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Riquelme-Guzmán C, Sandoval-Guzmán T. The salamander limb: a perfect model to understand imperfect integration during skeletal regeneration. Biol Open 2024; 13:bio060152. [PMID: 38319134 PMCID: PMC10868587 DOI: 10.1242/bio.060152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Limb regeneration in salamanders is achieved by a complex coordination of various biological processes and requires the proper integration of new tissue with old. Among the tissues found inside the limb, the skeleton is the most prominent component, which serves as a scaffold and provides support for locomotion in the animal. Throughout the years, researchers have studied the regeneration of the appendicular skeleton in salamanders both after limb amputation and as a result of fracture healing. The final outcome has been widely seen as a faithful re-establishment of the skeletal elements, characterised by a seamless integration into the mature tissue. The process of skeletal integration, however, is not well understood, and several works have recently provided evidence of commonly occurring flawed regenerates. In this Review, we take the reader on a journey through the course of bone formation and regeneration in salamanders, laying down a foundation for critically examining the mechanisms behind skeletal integration. Integration is a phenomenon that could be influenced at various steps of regeneration, and hence, we assess the current knowledge in the field and discuss how early events, such as tissue histolysis and patterning, influence the faithful regeneration of the appendicular skeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo Riquelme-Guzmán
- Department of Internal Medicine 3, Center for Healthy Aging, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus at the Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Tatiana Sandoval-Guzmán
- Department of Internal Medicine 3, Center for Healthy Aging, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus at the Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
- Paul Langerhans Institute Dresden of Helmholtz Centre Munich, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus at the Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
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2
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Abstract
When the Accessory Limb Model (ALM) regenerative assay was first published by Endo, Bryant, and Gardiner in 2004, it provided a robust system for testing the cellular and molecular contributions during each of the basic steps of regeneration: the formation of the wound epithelium, neural induction of the apical epithelial cap, and the formation of a positional disparity between blastema cells. The basic ALM procedure was developed in the axolotl and involves deviating a limb nerve into a lateral wound and grafting skin from the opposing side of the limb axis into the site of injury. In this chapter, we will review the studies that lead to the conception of the ALM, as well as the studies that have followed the development of this assay. We will additionally describe in detail the standard ALM surgery and how to perform this surgery on different limb positions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Raymond
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, MA, USA
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3
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Harris RE. Regeneration enhancers: a field in development. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C1548-C1554. [PMID: 36252130 PMCID: PMC9829460 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00403.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The ability to regenerate tissues and organs following damage is not equally distributed across metazoans, and even highly related species can vary considerably in their regenerative capacity. Studies of animals with high regenerative potential have shown that factors expressed during normal development are often reactivated upon damage and required for successful regeneration. As such, regenerative potential may not be dictated by the presence or absence of the necessary genes, but whether such genes are appropriately activated following injury. The identification of damage-responsive enhancers that regulate regenerative gene expression in multiple species and tissues provides possible mechanistic insight into this phenomenon. Enhancers that are reused from developmental programs, and those that are potentially unique to regeneration, have been characterized individually and at a genome-wide scale. A better understanding of the regulatory events that, direct and in some cases limit, regenerative capacity is an important step in developing new methods to manipulate and augment regeneration, particularly in tissues that do not have this ability, including those of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin E. Harris
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona
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4
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Hu Y, Pan X, Shi Y, Qiu Y, Wang L, Murawala P, Liu Y, Xing W, Tanaka EM, Fei JF. Muscles are barely required for the patterning and cell dynamics in axolotl limb regeneration. Front Genet 2022; 13:1036641. [PMID: 36299593 PMCID: PMC9589296 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.1036641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Regeneration of a complex appendage structure such as limb requires upstream and downstream coordination of multiple types of cells. Given type of cell may sit at higher upstream position to control the activities of other cells. Muscles are one of the major cell masses in limbs. However, the subtle functional relationship between muscle and other cells in vertebrate complex tissue regeneration are still not well established. Here, we use Pax7 mutant axolotls, in which the limb muscle is developmentally lost, to investigate limb regeneration in the absence of skeletal muscle. We find that the pattern of regenerated limbs is relative normal in Pax7 mutants compared to the controls, but the joint is malformed in the Pax7 mutants. Lack of muscles do not affect the early regeneration responses, specifically the recruitment of macrophages to the wound, as well as the proliferation of fibroblasts, another major population in limbs. Furthermore, using single cell RNA-sequencing, we show that, other than muscle lineage that is mostly missing in Pax7 mutants, the composition and the status of other cell types in completely regenerated limbs of Pax7 mutants are similar to that in the controls. Our study reveals skeletal muscle is barely required for the guidance of other cells, as well the patterning in complex tissue regeneration in axolotls, and provides refined views of the roles of muscle cell in vertebrate appendage regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Hu
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
| | - Xiangyu Pan
- Department of Medical Research, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Shi
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuanhui Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liqun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Prayag Murawala
- MDI Biological Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME, United States
- Clinic for Kidney and Hypertension Diseases, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Yanmei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education, Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wanjin Xing
- Inner Mongolia Key Laboratory for Molecular Regulation of the Cell, College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, China
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
| | - Elly M. Tanaka
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna BioCenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
| | - Ji-Feng Fei
- Department of Pathology, Guangdong Provincial People’s Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Wanjin Xing, ; Elly M. Tanaka, ; Ji-Feng Fei,
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5
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Polikarpova A, Ellinghaus A, Schmidt-Bleek O, Grosser L, Bucher CH, Duda GN, Tanaka EM, Schmidt-Bleek K. The specialist in regeneration-the Axolotl-a suitable model to study bone healing? NPJ Regen Med 2022; 7:35. [PMID: 35773262 PMCID: PMC9246919 DOI: 10.1038/s41536-022-00229-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
While the axolotl's ability to completely regenerate amputated limbs is well known and studied, the mechanism of axolotl bone fracture healing remains poorly understood. One reason might be the lack of a standardized fracture fixation in axolotl. We present a surgical technique to stabilize the osteotomized axolotl femur with a fixator plate and compare it to a non-stabilized osteotomy and to limb amputation. The healing outcome was evaluated 3 weeks, 3, 6 and 9 months post-surgery by microcomputer tomography, histology and immunohistochemistry. Plate-fixated femurs regained bone integrity more efficiently in comparison to the non-fixated osteotomized bone, where larger callus formed, possibly to compensate for the bone fragment misalignment. The healing of a non-critical osteotomy in axolotl was incomplete after 9 months, while amputated limbs efficiently restored bone length and structure. In axolotl amputated limbs, plate-fixated and non-fixated fractures, we observed accumulation of PCNA+ proliferating cells at 3 weeks post-injury similar to mouse. Additionally, as in mouse, SOX9-expressing cells appeared in the early phase of fracture healing and amputated limb regeneration in axolotl, preceding cartilage formation. This implicates endochondral ossification to be the probable mechanism of bone healing in axolotls. Altogether, the surgery with a standardized fixation technique demonstrated here allows for controlled axolotl bone healing experiments, facilitating their comparison to mammals (mice).
