse Sickness (AHS) virus, and Equine influenza virus (EIV) were all suspected as potential causative agents. This study reports the identification of EIV in field samples collected in Niger and Senegal. Phylogenetic analysis of the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes revealed that the identified viruses belonged to clade 1 of the Florida sublineage and were very similar to viruses identified in Nigeria in 2019. Interestingly, they were also more similar to EIVs from recent outbreaks in South America than to those in Europe and the USA. This is one of the first reports providing detailed description and characterization of EIVs in West and Central Africa region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alpha Amadou Diallo
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | | | | | - Abdou Alassane
- Laboratoire Central de l'Elevage (LABOCEL), Niamey, Niger
| | - Rahila Issa
- Laboratoire Central de l'Elevage (LABOCEL), Niamey, Niger
| | - Haladou Gagara
- Laboratoire Central de l'Elevage (LABOCEL), Niamey, Niger
| | - Bachir Yaou
- Laboratoire Central de l'Elevage (LABOCEL), Niamey, Niger
| | - Abdou Issiakou
- Direction Générale des Services Vétérinaires du Niger, Niamey, Niger
| | - Mariame Diop
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Racky Oumar Ba Diouf
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Fatou Tall Lo
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Modou Moustapha Lo
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Thierno Bakhoum
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Mamadou Sylla
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal.,Direction du Développement des Equidés, MEPA, Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Momar Talla Seck
- Laboratoire National de l'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires ISRA/LNERV(LNERV), Dakar, Sénégal
| | - Clement Meseko
- National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Ismaila Shittu
- National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Plateau State, Nigeria
| | - Ann Cullinane
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Equine influenza, Irish Equine Centre, Kildare, Ireland
| | - Tirumala B K Settypalli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Charles E Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - William G Dundon
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giovanni Cattoli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria
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27
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Fatal multiple outbreaks of equine influenza H3N8 in Nigeria, 2019: The first introduction of Florida clade 1 to West Africa. Vet Microbiol 2020; 248:108820. [PMID: 32891950 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In December 2018, suspected outbreaks of equine influenza (EI) were observed in donkeys in Sokoto State, in the extreme northwest of Nigeria bordering the Republic of the Niger. Equine influenza virus (EIV) subtype H3N8 was the etiologic agent identified in the outbreaks using real-time RT-qPCR and sequencing of both the partial haemagglutinin (HA) gene and the complete genome. Since then the H3N8 virus spread to 7 of the 19 northern states of Nigeria, where it affected both donkeys and horses. Phylogenetic analysis of the partial and complete HA gene revealed the closest nucleotide similarity (99.7%) with EIVs belonging to the Florida clade 1 (Fc-1) of the American lineage isolated in 2018 from Argentina and Chile. In total, 80 amino acid substitutions were observed in the viral proteins when compared to the OIE-recommended Fc-1 vaccine strains. The HA and neuraminidase proteins respectively had 13 and 16 amino acid substitutions. This study represents the first reported outbreak of EI caused by an Fc-1 virus in Nigeria and in the West Africa sub-region. Based on this report, extensive disease surveillance in equids is required to establish the circulating lineages and design an effective control strategy to protect the considerable population of horses and donkeys in the country.
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28
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Olguin-Perglione C, Vissani MA, Alamos F, Tordoya MS, Barrandeguy M. Multifocal outbreak of equine influenza in vaccinated horses in Argentina in 2018: Epidemiological aspects and molecular characterisation of the involved virus strains. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:420-427. [PMID: 31494962 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza is an important cause of respiratory disease of horses worldwide. The equine influenza virus (EIV) undergoes antigenic drift through the accumulation of amino acid substitutions in the viral proteins, which may lead to vaccine breakdown. OBJECTIVES To describe the epidemiological findings and the molecular characteristics of the EIV detected during the multifocal outbreak that occurred in Argentina between March and July 2018 and evidence a vaccine breakdown. STUDY DESIGN Observational, descriptive study. METHODS Virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs using real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes were obtained from EIV positive nasopharyngeal swabs, and phylogenetic analysis was undertaken. Amino acid sequences were compared against the current World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)-recommended Florida clade 1 vaccine strain and strain components of vaccines used in Argentina. Serum samples were tested using haemagglutination inhibition test. RESULTS Equine influenza virus infection was confirmed using real-time RT-PCR and serological testing. The phylogenetic analysis of the HA and NA genes revealed that all the EIV identified during the outbreak belong to the H3N8 subtype, Florida clade 1. Multiple amino acid changes, some of them at antigenic sites, were observed in the circulating virus when compared with the strains included in the most commonly used vaccine in Argentina. Seventy-six percent of the affected horses had been vaccinated with this vaccine, suggesting the occurrence of vaccine breakdown. MAIN LIMITATIONS The study does not include antigenic characterisation and full genome sequencing of Argentinian strains, that could provide additional information. CONCLUSIONS The occurrence of this multifocal equine influenza outbreak in regularly vaccinated horses is a field evidence of vaccine breakdown, reinforcing the necessity of keeping vaccine strains updated according to OIE recommendations. It also underlines the importance of the implementation of appropriate quarantine measures and restriction of horse movement in the face of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Olguin-Perglione
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M A Vissani
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - F Alamos
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M S Tordoya
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Barrandeguy
- Instituto de Virología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Pilar, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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29
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Balasuriya UBR. Type A Influenza Virus Detection from Horses by Real-Time RT-qPCR and Insulated Isothermal RT-PCR. Methods Mol Biol 2020; 2123:383-392. [PMID: 32170704 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0346-8_29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious disease of horses caused by the equine influenza virus (EIV) H3N8 subtype. EI is the most important respiratory virus infection of horses and can disrupt major equestrian events and cause significant economic losses to the equine industry worldwide. Influenza H3N8 virus spreads rapidly in susceptible horses and can result in very high morbidity within 24-48 h after exposure to the virus. Therefore, rapid and accurate diagnosis of EI is critical for implementation of prevention and control measures to avoid the spread of EIV and to reduce the economic impact of the disease. The probe-based real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays targeting various EIV genes are reported to be highly sensitive and specific compared to the Directigen Flu-A® test and virus isolation in embryonated hens' eggs. Recently, a TaqMan® probe-based insulated isothermal RT-PCR (iiRT-PCR) assay for the detection of EIV H3N8 subtype has been described. These molecular-based diagnostic assays provide a fast and reliable means of EIV detection and disease surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udeni B R Balasuriya
- Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA.
