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Kolo A. Anaplasma Species in Africa-A Century of Discovery: A Review on Molecular Epidemiology, Genetic Diversity, and Control. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12050702. [PMID: 37242372 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12050702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma species, belonging to the family Anaplasmataceae in the order Rickettsiales, are obligate intracellular bacteria responsible for various tick-borne diseases of veterinary and human significance worldwide. With advancements in molecular techniques, seven formal species of Anaplasma and numerous unclassified species have been described. In Africa, several Anaplasma species and strains have been identified in different animals and tick species. This review aims to provide an overview of the current understanding of the molecular epidemiology and genetic diversity of classified and unclassified Anaplasma species detected in animals and ticks across Africa. The review also covers control measures that have been taken to prevent anaplasmosis transmission on the continent. This information is critical when developing anaplasmosis management and control programs in Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agatha Kolo
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA
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2
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de la Fuente J, Kocan KM. The Impact of RNA Interference in Tick Research. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080827. [PMID: 35894050 PMCID: PMC9394339 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past two decades, RNA interference (RNAi) in ticks, in combination with omics technologies, have greatly advanced the discovery of tick gene and molecular function. While mechanisms of RNAi were initially elucidated in plants, fungi, and nematodes, the classic 2002 study by Aljamali et al. was the first to demonstrate RNAi gene silencing in ticks. Subsequently, applications of RNAi have led to the discovery of genes that impact tick function and tick-host-pathogen interactions. RNAi will continue to lead to the discovery of an array of tick genes and molecules suitable for the development of vaccines and/or pharmacologic approaches for tick control and the prevention of pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- José de la Fuente
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
- The Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
- Correspondence: or
| | - Katherine M. Kocan
- The Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
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3
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Groth M, Skrzydlewska E, Dobrzyńska M, Pancewicz S, Moniuszko-Malinowska A. Redox Imbalance and Its Metabolic Consequences in Tick-Borne Diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:870398. [PMID: 35937690 PMCID: PMC9353526 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.870398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the growing global health problems are vector-borne diseases, including tick-borne diseases. The most common tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease, tick-borne encephalitis, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis. Taking into account the metabolic effects in the patient’s body, tick-borne diseases are a significant problem from an epidemiological and clinical point of view. Inflammation and oxidative stress are key elements in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, including tick-borne diseases. In consequence, this leads to oxidative modifications of the structure and function of phospholipids and proteins and results in qualitative and quantitative changes at the level of lipid mediators arising in both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS enzyme–dependent reactions. These types of metabolic modifications affect the functioning of the cells and the host organism. Therefore, links between the severity of the disease state and redox imbalance and the level of phospholipid metabolites are being searched, hoping to find unambiguous diagnostic biomarkers. Assessment of molecular effects of oxidative stress may also enable the monitoring of the disease process and treatment efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Groth
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
- *Correspondence: Monika Groth,
| | - Elżbieta Skrzydlewska
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Marta Dobrzyńska
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Sławomir Pancewicz
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Anna Moniuszko-Malinowska
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
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Agwunobi DO, Li M, Wang N, Chang G, Zhang X, Xue X, Yu Z, Wang H, Liu J. Proteomic analysis suggests that monoterpenes in lemongrass disrupt Ca 2+ homeostasis in Haemaphysalis longicornis leading to mitochondrial depolarization and cytotoxicity. Proteomics 2022; 22:e2100156. [PMID: 34997954 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.202100156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Complex mixtures of bioactive ingredients in plant essential oils present complex chemistries which involve different modes of action. An increasing body of scientific reports has recently focused on the acaricidal activities of plant essential oils attributed to their monoterpene components, but information about their underlying molecular mechanism of action is scarce. Here, after the chemical analysis of lemongrass oil, a proteomic analysis of the ovary, salivary gland, and midgut of Haemaphysalis longicornis exposed to Cymbopogon citratus (lemongrass) essential oil was performed via data-independent acquisition mass spectrometry (DIA-MS) technology to further elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved. Pathway analysis reveals the activation of metabolic pathways mediated by oxidoreductases and transferases. Furthermore, the upregulation of various calcium-associated proteins and the upregulation of cytochrome c1, cytochrome c oxidase polypeptide IV, and programmed cell death protein 6-like isoform X1 suggest a cytotoxic mode of action via the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial Ca2+ overload, mitochondrial uncoupling, and depolarization, and ATP depletion leading to either apoptotic or necrotic death. Morphological alterations observed after the RNAi of a major detoxification enzyme (glutathione S-transferase) merit further investigation. Hence, the cytotoxic mode of action exhibited by C. citratus oil could be vital for the development of eco-friendly acaricide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desmond O Agwunobi