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Affiliation(s)
- A Polikarpova
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
| | - A Ellinghaus
- Julius Wolff Institute and BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, DE-13353, Germany
| | - O Schmidt-Bleek
- Julius Wolff Institute and BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, DE-13353, Germany
| | - L Grosser
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
| | - C H Bucher
- Julius Wolff Institute and BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, DE-13353, Germany
| | - G N Duda
- Julius Wolff Institute and BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, DE-13353, Germany
| | - E M Tanaka
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna, A-1030, Austria
| | - K Schmidt-Bleek
- Julius Wolff Institute and BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, DE-13353, Germany.
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6
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de Bakker DEM, Bouwman M, Dronkers E, Simões FC, Riley PR, Goumans MJ, Smits AM, Bakkers J. Prrx1b restricts fibrosis and promotes Nrg1-dependent cardiomyocyte proliferation during zebrafish heart regeneration. Development 2021; 148:272033. [PMID: 34486669 PMCID: PMC8513610 DOI: 10.1242/dev.198937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Fibroblasts are activated to repair the heart following injury. Fibroblast activation in the mammalian heart leads to a permanent fibrotic scar that impairs cardiac function. In other organisms, such as zebrafish, cardiac injury is followed by transient fibrosis and scar-free regeneration. The mechanisms that drive scarring versus scar-free regeneration are not well understood. Here, we show that the homeobox-containing transcription factor Prrx1b is required for scar-free regeneration of the zebrafish heart as the loss of Prrx1b results in excessive fibrosis and impaired cardiomyocyte proliferation. Through lineage tracing and single-cell RNA sequencing, we find that Prrx1b is activated in epicardial-derived cells where it restricts TGFβ ligand expression and collagen production. Furthermore, through combined in vitro experiments in human fetal epicardial-derived cells and in vivo rescue experiments in zebrafish, we conclude that Prrx1 stimulates Nrg1 expression and promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation. Collectively, these results indicate that Prrx1 is a key transcription factor that balances fibrosis and regeneration in the injured zebrafish heart. This article has an associated 'The people behind the papers' interview.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis E M de Bakker
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Mara Bouwman
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Esther Dronkers
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, 2333ZC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Filipa C Simões
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Paul R Riley
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3PT, UK
| | - Marie-José Goumans
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, 2333ZC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Anke M Smits
- Department of Cell and Chemical Biology, Leiden University Medical Centre, 2333ZC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Bakkers
- Hubrecht Institute-KNAW and University Medical Center Utrecht, 3584CT Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Department of Pediatric Cardiology, University Medical Centre Utrecht, 3584CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
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7
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Biodiversity-based development and evolution: the emerging research systems in model and non-model organisms. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2021; 64:1236-1280. [PMID: 33893979 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-020-1915-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Evolutionary developmental biology, or Evo-Devo for short, has become an established field that, broadly speaking, seeks to understand how changes in development drive major transitions and innovation in organismal evolution. It does so via integrating the principles and methods of many subdisciplines of biology. Although we have gained unprecedented knowledge from the studies on model organisms in the past decades, many fundamental and crucially essential processes remain a mystery. Considering the tremendous biodiversity of our planet, the current model organisms seem insufficient for us to understand the evolutionary and physiological processes of life and its adaptation to exterior environments. The currently increasing genomic data and the recently available gene-editing tools make it possible to extend our studies to non-model organisms. In this review, we review the recent work on the regulatory signaling of developmental and regeneration processes, environmental adaptation, and evolutionary mechanisms using both the existing model animals such as zebrafish and Drosophila, and the emerging nonstandard model organisms including amphioxus, ascidian, ciliates, single-celled phytoplankton, and marine nematode. In addition, the challenging questions and new directions in these systems are outlined as well.
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8
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Liu Y, Lou WPK, Fei JF. The engine initiating tissue regeneration: does a common mechanism exist during evolution? CELL REGENERATION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2021; 10:12. [PMID: 33817749 PMCID: PMC8019671 DOI: 10.1186/s13619-020-00073-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A successful tissue regeneration is a very complex process that requires a precise coordination of many molecular, cellular and physiological events. One of the critical steps is to convert the injury signals into regeneration signals to initiate tissue regeneration. Although many efforts have been made to investigate the mechanisms triggering tissue regeneration, the fundamental questions remain unresolved. One of the major obstacles is that the injury and the initiation of regeneration are two highly coupled processes and hard to separate from one another. In this article, we review the major events occurring at the early injury/regeneration stage in a range of species, and discuss the possible common mechanisms during initiation of tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, Ministry of Education; Institute for Brain Research and Rehabilitation, South China Normal University, 510631, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wilson Pak-Kin Lou
- School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, 510631, Guangzhou, China.,Research Institute of Molecular Pathology (IMP), Vienna Biocenter (VBC), Vienna, Austria
| | - Ji-Feng Fei
- Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, 510080, Guangzhou, China.
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9
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Chromatin dynamics underlying the precise regeneration of a vertebrate limb - Epigenetic regulation and cellular memory. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2019; 97:16-25. [PMID: 30991117 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Wound healing, tissue regeneration, and organ regrowth are all regeneration phenomena observed in vertebrates after an injury. However, the ability to regenerate differs greatly among species. Mammals can undergo wound healing and tissue regeneration, but cannot regenerate an organ; for example, they cannot regrow an amputated limb. In contrast, amphibians and fish have much higher capabilities for organ-level regeneration. In addition to medical studies and those in conventional mammalian models such as mice, studies in amphibians and fish have revealed essential factors for and mechanisms of regeneration, including the regrowth of a limb, tail, or fin. However, the molecular nature of the cellular memory needed to precisely generate a new appendage from an amputation site is not fully understood. Recent reports have indicated that organ regeneration is closely related to epigenetic regulation. For example, the methylation status of genomic DNA is related to the expression of regeneration-related genes, and histone-modification enzymes are required to control the chromatin dynamics for regeneration. A proposed mechanism of cellular memory involving an inheritable system of epigenetic modification led us to hypothesize that epigenetic regulation forms the basis for cellular memory in organ regeneration. Here we summarize the current understanding of the role of epigenetic regulation in organ regeneration and discuss the relationship between organ regeneration and epigenetic memory.