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30
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Blanco-Lobo P, Rodriguez L, Reedy S, Oladunni FS, Nogales A, Murcia PR, Chambers TM, Martinez-Sobrido L. A Bivalent Live-Attenuated Vaccine for the Prevention of Equine Influenza Virus. Viruses 2019; 11:v11100933. [PMID: 31614538 PMCID: PMC6832603 DOI: 10.3390/v11100933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination remains the most effective approach for preventing and controlling equine influenza virus (EIV) in horses. However, the ongoing evolution of EIV has increased the genetic and antigenic differences between currently available vaccines and circulating strains, resulting in suboptimal vaccine efficacy. As recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the inclusion of representative strains from clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineages of EIV in vaccines may maximize the protection against presently circulating viral strains. In this study, we used reverse genetics technologies to generate a bivalent EIV live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV). We combined our previously described clade 1 EIV LAIV A/equine/Ohio/2003 H3N8 (Ohio/03 LAIV) with a newly generated clade 2 EIV LAIV that contains the six internal genes of Ohio/03 LAIV and the HA and NA of A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 H3N8 (Rich/07 LAIV). The safety profile, immunogenicity, and protection efficacy of this bivalent EIV LAIV was tested in the natural host, horses. Vaccination of horses with the bivalent EIV LAIV, following a prime-boost regimen, was safe and able to confer protection against challenge with clade 1 (A/equine/Kentucky/2014 H3N8) and clade 2 (A/equine/Richmond/2007) wild-type (WT) EIVs, as evidenced by a reduction of clinical signs, fever, and virus excretion. This is the first description of a bivalent LAIV for the prevention of EIV in horses that follows OIE recommendations. In addition, since our bivalent EIV LAIV is based on the use of reverse genetics approaches, our results demonstrate the feasibility of using the backbone of clade 1 Ohio/03 LAIV as a master donor virus (MDV) for the production and rapid update of LAIVs for the control and protection against other EIV strains of epidemiological relevance to horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Blanco-Lobo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
| | - Laura Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
- Agencia Española de Medicamentos y Productos Sanitarios, E28022 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Stephanie Reedy
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Fatai S Oladunni
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Aitor Nogales
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
- Center for Animal Health Research- National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology, Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Pablo R Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1AF, UK.
| | - Thomas M Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a common, highly contagious equid respiratory disease. Historically, EIV outbreaks have caused high levels of equine illness and economic damage. Outbreaks have occurred worldwide in the past decade. The risk for EIV infection is not limited to equids; dogs, cats, and humans are susceptible. In addition, equids are at risk from infection with avian influenza viruses, which can increase mortality rates. EIV is spread by direct and indirect contact, and recent epizootics also suggest wind-aided aerosol transmission. Increased international transport and commerce in horses, along with difficulties in controlling EIV with vaccination, could lead to emergent EIV strains and potential global spread. We review the history and epidemiology of EIV infections, describe neglected aspects of EIV surveillance, and discuss the potential for novel EIV strains to cause substantial disease burden and subsequent economic distress.
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Toh X, Soh ML, Ng MK, Yap SC, Harith N, Fernandez CJ, Huangfu T. Isolation and characterization of equine influenza virus (H3N8) from an equine influenza outbreak in Malaysia in 2015. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019; 66:1884-1893. [PMID: 31059176 PMCID: PMC6852086 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza is a major cause of respiratory infections in horses and can spread rapidly despite the availability of commercial vaccines. In this study, we carried out molecular characterization of Equine Influenza Virus (EIV) isolated from the Malaysian outbreak in 2015 by sequencing of the HA and NA gene segments using Sanger sequencing. The nucleotide and amino acid sequences of HA and NA were compared with representative Florida clade 1 and clade 2 strains using phylogenetic analysis. The Florida clade 1 viruses identified in this outbreak revealed numerous amino acid substitutions in the HA protein as compared to the current OIE vaccine strain recommendations and representative strains of circulating Florida sub-lineage clade 1 and clade 2. Differences in HA included amino acids located within antigenic sites which could lead to reduced immune recognition of the outbreak strain and alter the effectiveness of vaccination against the outbreak strain. Detailed surveillance and genetic information sharing could allow genetic drift of equine influenza viruses to be monitored more effectively on a global basis and aid in refinement of vaccine strain selection for EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Toh
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Moi Lien Soh
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Mee Keun Ng
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Shew Choo Yap
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Nurshilla Harith
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Charlene Judith Fernandez
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
| | - Taoqi Huangfu
- Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, Singapore City, Singapore
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Gahan J, Garvey M, Asmah Abd Samad R, Cullinane A. Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia. Pathogens 2019; 8:E62. [PMID: 31083430 PMCID: PMC6630255 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens8020062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
In August 2015, Malaysia experienced an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses. Clinical signs observed were consistent with equine influenza (EI) infection. The index cases were horses recently imported from New Zealand. Rapid control measures, including temporary cancellation of racing, were implemented to minimize the impact of the outbreak. By November, the disease outbreak was resolved, and movement restrictions were lifted. The aim of this study was to confirm the clinical diagnosis and characterize the causal virus. A pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR was used for confirmatory diagnosis. Antigenic characterization by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera indicated that the causal virus belonged to clade 1 of the H3N8 Florida sub-lineage. The genetic characterization was achieved by the whole genome sequencing of positive nasal swabs from clinically affected animals. Pylogenetic analysis of the haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes demonstrated ≥99% homology with several EI strains that had recently circulated in the USA and Japan. The antigenic and genetic characterization did not indicate that the current World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommendations for EI vaccine composition required modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacinta Gahan
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Marie Garvey
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Rozanah Asmah Abd Samad
- Department of Veterinary Services, Federal Government Administration Centre, 62630 Putrajaya, Malaysia.