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10
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Wang MH, Wu CH, Huang TY, Sung HW, Chiou LL, Lin SP, Lee HS. Nerve-mediated expression of histone deacetylases regulates limb regeneration in axolotls. Dev Biol 2019; 449:122-131. [PMID: 30826398 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Axolotls have amazing abilities to regenerate their lost limbs. Nerve and wound epidermis have great impacts on this regeneration. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) have been shown to play roles in the regeneration of amphibian tails and limbs. In this study, a bi-phasic up-regulation of HDAC1 was noted before early differentiation stage of axolotl limb regeneration. Limb regeneration was delayed in larvae incubated with an HDAC inhibitor MS-275. Local injection of MS-275 or TSA, another HDAC inhibitor, into amputation sites of the juveniles did not interfere with wound healing but more profoundly inhibited local HDAC activities and blastema formation/limb regeneration. Elevation of HDAC1 expression was more apparent in wound epidermis than in mesenchyme. Prior denervation prohibited this elevation and limb regeneration. Supplementation of nerve factors BMP7, FGF2, and FGF8 in the stump ends after amputation on denervated limbs not only enabled HDAC1 up-regulation but also led to more extent of limb regeneration. In conclusion, nerve-mediated HDAC1 expression is required for blastema formation and limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mu-Hui Wang
- Institute of Biotechnology, College of Bioresources and Agriculture, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Han Wu
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Yu Huang
- Liver Disease Prevention and Treatment Research Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hung-Wei Sung
- Institute of Biotechnology, College of Bioresources and Agriculture, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Ling Chiou
- Liver Disease Prevention and Treatment Research Foundation, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shau-Ping Lin
- Institute of Biotechnology, College of Bioresources and Agriculture, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan; Center of Systems Biology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; The Research Center of Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Hsuan-Shu Lee
- Institute of Biotechnology, College of Bioresources and Agriculture, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan; Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
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11
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Makanae A, Satoh A. Ectopic Fgf signaling induces the intercalary response in developing chicken limb buds. ZOOLOGICAL LETTERS 2018; 4:8. [PMID: 29721334 PMCID: PMC5907462 DOI: 10.1186/s40851-018-0090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intercalary pattern formation is an important regulatory step in amphibian limb regeneration. Amphibian limb regeneration is composed of multiple steps, including wounding, blastema formation, and intercalary pattern formation. Attempts have been made to transfer insights from regeneration-competent animals to regeneration-incompetent animalsat each step in the regeneration process. In the present study, we focused on the intercalary mechanism in chick limb buds. In amphibian limb regeneration, a proximodistal axis is organized as soon as a regenerating blastema is induced. Intermediate structures are subsequently induced (intercalated) between the established proximal and distal identities. Intercalary tissues are derived from proximal tissues. Fgf signaling mediates the intercalary response in amphibian limb regeneration. RESULTS We attempted to transfer insights into intercalary regeneration from amphibian models to the chick limb bud. The zeugopodial part was dissected out, and the distal and proximal parts were conjunct at st. 24. Delivering ectopic Fgf2 + Fgf8 between the distal and proximal parts resulted in induction of zeugopodial elements. Examination of HoxA11 expression, apoptosis, and cell proliferation provides insights to compare with those in the intercalary mechanism of amphibian limb regeneration. Furthermore, the cellular contribution was investigated in both the chicken intercalary response and that of axolotl limb regeneration. CONCLUSIONS We developed new insights into cellular contribution in amphibian intercalary regeneration, and found consistency between axolotl and chicken intercalary responses. Our findings demonstrate that the same principal of limb regeneration functions between regeneration-competent and -incompetent animals. In this context, we propose the feasibility of the induction of the regeneration response in amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Makanae
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), Okayama University, 3-1-1, Tsushimanaka, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8530 Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), Okayama University, 3-1-1, Tsushimanaka, Kita-ku, Okayama, 700-8530 Japan
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12
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Stocum DL. Mechanisms of urodele limb regeneration. REGENERATION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2017; 4:159-200. [PMID: 29299322 PMCID: PMC5743758 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review explores the historical and current state of our knowledge about urodele limb regeneration. Topics discussed are (1) blastema formation by the proteolytic histolysis of limb tissues to release resident stem cells and mononucleate cells that undergo dedifferentiation, cell cycle entry and accumulation under the apical epidermal cap. (2) The origin, phenotypic memory, and positional memory of blastema cells. (3) The role played by macrophages in the early events of regeneration. (4) The role of neural and AEC factors and interaction between blastema cells in mitosis and distalization. (5) Models of pattern formation based on the results of axial reversal experiments, experiments on the regeneration of half and double half limbs, and experiments using retinoic acid to alter positional identity of blastema cells. (6) Possible mechanisms of distalization during normal and intercalary regeneration. (7) Is pattern formation is a self-organizing property of the blastema or dictated by chemical signals from adjacent tissues? (8) What is the future for regenerating a human limb?
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Affiliation(s)
- David L. Stocum
- Department of BiologyIndiana University−Purdue University Indianapolis723 W. Michigan StIndianapolisIN 46202USA
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13
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Boilly B, Faulkner S, Jobling P, Hondermarck H. Nerve Dependence: From Regeneration to Cancer. Cancer Cell 2017; 31:342-354. [PMID: 28292437 DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2017.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nerve dependence has long been described in animal regeneration, where the outgrowth of axons is necessary to the reconstitution of lost body parts and tissue remodeling in various species. Recent discoveries have demonstrated that denervation can suppress tumor growth and metastasis, pointing to nerve dependence in cancer. Regeneration and cancer share similarities in regard to the stimulatory role of nerves, and there are indications that the stem cell compartment is a preferred target of innervation. Thus, the neurobiology of cancer is an emerging discipline that opens new perspectives in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoni Boilly
- UFR de Biologie, Université de Lille, 59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq, France
| | - Sam Faulkner
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Phillip Jobling
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Hubert Hondermarck
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, Hunter Medical Research Institute, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia.
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14
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Abstract
Development of methods to reawaken the semi-dormant regenerative potential that lies within adult human tissues would hold promise for the restoration of diseased or damaged organs and tissues. While most of the regeneration potential is suppressed in many vertebrates, including humans, during adult life, urodele amphibians (salamanders) retain their regenerative ability throughout adulthood. Studies in newts and axolotls, two salamander models, have provided significant knowledge about adult limb regeneration. In this review, we present a comparative analysis of salamander and mammalian regeneration and discuss how evolutionarily altered properties of the regenerative environment can be exploited to restore full regenerative potential in the human body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Dall'Agnese
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Development, Aging and Regeneration Program (DARe), Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Pier Lorenzo Puri
- Development, Aging and Regeneration Program (DARe), Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Epigenetics and Regenerative Medicine, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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15
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Quijano LM, Lynch KM, Allan CH, Badylak SF, Ahsan T. Looking Ahead to Engineering Epimorphic Regeneration of a Human Digit or Limb. TISSUE ENGINEERING. PART B, REVIEWS 2016; 22:251-62. [PMID: 26603349 PMCID: PMC4892205 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2015.0401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 2 million people have had limb amputations in the United States due to disease or injury, with more than 185,000 new amputations every year. The ability to promote epimorphic regeneration, or the regrowth of a biologically based digit or limb, would radically change the prognosis for amputees. This ambitious goal includes the regrowth of a large number of tissues that need to be properly assembled and patterned to create a fully functional structure. We have yet to even identify, let alone address, all the obstacles along the extended progression that limit epimorphic regeneration in humans. This review aims to present introductory fundamentals in epimorphic regeneration to facilitate design and conduct of research from a tissue engineering and regenerative medicine perspective. We describe the clinical scenario of human digit healing, featuring published reports of regenerative potential. We then broadly delineate the processes of epimorphic regeneration in nonmammalian systems and describe a few mammalian regeneration models. We give particular focus to the murine digit tip, which allows for comparative studies of regeneration-competent and regeneration-incompetent outcomes in the same animal. Finally, we describe a few forward-thinking opportunities for promoting epimorphic regeneration in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina M. Quijano
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Kristen M. Lynch
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Christopher H. Allan
- Department of Orthopedics and Sports Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Stephen F. Badylak
- McGowan Institute for Regenerative Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Tabassum Ahsan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana
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Dawson LA, Simkin J, Sauque M, Pela M, Palkowski T, Muneoka K. Analogous cellular contribution and healing mechanisms following digit amputation and phalangeal fracture in mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 3:39-51. [PMID: 27499878 PMCID: PMC4857751 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Regeneration of amputated structures is severely limited in humans and mice, with complete regeneration restricted to the distal portion of the terminal phalanx (P3). Here, we investigate the dynamic tissue repair response of the second phalangeal element (P2) post amputation in the adult mouse, and show that the repair response of the amputated bone is similar to the proximal P2 bone fragment in fracture healing. The regeneration‐incompetent P2 amputation response is characterized by periosteal endochondral ossification resulting in the deposition of new trabecular bone, corresponding to a significant increase in bone volume; however, this response is not associated with bone lengthening. We show that cells of the periosteum respond to amputation and fracture by contributing both chondrocytes and osteoblasts to the endochondral ossification response. Based on our studies, we suggest that the amputation response represents an attempt at regeneration that ultimately fails due to the lack of a distal organizing influence that is present in fracture healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay A Dawson
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA; Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
| | - Jennifer Simkin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA; Department of Biology University of Kentucky Lexington Kentucky 40506 USA
| | - Michelle Sauque
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA; Department of Orthopedics University of Colorado Denver Aurora Colorado 80010 USA
| | - Maegan Pela
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA
| | - Teresa Palkowski
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA
| | - Ken Muneoka
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology Tulane University New Orleans Louisiana 70118 USA; Department of Veterinary Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine Texas A&M University College Station Texas 77843 USA
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17
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Tissue nonautonomous effects of fat body methionine metabolism on imaginal disc repair in Drosophila. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:1835-40. [PMID: 26831070 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1523681113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory mechanisms for tissue repair and regeneration within damaged tissue have been extensively studied. However, the systemic regulation of tissue repair remains poorly understood. To elucidate tissue nonautonomous control of repair process, it is essential to induce local damage, independent of genetic manipulations in uninjured parts of the body. Herein, we develop a system in Drosophila for spatiotemporal tissue injury using a temperature-sensitive form of diphtheria toxin A domain driven by the Q system to study factors contributing to imaginal disc repair. Using this technique, we demonstrate that methionine metabolism in the fat body, a counterpart of mammalian liver and adipose tissue, supports the repair processes of wing discs. Local injury to wing discs decreases methionine and S-adenosylmethionine, whereas it increases S-adenosylhomocysteine in the fat body. Fat body-specific genetic manipulation of methionine metabolism results in defective disc repair but does not affect normal wing development. Our data indicate the contribution of tissue interactions to tissue repair in Drosophila, as local damage to wing discs influences fat body metabolism, and proper control of methionine metabolism in the fat body, in turn, affects wing regeneration.
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18
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Mitogawa K, Makanae A, Satoh A, Satoh A. Comparative Analysis of Cartilage Marker Gene Expression Patterns during Axolotl and Xenopus Limb Regeneration. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0133375. [PMID: 26186213 PMCID: PMC4506045 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0133375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) can completely regenerate lost limbs, whereas Xenopus laevis frogs cannot. During limb regeneration, a blastema is first formed at the amputation plane. It is thought that this regeneration blastema forms a limb by mechanisms similar to those of a developing embryonic limb bud. Furthermore, Xenopus laevis frogs can form a blastema after amputation; however, the blastema results in a terminal cone-shaped cartilaginous structure called a "spike." The causes of this patterning defect in Xenopus frog limb regeneration were explored. We hypothesized that differences in chondrogenesis may underlie the patterning defect. Thus, we focused on chondrogenesis. Chondrogenesis marker genes, type I and type II collagen, were compared in regenerative and nonregenerative environments. There were marked differences between axolotls and Xenopus in the expression pattern of these chondrogenesis-associated genes. The relative deficit in the chondrogenic capacity of Xenopus blastema cells may account for the absence of total limb regenerative capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Mitogawa
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
- Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Aki Makanae
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Ayano Satoh
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
- * E-mail:
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19
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Chen X, Song F, Jhamb D, Li J, Bottino MC, Palakal MJ, Stocum DL. The Axolotl Fibula as a Model for the Induction of Regeneration across Large Segment Defects in Long Bones of the Extremities. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130819. [PMID: 26098852 PMCID: PMC4476796 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 05/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We tested the ability of the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) fibula to regenerate across segment defects of different size in the absence of intervention or after implant of a unique 8-braid pig small intestine submucosa (SIS) scaffold, with or without incorporated growth factor combinations or tissue protein extract. Fractures and defects of 10% and 20% of the total limb length regenerated well without any intervention, but 40% and 50% defects failed to regenerate after either simple removal of bone or implanting SIS scaffold alone. By contrast, scaffold soaked in the growth factor combination BMP-4/HGF or in protein extract of intact limb tissue promoted partial or extensive induction of cartilage and bone across 50% segment defects in 30%-33% of cases. These results show that BMP-4/HGF and intact tissue protein extract can promote the events required to induce cartilage and bone formation across a segment defect larger than critical size and that the long bones of axolotl limbs are an inexpensive model to screen soluble factors and natural and synthetic scaffolds for their efficacy in stimulating this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoping Chen
- Department of Biology, School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Fengyu Song
- Department of Oral Biology, School of Dentistry, Indiana-University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Deepali Jhamb
- School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Jiliang Li
- Department of Biology, School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Marco C. Bottino
- Department of Restorative Dentistry, Division of Dental Biomaterials, School of Dentistry, Indiana-University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Mathew J. Palakal
- School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - David L. Stocum
- Department of Biology, School of Science, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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20