| | - Ann Cullinane
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
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Genetic Analysis of the M Gene of Equine Influenza Virus Strains Isolated in Poland, in the Context of the Asian-like Group Formation. J Vet Res 2019; 62:405-412. [PMID: 30729195 PMCID: PMC6364155 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2018-0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Traditionally, evolutionary analysis of equine influenza virus (EIV) is based on the HA gene. However, the specificity of the influenza virus enables the classification of viral strains into different phylogenetic groups, depending on the gene being analysed. The aim of the study was to analyse phylogenetic paths of EIV based on M gene with reference to the HA gene. Material and Methods M gene of Polish isolates has been sequenced and analysed along with all M sequences of EIV available in GenBank database. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using BioEdit, ClustalW, and MEGA7 softwares. Results The clustering of the strains isolated not only from Asia but also from Europe into one common Asian-like group of EIV was observed. Twelve nucleotide substitutions in the M gene of strains from the Asian-like group were crucial for the evolutionary analysis. We also observed homology in the M gene of the Asian-like and H7N7 strains. Conclusions M gene specific for the Asian-like group is present in strains recently isolated in Europe and Asia, which were classified previously in the Florida 2 clade based on HA. Therefore, Asian-like group does not seem to be assigned to a specific geographical region. Traces of H7N7 strains in more conservative genes like M of some contemporary EIV strains may indicate the link between the old phylogenetic group and recent H3N8 strains. Analysis of conservative genes may be more useful in tracking the direction of virus evolution than in the genes where the high variability rate may blur the original relationships.
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Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1941. [PMID: 30237788 PMCID: PMC6135912 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Among all the emerging and re-emerging animal diseases, influenza group is the prototype member associated with severe respiratory infections in wide host species. Wherein, Equine influenza (EI) is the main cause of respiratory illness in equines across globe and is caused by equine influenza A virus (EIV-A) which has impacted the equine industry internationally due to high morbidity and marginal morality. The virus transmits easily by direct contact and inhalation making its spread global and leaving only limited areas untouched. Hitherto reports confirm that this virus crosses the species barriers and found to affect canines and few other animal species (cat and camel). EIV is continuously evolving with changes at the amino acid level wreaking the control program a tedious task. Until now, no natural EI origin infections have been reported explicitly in humans. Recent advances in the diagnostics have led to efficient surveillance and rapid detection of EIV infections at the onset of outbreaks. Incessant surveillance programs will aid in opting a better control strategy for this virus by updating the circulating vaccine strains. Recurrent vaccination failures against this virus due to antigenic drift and shift have been disappointing, however better understanding of the virus pathogenesis would make it easier to design effective vaccines predominantly targeting the conserved epitopes (HA glycoprotein). Additionally, the cold adapted and canarypox vectored vaccines are proving effective in ceasing the severity of disease. Furthermore, better understanding of its genetics and molecular biology will help in estimating the rate of evolution and occurrence of pandemics in future. Here, we highlight the advances occurred in understanding the etiology, epidemiology and pathobiology of EIV and a special focus is on designing and developing effective diagnostics, vaccines and control strategies for mitigating the emerging menace by EIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raj K. Singh
- ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | - Kumaragurubaran Karthik
- Central University Laboratory, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, India
| | - Rekha Khandia
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | - Ashok Munjal
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, India
| | | | - Sandip Chakraborty
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, College of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, West Tripura, India
| | - Yashpal S. Malik
- Division of Biological Standardization, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Rajendra Singh
- Division of Pathology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, India
| | | | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Johannes H. van der Kolk
- Division of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Swiss Institute for Equine Medicine (ISME), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland