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McCusker C, Bryant SV, Gardiner DM. The axolotl limb blastema: cellular and molecular mechanisms driving blastema formation and limb regeneration in tetrapods. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 2:54-71. [PMID: 27499868 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 01/29/2015] [Accepted: 02/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The axolotl is one of the few tetrapods that are capable of regenerating complicated biological structures, such as complete limbs, throughout adulthood. Upon injury the axolotl generates a population of regeneration-competent limb progenitor cells known as the blastema, which will grow, establish pattern, and differentiate into the missing limb structures. In this review we focus on the crucial early events that occur during wound healing, the neural-epithelial interactions that drive the formation of the early blastema, and how these mechanisms differ from those of other species that have restricted regenerative potential, such as humans. We also discuss how the presence of cells from the different axes of the limb is required for the continued growth and establishment of pattern in the blastema as described in the polar coordinate model, and how this positional information is reprogrammed in blastema cells during regeneration. Multiple cell types from the mature limb stump contribute to the blastema at different stages of regeneration, and we discuss the contribution of these types to the regenerate with reference to whether they are "pattern-forming" or "pattern-following" cells. Lastly, we explain how an engineering approach will help resolve unanswered questions in limb regeneration, with the goal of translating these concepts to developing better human regenerative therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine McCusker
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology University of California Irvine California USA
| | - Susan V Bryant
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology University of California Irvine California USA
| | - David M Gardiner
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology University of California Irvine California USA
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21
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Tsutsumi R, Inoue T, Yamada S, Agata K. Reintegration of the regenerated and the remaining tissues during joint regeneration in the newt Cynops pyrrhogaster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 2:26-36. [PMID: 27499865 PMCID: PMC4895332 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians, such as newts, can regenerate a functional limb, including joints, after amputation at any level along the proximal−distal axis of the limb. The blastema can regenerate the limb morphology largely independently of the stump after proximal−distal identity has been established, but the remaining and regenerated tissues must be structurally reintegrated (matched in size and shape). Here we used newt joint regeneration as a model to investigate reintegration, because a functionally interlocking joint requires structural integration between its opposing skeletal elements. After forelimbs were amputated at the elbow joint, the joint was regenerated between the remaining and regenerated skeletal elements. The regenerated cartilage was thick around the amputated joint to make a reciprocally interlocking joint structure with the remaining bone. Furthermore, during regeneration, the extracellular matrix of the remaining tissues was lost, suggesting that the remaining tissues might contribute to the morphogenesis of regenerating cartilage. Our results showed that the area of the regenerated cartilage matched the area of the apposed remaining cartilage, thus contributing to formation of a functional structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rio Tsutsumi
- Department of Biophysics Graduate School of Science Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Takeshi Inoue
- Department of Biophysics Graduate School of Science Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Shigehito Yamada
- Human Health Science Graduate School of Medicine Kyoto University Kyoto Japan; Congenital Anomaly Research Center Graduate School of Medicine Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Kiyokazu Agata
- Department of Biophysics Graduate School of Science Kyoto University Kyoto Japan
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22
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Makanae A, Mitogawa K, Satoh A. Co-operative Bmp- and Fgf-signaling inputs convert skin wound healing to limb formation in urodele amphibians. Dev Biol 2014; 396:57-66. [PMID: 25286122 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2014.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians have remarkable organ regeneration capability, and their limb regeneration capability has been investigated as a representative phenomenon. In the early 19th century, nerves were reported to be an essential tissue for the successful induction of limb regeneration. Nerve substances that function in the induction of limb regeneration responses have long been sought. A new experimental system called the accessory limb model (ALM) has been established to identify the nerve factors. Skin wounding in urodele amphibians results in skin wound healing but never in limb induction. However, nerve deviation to the wounded skin induces limb formation in ALM. Thus, nerves can be considered to have the ability to transform skin wound healing to limb formation. In the present study, co-operative Bmp and Fgf application, instead of nerve deviation, to wounded skin transformed skin wound healing to limb formation in two urodele amphibians, axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) and newt (Pleurodeles waltl). Our findings demonstrate that defined factors can induce homeotic transformation in postembryonic bodies of urodele amphibians. The combination of Bmp and Fgf(s) may contribute to the development of novel treatments for organ regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Makanae
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), 3-1-1, Tsushima-Naka, Kitaku, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Mitogawa
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), 3-1-1, Tsushima-Naka, Kitaku, Okayama 700-8530, Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), 3-1-1, Tsushima-Naka, Kitaku, Okayama 700-8530, Japan.
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23
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Makanae A, Mitogawa K, Satoh A. Implication of two different regeneration systems in limb regeneration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 1:1-9. [PMID: 27499860 PMCID: PMC4906689 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Limb regeneration is a representative phenomenon of organ regeneration in urodele amphibians, such as an axolotl. An amputated limb starts regenerating from a remaining stump (proximal) to lost finger tips (distal). In the present case, proximal−distal (PD) reorganization takes place in a regenerating tissue, called a blastema. It has been a mystery how an induced blastema recognizes its position and restores an exact replica of missing parts. Recently, a new experimental system called the accessory limb model (ALM) has been established. The gained ALM phenotypes are demanding to reconsider the reorganization PD positional values. Based on the ALM phenotype, it is reasonable to hypothesize that reorganization of positional values has a certain discontinuity and that two different regeneration systems cooperatively reorganize the PD axis to restore an original structure. In this review, PD axis reestablishments are focused on limb regeneration. Knowledge from ALM studies in axolotls and Xenopus is providing a novel concept of PD axis reorganization in limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Makanae
- Okayama University Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS) 3-1-1 Tsushimanaka Kitaku Okayama 700-8530 Japan
| | - Kazumasa Mitogawa
- Okayama University Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS) 3-1-1 Tsushimanaka Kitaku Okayama 700-8530 Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Okayama University Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS) 3-1-1 Tsushimanaka Kitaku Okayama 700-8530 Japan
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24
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McCusker CD, Gardiner DM. Understanding positional cues in salamander limb regeneration: implications for optimizing cell-based regenerative therapies. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:593-9. [PMID: 24872456 PMCID: PMC4036467 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.013359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Regenerative medicine has reached the point where we are performing clinical trials with stem-cell-derived cell populations in an effort to treat numerous human pathologies. However, many of these efforts have been challenged by the inability of the engrafted populations to properly integrate into the host environment to make a functional biological unit. It is apparent that we must understand the basic biology of tissue integration in order to apply these principles to the development of regenerative therapies in humans. Studying tissue integration in model organisms, where the process of integration between the newly regenerated tissues and the ‘old’ existing structures can be observed and manipulated, can provide valuable insights. Embryonic and adult cells have a memory of their original position, and this positional information can modify surrounding tissues and drive the formation of new structures. In this Review, we discuss the positional interactions that control the ability of grafted cells to integrate into existing tissues during the process of salamander limb regeneration, and discuss how these insights could explain the integration defects observed in current cell-based regenerative therapies. Additionally, we describe potential molecular tools that can be used to manipulate the positional information in grafted cell populations, and to promote the communication of positional cues in the host environment to facilitate the integration of engrafted cells. Lastly, we explain how studying positional information in current cell-based therapies and in regenerating limbs could provide key insights to improve the integration of cell-based regenerative therapies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine D McCusker
- Francisco J. Ayala School of Biological Sciences, Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, CA 92602, USA.
| | - David M Gardiner
- Francisco J. Ayala School of Biological Sciences, Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, CA 92602, USA
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25
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Mitogawa K, Hirata A, Moriyasu M, Makanae A, Miura S, Endo T, Satoh A. Ectopic blastema induction by nerve deviation and skin wounding: a new regeneration model in Xenopus laevis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 1:26-36. [PMID: 27499859 PMCID: PMC4895307 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the accessory limb model (ALM) has become an alternative study system for limb regeneration studies in axolotls instead of using an amputated limb. ALM progresses limb regeneration study in axolotls because of its advantages. To apply and/or to compare knowledge in axolotl ALM studies to other vertebrates is a conceivable next step. First, Xenopus laevis, an anuran amphibian, was investigated. A Xenopus frog has hypomorphic regeneration ability. Its regeneration ability has been considered intermediate between that of non‐regenerative higher vertebrates and regenerative urodele amphibians. Here, we successfully induced an accessory blastema in Xenopus by skin wounding and rerouting of brachial nerve bundles to the wound site, which is the regular ALM surgery. The induced Xenopus ALM blastemas have limited regenerative potential compared with axolotl ALM blastemas. Comparison of ALM blastemas from species with different regenerative potentials may facilitate the identification of the novel expression programs necessary for the formation of cartilage and other tissues during limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Mitogawa
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Ayako Hirata
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Miyuki Moriyasu
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Aki Makanae
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Shinichirou Miura
- Division of Liberal Arts, Aichi Gakuin UniversityNissinAichi470‐0195Japan
| | - Tetsuya Endo
- Division of Liberal Arts, Aichi Gakuin UniversityNissinAichi470‐0195Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
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26
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Egawa S, Miura S, Yokoyama H, Endo T, Tamura K. Growth and differentiation of a long bone in limb development, repair and regeneration. Dev Growth Differ 2014; 56:410-24. [PMID: 24860986 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Repair from traumatic bone fracture is a complex process that includes mechanisms of bone development and bone homeostasis. Thus, elucidation of the cellular/molecular basis of bone formation in skeletal development would provide valuable information on fracture repair and would lead to successful skeletal regeneration after limb amputation, which never occurs in mammals. Elucidation of the basis of epimorphic limb regeneration in amphibians would also provide insights into skeletal regeneration in mammals, since the epimorphic regeneration enables an amputated limb to re-develop the three-dimensional structure of bones. In the processes of bone development, repair and regeneration, growth of the bone is achieved through several events including not only cell proliferation but also aggregation of mesenchymal cells, enlargement of cells, deposition and accumulation of extracellular matrix, and bone remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiro Egawa
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aobayama 6-3, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
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27
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Geurtzen K, Knopf F, Wehner D, Huitema LFA, Schulte-Merker S, Weidinger G. Mature osteoblasts dedifferentiate in response to traumatic bone injury in the zebrafish fin and skull. Development 2014; 141:2225-34. [PMID: 24821985 DOI: 10.1242/dev.105817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish have an unlimited capacity to regenerate bone after fin amputation. In this process, mature osteoblasts dedifferentiate to osteogenic precursor cells and thus represent an important source of newly forming bone. By contrast, differentiated osteoblasts do not appear to contribute to repair of bone injuries in mammals; rather, osteoblasts form anew from mesenchymal stem cells. This raises the question whether osteoblast dedifferentiation is specific to appendage regeneration, a special feature of the lepidotrichia bone of the fish fin, or a process found more generally in fish bone. Here, we show that dedifferentiation of mature osteoblasts is not restricted to fin regeneration after amputation, but also occurs during repair of zebrafish fin fractures and skull injuries. In both models, mature osteoblasts surrounding the injury downregulate the expression of differentiation markers, upregulate markers of the pre-osteoblast state and become proliferative. Making use of photoconvertible Kaede protein as well as Cre-driven genetic fate mapping, we show that osteoblasts migrate to the site of injury to replace damaged tissue. Our findings suggest a fundamental role for osteoblast dedifferentiation in reparative bone formation in fish and indicate that adult fish osteoblasts display elevated cellular plasticity compared with mammalian bone-forming cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Geurtzen
- Biotechnology Center and CRTD, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Franziska Knopf
- Biotechnology Center and CRTD, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307 Dresden, Germany Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK
| | - Daniel Wehner
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Stefan Schulte-Merker
- Hubrecht Institut-KNAW & UMC Utrecht, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands EZO, WUR, 6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands Institute of Cardiovascular Organogenesis and Regeneration, University of Münster, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Gilbert Weidinger
- Institute for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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28
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Nerve independent limb induction in axolotls. Dev Biol 2013; 381:213-26. [PMID: 23769980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians can regenerate their limbs. During limb regeneration, dermal fibroblasts are transformed into undifferentiated cells called blastema cells. These dermis-blastema cells show multipotency. Such so-called endogenous reprogramming of cell differentiation is one of the main targets of amphibian limb regeneration studies. It is well recognized that nerve presence controls the initiation of limb regeneration. Accordingly, nerve factors have been sought in amphibian limb regeneration. To investigate it, a relatively new study system called the accessory limb model (ALM) was developed. Using ALM, two signaling cascades (Fgf and Gdf5 signaling) came under focus. In the present study, Growth and differentiation factor-5 (Gdf5) application to wounded skin initiated limb regeneration responses and resulted in induction of a blastema-like structure in the absence of a nerve. However, the Gdf5-induced structure showed defects as a regeneration blastema, such as absence of detectable Prrx1 expression by in situ hybridization. The defects could be remedied by additional Fibroblasts growth factor (Fgf) inputs. These two inputs (Gdf5 and Fgfs) were sufficient to substitute for the nerve functions in the induction of limb regeneration. Indeed, Fgf2, Fgf8, and Gdf5 applications with the contralateral skin graft resulted in limb formation without nerve supply. Furthermore, acquisition of cartilage differentiation potential of dermal fibroblasts was tested in an in vivo and in vitro combination assay. Dermal fibroblasts cultured with Gdf5 were difficult to participate in cartilage formation when the cultured cells were grafted into cartilage forming region. In contrast, dermal fibroblasts cultured with Fgf2 and Fgf8 became easier to participate into cartilage formation in the same procedure. These results contribute to our understanding of molecular mechanisms of the early phase of amphibian limb regeneration.
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Knapp D, Schulz H, Rascon CA, Volkmer M, Scholz J, Nacu E, Le M, Novozhilov S, Tazaki A, Protze S, Jacob T, Hubner N, Habermann B, Tanaka EM. Comparative transcriptional profiling of the axolotl limb identifies a tripartite regeneration-specific gene program. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61352. [PMID: 23658691 PMCID: PMC3641036 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding how the limb blastema is established after the initial wound healing response is an important aspect of regeneration research. Here we performed parallel expression profile time courses of healing lateral wounds versus amputated limbs in axolotl. This comparison between wound healing and regeneration allowed us to identify amputation-specific genes. By clustering the expression profiles of these samples, we could detect three distinguishable phases of gene expression - early wound healing followed by a transition-phase leading to establishment of the limb development program, which correspond to the three phases of limb regeneration that had been defined by morphological criteria. By focusing on the transition-phase, we identified 93 strictly amputation-associated genes many of which are implicated in oxidative-stress response, chromatin modification, epithelial development or limb development. We further classified the genes based on whether they were or were not significantly expressed in the developing limb bud. The specific localization of 53 selected candidates within the blastema was investigated by in situ hybridization. In summary, we identified a set of genes that are expressed specifically during regeneration and are therefore, likely candidates for the regulation of blastema formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunja Knapp
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Herbert Schulz
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cynthia Alexander Rascon
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Volkmer
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Cologne, Germany
| | - Juliane Scholz
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Eugen Nacu
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mu Le
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sergey Novozhilov
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Akira Tazaki
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stephanie Protze
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Tina Jacob
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Norbert Hubner
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bianca Habermann
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Cologne, Germany
| | - Elly M. Tanaka
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Lee J, Aguilar C, Gardiner D. Gain-of-function assays in the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) to identify signaling pathways that induce and regulate limb regeneration. Methods Mol Biol 2013; 1037:401-417. [PMID: 24029949 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-505-7_23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The adult salamander has been studied as a model for regeneration of complex tissues for many decades. Only recently with the development of gain-of-function assays for regeneration, has it been possible to screen for and assay the function of the multitude of signaling factors that have been identified in studies of embryonic development and tumorigenesis. Given the conservation of function of these regulatory pathways controlling growth and pattern formation, it is now possible to use the functional assays in the salamander to test the ability of endogenous as well as small-molecule signaling factors to induce a regenerative response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jangwoo Lee