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Hemida MG, Perera RAPM, Chu DKW, Alnaeem AA, Peiris M. Evidence of equine influenza A (H3N8) activity in horses from Eastern and Central Saudi Arabia: 2013-2015. Equine Vet J 2018; 51:218-221. [PMID: 30074632 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza virus (EIV) is one of the main causes of viral respiratory affections in horses. Little is known about the prevalence of EIV in Saudi Arabia especially the H3N8 serotype. OBJECTIVES To assess prevalence of equine influenza in horse populations in Eastern and Central Saudi Arabia. STUDY DESIGN Cross-sectional study. METHODS We collected 145 sera, 323 nasal and 323 rectal swabs from horses from six major cities in Eastern and Central regions. None of the horses were vaccinated against EIV. Sera were tested in ELISA assays for influenza A type-specific antibodies and by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests using equine H3N8. The swabs were tested by RT-qPCR assay targeting a conserved region of the influenza A matrix gene that detects influenza A viruses of all subtypes. RESULTS None of the swabs had detectable influenza A virus RNA. Of the 145 serasamples tested by ELISA, 81 (55.9%) were positive and 98 (67.6%) of 145 sera tested by HI tests were positive for equine H3. MAIN LIMITATIONS Our failure to detect and sequence any EIV prevents identification of the lineage of virus that circulates in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. CONCLUSIONS These results confirm that EIV H3N8 is circulating in Saudi Arabia and should be considered as a possible cause when investigating horses with respiratory disease in Saudi Arabia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Hemida
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Alhufuf, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafr el-Sheikh, Egypt
| | - R A P M Perera
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - D K W Chu
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - A A Alnaeem
- Department of Clinical Studies, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Alhufuf, Saudi Arabia
| | - M Peiris
- School of Public Health, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Gahan J, Garvey M, Gildea S, Gür E, Kagankaya A, Cullinane A. Whole-genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2018; 12:374-382. [PMID: 28940727 PMCID: PMC5907808 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 2013, there was an outbreak of acute respiratory disease in racehorses in Turkey. The clinical signs were consistent with equine influenza (EI). OBJECTIVE The aim was to confirm the cause of the outbreak and characterise the causal virus. METHODS A pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR and a rapid antigen detection kit were used for confirmatory diagnosis of equine influenza virus (EIV). Immunological susceptibility to EIV was examined using single radial haemolysis and ELISA. Antigenic characterisation was completed by haemagglutinin inhibition using a panel of specific ferret antisera. Genetic characterisation was achieved by whole-genome sequencing using segment-specific primers with M13 tags. RESULTS A H3N8 EIV of the Florida clade 2 sublineage (FC2) was confirmed as the causal agent. The index cases were unvaccinated and immunologically susceptible. Phylogenetic analysis of the HA1 and NA genes demonstrated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 clustered with the FC2 strains circulating in Europe. Antigenic characterisation confirmed the FC2 classification and demonstrated the absence of significant drift. Whole-genome sequencing indicated that A/equine/Ankara/1/2013 is most closely related to the viruses described as the 179 group based on the substitution I179V in HA1, for example A/equine/East Renfrewshire/2/2011, A/equine/Cambremer/1/2012 and A/equine/Saone et Loire/1/2015. The greatest diversity was observed in the NS1 segment and the polymerase complex. CONCLUSIONS The first recorded outbreak of EI in Turkey was caused by an FC2 virus closely related to viruses circulating in Europe. Antigenic and genetic characterisation gave no indication that the current OIE recommendations for EI vaccine composition require modification.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Emre Gür
- Head of Equine Health and Veterinary Services DepartmentJockey Club of TurkeyIstanbulTurkey
| | - Anil Kagankaya
- Department of SurgeryAnkara University Faculty of Veterinary MedicineAnkaraTurkey
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Gildea S, Garvey M, Lyons P, Lyons R, Gahan J, Walsh C, Cullinane A. Multifocal Equine Influenza Outbreak with Vaccination Breakdown in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7020043. [PMID: 29673169 PMCID: PMC6027538 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7020043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza (EI) outbreaks occurred on 19 premises in Ireland during 2014. Disease affected thoroughbred (TB) and non-TB horses/ponies on a variety of premises including four racing yards. Initial clinical signs presented on 16 premises within a two-month period. Extensive field investigations were undertaken, and the diagnostic effectiveness of a TaqMan RT-PCR assay was demonstrated in regularly-vaccinated and sub-clinically-affected horses. Epidemiological data and repeat clinical samples were collected from 305 horses, of which 40% were reported as clinically affected, 39% were identified as confirmed cases and 11% were sub-clinically affected. Multivariable analysis demonstrated a significant association between clinical signs and age, vaccination status and number of vaccine doses received. Vaccine breakdown was identified in 31% of horses with up to date vaccination records. This included 27 horses in four different racing yards. Genetic and antigenic analysis identified causal viruses as belonging to Clade 2 of the Florida sublineage (FCL2). At the time of this study, no commercially available EI vaccine in Ireland had been updated in line with World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommendations to include a FCL2 virus. The findings of this study highlight the potential ease with which EI can spread among partially immune equine populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Gildea
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Marie Garvey
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Pamela Lyons
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Rachel Lyons
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Jacinta Gahan
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
| | - Cathal Walsh
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Limerick, Castletroy, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland.
| | - Ann Cullinane
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare W91 RH93, Ireland.
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Favaro PF, Fernandes WR, Reischak D, Brandão PE, Silva SODS, Richtzenhain LJ. Evolution of equine influenza viruses (H3N8) during a Brazilian outbreak, 2015. Braz J Microbiol 2018; 49:336-346. [PMID: 29100932 PMCID: PMC5913825 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjm.2017.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza is one of the major respiratory infectious diseases in horses. An equine influenza virus outbreak was identified in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses in a veterinary school hospital in São Paulo, SP, Brazil, in September 2015. The twelve equine influenza viruses isolated belonged to Florida Clade 1. The hemagglutinin and neuraminidase amino acid sequences were compared with the recent isolates from North and South America and the World Organisation for Animal Health recommended Florida Clade 1 vaccine strain. The hemagglutinin amino acid sequences had nine substitutions, compared with the vaccine strain. Two of them were in antigenic site A (A138S and G142R), one in antigenic site E (R62K) and another not in antigenic site (K304E). The four substitutions changed the hydrophobicity of hemagglutinin. Three distinct genetic variants were identified during the outbreak. Eleven variants were found in four quasispecies, which suggests the equine influenza virus evolved during the outbreak. The use of an out of date vaccine strain or updated vaccines without the production of protective antibody titers might be the major contributing factors on virus dissemination during this outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Filippsen Favaro
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Wilson Roberto Fernandes
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Clínica Médica, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Dilmara Reischak
- Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento, Laboratório Nacional Agropecuário, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Eduardo Brandão
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sheila Oliveira de Souza Silva
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Leonardo José Richtzenhain
- Universidade de São Paulo, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Rodriguez L, Reedy S, Nogales A, Murcia PR, Chambers TM, Martinez-Sobrido L. Development of a novel equine influenza virus live-attenuated vaccine. Virology 2018; 516:76-85. [PMID: 29331866 PMCID: PMC5840510 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Revised: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV) is an important and significant respiratory pathogen of horses. EIV is enzootic in Europe and North America, mainly due to the suboptimal efficacy of current vaccines. We describe, for the first time, the generation of a temperature sensitive (ts) H3N8 EIV live-attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) using reverse-genetics approaches. Our EIV LAIV was attenuated (att) in vivo and able to induce, upon a single intranasal administration, protection against H3N8 EIV wild-type (WT) challenge in both a mouse model and the natural host, the horse. Notably, since our EIV LAIV was generated using reverse genetics, the vaccine can be easily updated against drifting or emerging strains of EIV using the safety backbone of our EIV LAIV as master donor virus (MDV). These results demonstrate the feasibility of implementing a novel EIV LAIV approach for the prevention and control of currently circulating H3N8 EIVs in horse populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Stephanie Reedy
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Aitor Nogales
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Pablo R Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas M Chambers
- Department of Veterinary Science, Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Luis Martinez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States.
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Sreenivasan CC, Jandhyala SS, Luo S, Hause BM, Thomas M, Knudsen DEB, Leslie-Steen P, Clement T, Reedy SE, Chambers TM, Christopher-Hennings J, Nelson E, Wang D, Kaushik RS, Li F. Phylogenetic Analysis and Characterization of a Sporadic Isolate of Equine Influenza A H3N8 from an Unvaccinated Horse in 2015. Viruses 2018; 10:v10010031. [PMID: 29324680 PMCID: PMC5795444 DOI: 10.3390/v10010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza, caused by the H3N8 subtype, is a highly contagious respiratory disease affecting equid populations worldwide and has led to serious epidemics and transboundary pandemics. This study describes the phylogenetic characterization and replication kinetics of recently-isolated H3N8 virus from a nasal swab obtained from a sporadic case of natural infection in an unvaccinated horse from Montana, USA. The nasal swab tested positive for equine influenza by Real-Time Quantitative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR). Further, the whole genome sequencing of the virus confirmed that it was the H3N8 subtype and was designated as A/equine/Montana/9564-1/2015 (H3N8). A BLASTn search revealed that the polymerase basic protein 1 (PB1), polymerase acidic (PA), hemagglutinin (HA), nucleoprotein (NP), and matrix (M) segments of this H3N8 isolate shared the highest percentage identity to A/equine/Tennessee/29A/2014 (H3N8) and the polymerase basic protein 2 (PB2), neuraminidase (NA), and non-structural protein (NS) segments to A/equine/Malaysia/M201/2015 (H3N8). Phylogenetic characterization of individual gene segments, using currently available H3N8 viral genomes, of both equine and canine origin, further established that A/equine/Montana/9564-1/2015 belonged to the Florida Clade 1 viruses. Interestingly, replication kinetics of this H3N8 virus, using airway derived primary cells from multiple species, such as equine, swine, bovine, and human lung epithelial cells, demonstrated appreciable titers, when compared to Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells. These findings indicate the broad host spectrum of this virus isolate and suggest the potential for cross-species transmissibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chithra C. Sreenivasan
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Sunayana S. Jandhyala
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Sisi Luo
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
| | - Ben M. Hause
- Cambridge Technologies, Oxford Street Worthington, MN 56187, USA;
| | - Milton Thomas
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - David E. B. Knudsen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Pamela Leslie-Steen
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Travis Clement
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Stephanie E. Reedy
- Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (S.E.R.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Thomas M. Chambers
- Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA; (S.E.R.); (T.M.C.)
| | - Jane Christopher-Hennings
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Eric Nelson
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Radhey S. Kaushik
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (C.C.S.); (S.S.J.); (S.L.); (D.W.); (R.S.K.)
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA; (M.T.); (D.E.B.K.); (P.L.-S.); (T.C.); (J.C.-H.); (E.N.)
- BioSNTR, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
- Correspondence:
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Yang H, Xiao Y, Meng F, Sun F, Chen M, Cheng Z, Chen Y, Liu S, Chen H. Emergence of H3N8 equine influenza virus in donkeys in China in 2017. Vet Microbiol 2017; 214:1-6. [PMID: 29408020 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Equine influenza virus is a major respiratory pathogen in horses. Although both horses and donkeys belong to the genus Equus, donkey infection with influenza viruses is rare. In March 2017, an influenza outbreak occurred in donkeys in Shandong province, China. The causative virus, A/donkey/Shandong/1/2017(H3N8), was isolated from a dead donkey. Genetic analysis indicated that the virus originated from influenza A (H3N8) clade 2 of the Florida sub-lineage that has been circulating in Asian equine populations. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence of the HA gene of this causative virus with that of the A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 vaccine strain showed that substitutions had occurred in the antigenic regions A, B, and C. This study provides insight into the currently circulating and newly emerging H3N8 strains in donkeys in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanliang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology-Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Harbin, China
| | - Yihong Xiao
- Department of Fundamental Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine-Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong, China
| | - Fei Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology-Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Harbin, China
| | - Fachao Sun
- Department of Fundamental Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine-Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong, China
| | - Meng Chen
- Department of Fundamental Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine-Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong, China
| | - Zilong Cheng
- Department of Fundamental Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine-Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong, China
| | - Yan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology-Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Harbin, China
| | - Sidang Liu
- Department of Fundamental Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine-Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Shandong Agricultural University, Shandong, China
| | - Hualan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology-Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Harbin, China.