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
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Abstract
In spite of numerous investigations of regenerating salamander limbs, little attention has been paid to the details of how joints are reformed. An understanding of the process and mechanisms of joint regeneration in this model system for tetrapod limb regeneration would provide insights into developing novel therapies for inducing joint regeneration in humans. To this end, we have used the axolotl (Mexican Salamander) model of limb regeneration to describe the morphology and the expression patterns of marker genes during joint regeneration in response to limb amputation. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the mechanisms of joint formation whether it be development or regeneration are conserved. We also have determined that defects in the epiphyseal region of both forelimbs and hind limbs in the axolotl are regenerated only when the defect is small. As is the case with defects in the diaphysis, there is a critical size above which the endogenous regenerative response is not sufficient to regenerate the joint. This non-regenerative response in an animal that has the ability to regenerate perfectly provides the opportunity to screen for the signaling pathways to induce regeneration of articular cartilage and joints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jangwoo Lee
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- The Developmental Biology Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - David M. Gardiner
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- The Developmental Biology Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Cosden-Decker RS, Bickett MM, Lattermann C, MacLeod JN. Structural and functional analysis of intra-articular interzone tissue in axolotl salamanders. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2012; 20:1347-56. [PMID: 22800772 PMCID: PMC4077341 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Knowledge of mechanisms directing diarthrodial joint development may be useful in understanding joint pathologies and identifying new therapies. We have previously established that axolotl salamanders can fully repair large articular cartilage lesions, which may be due to the presence of an interzone-like tissue in the intra-articular space. Study objectives were to further characterize axolotl diarthrodial joint structure and determine the differentiation potential of interzone-like tissue in a skeletal microenvironment. DESIGN Diarthrodial joint morphology and expression of aggrecan, brother of CDO (BOC), type I collagen, type II collagen, and growth/differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) were examined in femorotibial joints of sexually mature (>12 months) axolotls. Joint tissue cellularity was evaluated in individuals from 2 to 24 months of age. Chondrogenic potential of the interzone was evaluated by placing interzone-like tissue into 4 mm tibial defects. RESULTS Cavitation reached completion in the femoroacetabular and humeroradial joints, but an interzone-like tissue was retained in the intra-articular space of distal limb joints. Joint tissue cellularity decreased to 7 months of age and then remained stable. Gene expression patterns of joint markers are broadly similar in developing mammals and mature axolotls. When interzone-like tissue was transplanted into critical size skeletal defects, an accessory joint developed within the defect site. CONCLUSIONS These experiments indicate that mature axolotl diarthrodial joints are phenotypically similar to developing synovial joints in mammals. Generation of an accessory joint by interzone-like tissue suggests multipotent cellular differentiation potential similar to that of interzone cells in the mammalian fetus. The data support the axolotl as a novel vertebrate model for joint development and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah S. Cosden-Decker
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA,Translational Research Program in Pediatric Orthopaedics, Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA. USA
| | - Melissa M. Bickett
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | | | - James N. MacLeod
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Murawala P, Tanaka EM, Currie JD. Regeneration: the ultimate example of wound healing. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2012; 23:954-62. [PMID: 23059793 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The outcome of wound repair in mammals is often characterized by fibrotic scaring. Vertebrates such as zebrafish, frogs, and salamanders not only heal scarlessly, but also can regenerate lost appendages. Decades of study on the process of animal regeneration has produced key insights into the mechanisms of how complex tissue is restored. By examining our current knowledge of regeneration, we can draw parallels with mammalian wound healing to identify the molecular determinants that produce such differing outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prayag Murawala
- Technische Universität Dresden, DFG Center for Regenerative Therapies, Fetscherstrasse 105, Dresden 01307, Germany
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Makanae A, Satoh A. Early Regulation of Axolotl Limb Regeneration. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2012; 295:1566-74. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.22529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Moriyasu M, Makanae A, Satoh A. Spatiotemporal regulation of keratin 5 and 17 in the axolotl limb. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:1616-24. [PMID: 22836940 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amphibians have greater regeneration capability than higher vertebrates. They can regenerate their limbs after an amputation. As a limb is regenerated, a regeneration-specific epithelium called the apical epithelial cap (AEC) is induced. The AEC is an essential structure for limb regeneration. Despite the importance of the AEC, molecular marker genes have not been well studied at the molecular level. RESULTS In the present study, keratin5 (KRT5) and KRT17 were investigated in an axolotl-regenerating limb. KRT5 and KRT17 were expressed in a regenerating limb but down-regulated in a differentiating limb. KRT5 showed characteristic regulation in a regenerating blastema. KRT5 was suppressed in the basal layer of the AEC. This KRT5 suppression was correlated to the blastema differentiation and nerve presence. Simple skin wounding could also upregulate both KRT5 and KRT17 gene expression. But these genes were suppressed within a shorter time than in limb regeneration. CONCLUSIONS The KRT5 and KRT17 gene profile can be a useful marker gene to investigate AEC in limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miyuki Moriyasu
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences (RCIS), Okayama, Japan
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36
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Chuong CM, Randall VA, Widelitz RB, Wu P, Jiang TX. Physiological regeneration of skin appendages and implications for regenerative medicine. Physiology (Bethesda) 2012; 27:61-72. [PMID: 22505663 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00028.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The concept of regenerative medicine is relatively new, but animals are well known to remake their hair and feathers regularly by normal regenerative physiological processes. Here, we focus on 1) how extrafollicular environments can regulate hair and feather stem cell activities and 2) how different configurations of stem cells can shape organ forms in different body regions to fulfill changing physiological needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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Satoh A, Hirata A, Makanae A. Collagen reconstitution is inversely correlated with induction of limb regeneration in Ambystoma mexicanum. Zoolog Sci 2012; 29:191-7. [PMID: 22379987 DOI: 10.2108/zsj.29.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Amphibians can regenerate missing body parts, including limbs. The regulation of collagen has been considered to be important in limb regeneration. Collagen deposition is suppressed during limb regeneration, so we investigated collagen deposition and apical epithelial cap (AEC) formation during axolotl limb regeneration. The accessory limb model (ALM) has been developed as an alternative model for studying limb regeneration. Using this model, we investigated the relationship between nerves, epidermis, and collagen deposition. We found that Sp-9, an AEC marker gene, was upregulated by direct interaction between nerves and epidermis. However, collagen deposition hindered this interaction, and resulted in the failure of limb regeneration. During wound healing, an increase in deposition of collagen caused a decrease in the blastema induction rate in ALM. Wound healing and limb regeneration are alternate processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Satoh
- Okayama University, Research Core of Interdisciplinary Sciences, Kitaku, Okayama, Japan.
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Satoh A, Bryant SV, Gardiner DM. Nerve signaling regulates basal keratinocyte proliferation in the blastema apical epithelial cap in the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Dev Biol 2012; 366:374-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2012.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2011] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Employing the biology of successful fracture repair to heal critical size bone defects. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 367:113-32. [PMID: 23239235 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Bone has the natural ability to remodel and repair. Fractures and small noncritical size bone defects undergo regenerative healing via coordinated concurrent development of skeletal and vascular elements in a soft cartilage callus environment. Within this environment bone regeneration recapitulates many of the same cellular and molecular mechanisms that form embryonic bone. Angiogenesis is intimately involved with embryonic bone formation and with both endochondral and intramembranous bone formation in differentiated bone. During bone regeneration osteogenic cells are first associated with vascular tissue in the adjacent periosteal space or the adjacent injured marrow cavity that houses endosteal blood vessels. Critical size bone defects cannot heal without the assistance of therapeutic aids or materials designed to encourage bone regeneration. We discuss the prospects for using synthetic hydrogels in a bioengineering approach to repair critical size bone defects. Hydrogel scaffolds can be designed and fabricated to potentially trigger the same bone morphogenetic cascade that heals bone fractures and noncritical size defects naturally. Lastly, we introduce adult Xenopus laevis hind limb as a novel small animal model system for bone regeneration research. Xenopus hind limbs have been used successfully to screen promising scaffolds designed to heal critical size bone defects.