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Bera BC, Virmani N, Kumar N, Anand T, Pavulraj S, Rash A, Elton D, Rash N, Bhatia S, Sood R, Singh RK, Tripathi BN. Genetic and codon usage bias analyses of polymerase genes of equine influenza virus and its relation to evolution. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:652. [PMID: 28830350 PMCID: PMC5568313 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4063-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine influenza is a major health problem of equines worldwide. The polymerase genes of influenza virus have key roles in virus replication, transcription, transmission between hosts and pathogenesis. Hence, the comprehensive genetic and codon usage bias of polymerase genes of equine influenza virus (EIV) were analyzed to elucidate the genetic and evolutionary relationships in a novel perspective. RESULTS The group - specific consensus amino acid substitutions were identified in all polymerase genes of EIVs that led to divergence of EIVs into various clades. The consistent amino acid changes were also detected in the Florida clade 2 EIVs circulating in Europe and Asia since 2007. To study the codon usage patterns, a total of 281,324 codons of polymerase genes of EIV H3N8 isolates from 1963 to 2015 were systemically analyzed. The polymerase genes of EIVs exhibit a weak codon usage bias. The ENc-GC3s and Neutrality plots indicated that natural selection is the major influencing factor of codon usage bias, and that the impact of mutation pressure is comparatively minor. The methods for estimating host imposed translation pressure suggested that the polymerase acidic (PA) gene seems to be under less translational pressure compared to polymerase basic 1 (PB1) and polymerase basic 2 (PB2) genes. The multivariate statistical analysis of polymerase genes divided EIVs into four evolutionary diverged clusters - Pre-divergent, Eurasian, Florida sub-lineage 1 and 2. CONCLUSIONS Various lineage specific amino acid substitutions observed in all polymerase genes of EIVs and especially, clade 2 EIVs underwent major variations which led to the emergence of a phylogenetically distinct group of EIVs originating from Richmond/1/07. The codon usage bias was low in all the polymerase genes of EIVs that was influenced by the multiple factors such as the nucleotide compositions, mutation pressure, aromaticity and hydropathicity. However, natural selection was the major influencing factor in defining the codon usage patterns and evolution of polymerase genes of EIVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bidhan Ch Bera
- National Research Centre on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hisar, Haryana, India
| | - Nitin Virmani
- National Research Centre on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hisar, Haryana, India.
| | - Naveen Kumar
- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Hathai Kheda Dam Road, Anand Nagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Taruna Anand
- National Research Centre on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hisar, Haryana, India
| | - S Pavulraj
- National Research Centre on Equines, Sirsa Road, Hisar, Haryana, India
| | - Adam Rash
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Debra Elton
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Nicola Rash
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, CB8 7UU, UK
| | - Sandeep Bhatia
- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Hathai Kheda Dam Road, Anand Nagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Richa Sood
- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Hathai Kheda Dam Road, Anand Nagar, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Raj Kumar Singh
- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Khan A, Mushtaq MH, Ahmad MUD, Nazir J, Farooqi SH, Khan A. Molecular Epidemiology of a novel re-assorted epidemic strain of equine influenza virus in Pakistan in 2015-16. Virus Res 2017; 240:56-63. [PMID: 28757141 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 07/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A widespread epidemic of equine influenza (EI) occurred in nonvaccinated equine population across multiple districts in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan during 2015-2016. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS An epidemiological surveillance study was conducted from Oct 2015 to April 2016 to investigate the outbreak. EI virus strains were isolated in embryonated eggs from suspected equines swab samples and were subjected to genome sequencing using M13 tagged segment specific primers. Phylogenetic analyses of the nucleotide sequences were concluded using Geneious. Haemagglutinin (HA), Neuraminidase (NA), Matrix (M) and nucleoprotein (NP) genes nucleotide and amino acid sequences of the isolated viruses were aligned with those of OIE recommended, FC-1, FC-2, and contemporary isolates of influenza A viruses from other species. RESULTS HA and NA genes amino acid sequences were very similar to Tennessee/14 and Malaysia/15 of FC-1 and clustered with the contemporary isolates recently reported in the USA. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these viruses were mostly identical (with 99.6% and 97.4% nucleotide homology) to, and were reassortants containing chicken/Pakistan/14 (H7N3) and Canine/Beijing/10 (H3N2) like M and NP genes. Genetic analysis indicated that A/equine/Pakistan/16 viruses were most probably the result of several re-assortments between the co-circulating avian and equine viruses, and were genetically unlike the other equine viruses due to the presence of H7N3 or H3N2 like M and NP genes. CONCLUSION Epidemiological data analysis indicated the potential chance of mixed, and management such as mixed farming system by keeping equine, canine and backyard poultry together in confined premises as the greater risk factors responsible for the re-assortments. Other factors might have contributed to the spread of the epidemic, including low awareness level, poor control of equine movements, and absence of border control disease strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amjad Khan
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Muhammad Hassan Mushtaq
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Mansur Ud Din Ahmad
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Jawad Nazir
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Shahid Hussain Farooqi
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, The University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, 54000, Pakistan.
| | - Asghar Khan
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Arid Agricultural University, Rawalpindi, 44000, Pakistan.
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Fougerolle S, Legrand L, Lecouturier F, Sailleau C, Paillot R, Hans A, Pronost S. Genetic evolution of equine influenza virus strains (H3N8) isolated in France from 1967 to 2015 and the implications of several potential pathogenic factors. Virology 2017; 505:210-217. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Evolution and Divergence of H3N8 Equine Influenza Viruses Circulating in the United Kingdom from 2013 to 2015. Pathogens 2017; 6:pathogens6010006. [PMID: 28208721 PMCID: PMC5371894 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens6010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza viruses (EIV) are a major cause of acute respiratory disease in horses worldwide and occasionally also affect vaccinated animals. Like other influenza A viruses, they undergo antigenic drift, highlighting the importance of both surveillance and virus characterisation in order for vaccine strains to be kept up to date. The aim of the work reported here was to monitor the genetic and antigenic changes occurring in EIV circulating in the UK from 2013 to 2015 and to identify any evidence of vaccine breakdown in the field. Virus isolation, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and sequencing were performed on EIV-positive nasopharyngeal swab samples submitted to the Diagnostic Laboratory Services at the Animal Health Trust (AHT). Phylogenetic analyses were completed for the haemagglutinin-1 (HA1) and neuraminidase (NA) genes using PhyML and amino acid sequences compared against the current World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE)-recommended Florida clade 2 vaccine strain. Substitutions between the new isolates and the vaccine strain were mapped onto the three-dimensional structure protein structures using PyMol. Antigenic analyses were carried out by haemagglutination inhibition assay using a panel of post-infection ferret antisera. Sixty-nine outbreaks of equine influenza in the UK were reported by the AHT between January 2013 and December 2015. Forty-seven viruses were successfully isolated in eggs from 41 of the outbreaks. Only three cases of vaccine breakdown were identified and in each case the vaccine used contained a virus antigen not currently recommended for equine influenza vaccines. Nucleotide sequencing of the HA and NA genes revealed that all of the viruses belonged to the Florida clade 2 sub-lineage of H3N8 EIV. Phylogenetic and sequence analyses showed that the two sub-populations, previously identified within clade 2, continued to circulate and had accrued further amino acid substitutions. Antigenic characterisation using post-infection ferret antisera in haemagglutination inhibition assays however, failed to detect any marked antigenic differences between the isolates. These findings show that Florida clade 2 EIV continue to circulate in the UK and support the current OIE recommendation to include an example of Florida clade 2 in vaccines.
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Olguin Perglione C, Golemba MD, Torres C, Barrandeguy M. Molecular Epidemiology and Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of the H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus in South America. Pathogens 2016; 5:E61. [PMID: 27754468 PMCID: PMC5198161 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens5040061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Revised: 10/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is considered the most important respiratory pathogen of horses as outbreaks of the disease lead to substantial economic losses. The H3N8 EIV has caused respiratory disease in horses across the world, including South American countries. Nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences for the complete haemagglutinin gene of the H3N8 EIV detected in South America since 1963 were analyzed. Phylogenetic and Bayesian coalescent analyses were carried out to study the origin, the time of the most recent common ancestors (tMRCA), the demographic and the phylogeographic patterns of the H3N8 EIV. The phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the H3N8 EIV detected in South America grouped in 5 well-supported monophyletic clades, each associated with strains of different origins. The tMRCA estimated for each group suggested that the virus was circulating in North America at least one year before its effective circulation in the South American population. Phylogenetic and coalescent analyses revealed a polyphyletic behavior of the viruses causing the outbreaks in South America between 1963 and 2012, possibly due to the introduction of at least 4 different EIVs through the international movement of horses. In addition, phylodynamic analysis suggested South America as the starting point of the spread of the H3N8 EIV in 1963 and showed migration links from the United States to South America in the subsequent EIV irruptions. Further, an increase in the relative genetic diversity was observed between 2006 and 2007 and a subsequent decline since 2009, probably due to the co-circulation of different lineages and as a result of the incorporation of the Florida clade 2 strain in vaccines, respectively. The observed data highlight the importance of epidemiological surveillance and the implementation of appropriate quarantine procedures to prevent outbreaks of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Olguin Perglione
- Instituto de Virología CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Dr. Nicolás Repetto y De Los Reseros s/n Hurlingham B1686LQF, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Marcelo D Golemba
- Hospital de Pediatría S.A.M.I.C. "Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan", Combate de los Pozos 1881, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1245AAM, Argentina.
| | - Carolina Torres
- Cátedra de Virología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina.
- CONICET, Av. Rivadavia 1917, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1033AAJ, Argentina.
| | - Maria Barrandeguy
- Instituto de Virología CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Dr. Nicolás Repetto y De Los Reseros s/n Hurlingham B1686LQF, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Viamonte 1856, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires C1056ABB, Argentina.
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Barba M, Daly JM. The Influenza NS1 Protein: What Do We Know in Equine Influenza Virus Pathogenesis? Pathogens 2016; 5:pathogens5030057. [PMID: 27589809 PMCID: PMC5039437 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens5030057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus remains a serious health and potential economic problem throughout most parts of the world, despite intensive vaccination programs in some horse populations. The influenza non-structural protein 1 (NS1) has multiple functions involved in the regulation of several cellular and viral processes during influenza infection. We review the strategies that NS1 uses to facilitate virus replication and inhibit antiviral responses in the host, including sequestering of double-stranded RNA, direct modulation of protein kinase R activity and inhibition of transcription and translation of host antiviral response genes such as type I interferon. Details are provided regarding what it is known about NS1 in equine influenza, especially concerning C-terminal truncation. Further research is needed to determine the role of NS1 in equine influenza infection, which will help to understand the pathophysiology of complicated cases related to cytokine imbalance and secondary bacterial infection, and to investigate new therapeutic and vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Barba
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
| | - Janet M Daly
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington LE12 5RD, UK.