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40
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Sun L, Chen M, Yang H, Wang T, Liu B, Shu C, Gardiner DM. Large scale gene expression profiling during intestine and body wall regeneration in the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2011; 6:195-205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2011.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2011] [Accepted: 03/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Blastema induction in aneurogenic state and Prrx-1 regulation by MMPs and FGFs in Ambystoma mexicanum limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2011; 355:263-74. [PMID: 21539833 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians can regenerate amputated limbs. It has been considered that differentiated dermal tissues generate multipotent and undifferentiated cells called blastema cells during limb regeneration. In early phases of limb regeneration, blastema cells are induced by nerves and the apical epithelial cap (AEC). We had previously investigated the role of neurotrophic factors in blastema or blastema-like formation consisting of Prrx-1 positive cells. A new system suitable for investigating early phases of limb regeneration, called the accessory limb model (ALM), was recently developed. In this study, we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis between a blastema and wound using ALM. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling components were observed to be predominantly expressed in ALM blastema cells. Furthermore, we found that MMP activity induced a blastema marker gene, Prrx-1, in vitro, and FGF signaling pathways worked in coordination to maintain Prrx-1 expression and ALM blastema formation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that these two activities were sufficient to induce an ALM blastema in the absence of a nerve in vivo.
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McCusker C, Gardiner DM. The axolotl model for regeneration and aging research: a mini-review. Gerontology 2011; 57:565-71. [PMID: 21372551 DOI: 10.1159/000323761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Although regeneration of tissues occurs in all adult tetrapods, the ability to regenerate complex structures such as limbs is limited to urodeles (newts and salamanders). Given that many of the biological processes and the signaling pathways that control these processes are highly conserved among all tetrapods, it is likely that humans have the potential to regenerate structures in the same way as salamanders. Thus the remarkable regenerative abilities of salamanders demonstrate what we reasonably can expect in terms of enhancing our regenerative potential. Although most of what is understood about regenerative mechanisms pertains to the repair of acute injuries, we assume that these same mechanisms could be utilized therapeutically to slow or even reverse chronic damage associated with aging. The axolotl model provides the opportunity to understand the behavior of cells to give the desired outcome of controlled growth and pattern formation leading to regeneration rather than aging and cancer. In this paper we present an overview of several important aspects of regeneration biology with an emphasis on the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) as a model organism for identifying relevant signaling pathways and factors regulating limb regeneration. We also speculate about how these mechanisms could be utilized to reverse the aging process. By understanding the mechanisms of regeneration, we eventually will be able to enhance our intrinsic regenerative abilities in order to slow and even reverse the damage of aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine McCusker
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, and Developmental Biology Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine 92697-2305, USA
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Intrinsic repair of full-thickness articular cartilage defects in the axolotl salamander. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2011; 19:200-5. [PMID: 21115129 PMCID: PMC3555487 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2010.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 11/10/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The ability to fully regenerate lost limbs has made the axolotl salamander (Ambystoma mexicanum) a valuable model for studies of tissue regeneration. The current experiments investigate the ability of these vertebrates to repair large articular cartilage defects and restore normal hyaline cartilage and joint structure independent of limb amputation. METHODS Full-thickness articular cartilage defects were made by resection of the medial femoral condyle to the level of the metaphysis. At 0, 2 days, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 18, 24, 36 and 48 weeks post-surgery, the repair process was analyzed on H&E and Safranin-O stained 7 μm tissue sections. Symmetric Kullback-Leibler (SKL) divergences were used to assess proteoglycan staining intensities. Immunohistochemistry was performed for collagen types I and II. RESULTS A fibrous "interzone-like" tissue occupies the intraarticular space of the axolotl femorotibial joint and no evidence of joint cavitation was observed. By 4 weeks post-surgery, cells within the defect site exhibited morphological similarities to those of the interzone-like tissue. At 24 weeks, joint structure and cartilaginous tissue repair were confirmed by immunohistochemistry for collagen types I and II. Quantitation of Safranin-O staining indicated restoration of proteoglycan content by 18 weeks. CONCLUSIONS The axolotl femorotibial joint has morphological similarities to the developing mammalian diarthrodial joint. Cells in the intraarticular space may be homologous to the interzone tissue and contribute to intrinsic repair of full-thickness articular cartilage defects. Taken together, these results suggest that the axolotl may serve as a valuable model for the investigation of cellular and molecular mechanisms that achieve full articular cartilage repair.
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Satoh A, Cummings GMC, Bryant SV, Gardiner DM. Regulation of proximal-distal intercalation during limb regeneration in the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Dev Growth Differ 2010; 52:785-98. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.2010.01214.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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45
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Song F, Li B, Stocum DL. Amphibians as research models for regenerative medicine. Organogenesis 2010; 6:141-50. [PMID: 21197215 PMCID: PMC2946045 DOI: 10.4161/org.6.3.12039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to regenerate bone across a critical size defect would be a marked clinical advance over current methods for dealing with such structural gaps. Here, we briefly review the development of limb bones and the mandible, the regeneration of urodele limbs after amputation, and present evidence that urodele and anuran amphibians represent a valuable research model for the study of segment defect regeneration in both limb bones and mandible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengyu Song
- Department of Oral Pathology, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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46
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Satoh A, Makanae A, Wada N. The apical ectodermal ridge (AER) can be re-induced by wounding, wnt-2b, and fgf-10 in the chicken limb bud. Dev Biol 2010; 342:157-68. [PMID: 20347761 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2010.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Revised: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 03/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Little effort has been made to apply the insights gained from studies of amphibian limb regeneration to higher vertebrates. During amphibian limb regeneration, a functional epithelium called the apical ectodermal cap (AEC) triggers a regenerative response. As long as the AEC is induced, limb regeneration will take place. Interestingly, similar responses have been observed in chicken embryos. The AEC is an equivalent structure to the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) in higher vertebrates. When a limb bud is amputated it does not regenerate; however, if the AER is grafted onto the amputation surface, damage to the amputated limb bud can be repaired. Thus, the AER/AEC is able to induce regenerative responses in both amphibians and higher vertebrates. It is difficult, however, to induce limb regeneration in higher vertebrates. One reason for this is that re-induction of the AER after amputation in higher vertebrates is challenging. Here, we evaluated whether AER re-induction was possible in higher vertebrates. First, we assessed the sequence of events following limb amputation in chick embryos and compared the features of limb development and regeneration in amphibians and chicks. Based on our findings, we attempted to re-induce the AER. When wnt-2b/fgf-10-expressing cells were inserted concurrently with wounding, successful re-induction of the AER occurred. These results open up new possibilities for limb regeneration in higher vertebrates since AER re-induction, which is considered a key factor in limb regeneration, is now possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akira Satoh
- Research Core for Interdisciplinary Science (RCIS), Okayama University, Okayama, Japan.
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