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Perglione CO, Gildea S, Rimondi A, Miño S, Vissani A, Carossino M, Cullinane A, Barrandeguy M. Epidemiological and virological findings during multiple outbreaks of equine influenza in South America in 2012. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2016; 10:37-46. [PMID: 26406274 PMCID: PMC4687505 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In 2012, equine influenza (EI) virus was confirmed as the cause of outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses throughout South America. In Uruguay and Argentina, hundreds of vaccinated thoroughbred horses in training and racing facilities were clinically affected. Objective To characterise the EI viruses detected during the outbreak in Uruguay and Argentina. Methods Virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs by a pan‐reactive influenza type A real‐time RT‐PCR. The nucleotide sequence of the HA1 gene was determined and analysed phylogenetically using mega 5 software. Amino acid sequences alignments were constructed and virus was antigenically characterised with specific ferret antisera. Paired serum samples were tested by haemagglutination inhibition and single radial haemolysis. Results The diagnosis of EIV was confirmed by real‐time RT‐PCR, virus isolation and serological testing. The phylogenetic analysis of HA1 gene sequences of 18 EI viruses indicated that all of them belong to clade 1 of the Florida sublineage of the American lineage and are closely related to viruses isolated in the United States in 2012. The HA1 of viruses identified in horses in racing facilities in Maroñas, Uruguay, and in Palermo, Argentina, displayed 100% amino acid sequence identity and were identical to that of a virus isolated in Dubai in 2012, from vaccinated endurance horses recently imported from Uruguay. Conclusions The surveillance data reported illustrate the international spread of EI viruses and support the recommendations of the OIE expert surveillance panel to include viruses of the Florida sublineage in vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sarah Gildea
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Agustina Rimondi
- CICVyA, INTA, Instituto de Virología, Buenos Aires, Hurlingham, Argentina
| | - Samuel Miño
- CICVyA, INTA, Instituto de Virología, Buenos Aires, Hurlingham, Argentina
| | - Aldana Vissani
- CICVyA, INTA, Instituto de Virología, Buenos Aires, Hurlingham, Argentina
| | - Mariano Carossino
- Cátedra de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Maxwell H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Ann Cullinane
- Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Johnstown, Naas, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Maria Barrandeguy
- CICVyA, INTA, Instituto de Virología, Buenos Aires, Hurlingham, Argentina.,Cátedra de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Fougerolle S, Legrand L, Garrett D, Birand I, Foursin M, D'Ablon X, Bayssat P, Newton RJ, Pronost S, Paillot R. Influential factors inducing suboptimal humoral response to vector-based influenza immunisation in Thoroughbred foals. Vaccine 2016; 34:3787-95. [PMID: 27269055 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.05.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Numerous equine influenza (EI) epizooties are reported worldwide. EI vaccination is the most efficient methods of prevention. However, not all horses develop protective immunity after immunisation, increasing the risk of infection and transmission. OBJECTIVES This field study aimed to understand the poor response to primary EI vaccination. STUDY DESIGN The EI antibody response was measured in 174 Thoroughbred foals set in 3 stud farms (SF#1 to SF#3) over a 2years period. All foals were immunised with a commercial recombinant canarypox-based EI vaccine. Sera were tested by single radial haemolysis against the A/equine/Jouars/4/06 EIV strain (H3N8) at the time of the first vaccination (V1), 2weeks and 3months after the second immunisation (V2), 2days and 3months after the third immunisation (V3). RESULTS The frequency of poor-responders (no detectable antibody titres) was surprisingly elevated after V2 (56.8%), increased to 81.7% at V2+3months and reached 98.6% at V3. The frequency of poor-responder was still 19.2%, 3months after V3. Two independent influential factors were identified. The short (V2+2weeks) and mid-term (V2+3months, V3+3months) antibody levels were positively correlated to the age at V1 (p-value=0.003, 0.031 and 0.0038, respectively). Presence of maternally-derived antibodies (MDA) at V1 was negatively correlated with antibody levels after V3 only (p-value=0.0056). Given that SF#1 antibody response was below clinical protective levels at all-time points studied, the annual boost immunisation (V4) was brought forward by 7.0±1.1months. V1 was delayed by 7weeks the following year, which significantly increased short- and mid-term antibody titres (p-value=9.9e-07 and 2.31e-07, respectively). CONCLUSION The age and MDA at first immunisation with the canarypox-based IE vaccine play an independent role in the establishment of antibody levels. This study also highlights the benefit provided by serological surveillance to evaluate herd immunity and to implement corrective management/vaccination measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Fougerolle
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France.
| | - Loïc Legrand
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France
| | - Dion Garrett
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Ilhan Birand
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Foursin
- Clinique Equine de la Boisrie, La Boisrie, 61500 CHAILLOUÉ, France
| | - Xavier D'Ablon
- Clinique Vétérinaire de la Côte Fleurie, Route de Paris - Bonneville sur Touques, 14800 DEAUVILLE, France
| | - Pierre Bayssat
- Clinique Vétérinaire de Bayeux, Route de la Cambette, 14400 BAYEUX, France
| | - Richard J Newton
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
| | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO-Frank Duncombe, 1 route de Rosel, 14053 CAEN Cedex 4, France; University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France
| | - Romain Paillot
- University of Caen Basse-Normandie, 14000 CAEN, France; Unité de Recherche Risques Microbiens (U2RM), EA 4655, and Chair of Excellence «Equine Immunology», 14032 CAEN, France; Hippolia Foundation, La Maison du cheval, 6 avenue du Maréchal Montgomery, 14000 CAEN, France; Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, CB8 7UU, Kentford, NEWMARKET, United Kingdom
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