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Mengxue Li
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Ningmei Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Guomin Chang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaojing Zhang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaomin Xue
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Zhijun Yu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Jingze Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
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Aguilar-Díaz H, Quiroz-Castañeda RE, Salazar-Morales K, Cossío-Bayúgar R, Miranda-Miranda E. Tick Immunobiology and Extracellular Traps: An Integrative Vision to Control of Vectors. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10111511. [PMID: 34832666 PMCID: PMC8621429 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are hematophagous ectoparasites that infest a diverse number of vertebrate hosts. The tick immunobiology plays a significant role in establishing and transmitting many pathogens to their hosts. To control tick infestations, the acaricide application is a commonly used method with severe environmental consequences and the selection of tick-resistant populations. With these drawbacks, new tick control methods need to be developed, and the immune system of ticks contains a plethora of potential candidates for vaccine design. Additionally, tick immunity is based on an orchestrated action of humoral and cellular immune responses. Therefore, the actors of these responses are the object of our study in this review since they are new targets in anti-tick vaccine design. We present their role in the immune response that positions them as feasible targets that can be blocked, inhibited, interfered with, and overexpressed, and then elucidate a new method to control tick infestations through the development of vaccines. We also propose Extracellular Traps Formation (ETosis) in ticks as a process to eliminate their natural enemies and those pathogens they transmit (vectorial capacity), which results attractive since they are a source of acting molecules with potential use as vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Aguilar-Díaz
- Unidad de Artropodología, Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad INIFAP, Jiutepec 62574, Mexico; (R.C.-B.); (E.M.-M.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Rosa Estela Quiroz-Castañeda
- Unidad de Anaplasmosis, Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad INIFAP, Jiutepec 62574, Mexico;
| | - Karina Salazar-Morales
- Centro de Investigaciones Sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca 62100, Mexico;
| | - Raquel Cossío-Bayúgar
- Unidad de Artropodología, Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad INIFAP, Jiutepec 62574, Mexico; (R.C.-B.); (E.M.-M.)
| | - Estefan Miranda-Miranda
- Unidad de Artropodología, Centro Nacional de Investigación Disciplinaria en Salud Animal e Inocuidad INIFAP, Jiutepec 62574, Mexico; (R.C.-B.); (E.M.-M.)
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6
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Salata C, Moutailler S, Attoui H, Zweygarth E, Decker L, Bell-Sakyi L. How relevant are in vitro culture models for study of tick-pathogen interactions? Pathog Glob Health 2021; 115:437-455. [PMID: 34190676 PMCID: PMC8635668 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2021.1944539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although tick-borne infectious diseases threaten human and animal health worldwide, with constantly increasing incidence, little knowledge is available regarding vector-pathogen interactions and pathogen transmission. In vivo laboratory study of these subjects using live, intact ticks is expensive, labor-intensive, and challenging from the points of view of biosafety and ethics. Several in vitro models have been developed, including over 70 continuous cell lines derived from multiple tick species and a variety of tick organ culture systems, facilitating many research activities. However, some limitations have to be considered in the translation of the results from the in vitro environment to the in vivo situation of live, intact ticks, and vertebrate hosts. In this review, we describe the available in vitro models and selected results from their application to the study of tick-borne viruses, bacteria, and protozoa, where possible comparing these results to studies in live, intact ticks. Finally, we highlight the strengths and weaknesses of in vitro tick culture models and their essential role in tick-borne pathogen research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano Salata
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Sara Moutailler
- Laboratoire De Santé Animale, Anses, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, UMR BIPAR, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Houssam Attoui
- Department of Animal Health, UMR1161 Virologie, INRAE, Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort, ANSES, Université Paris-Est, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Erich Zweygarth
- The Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Lygia Decker
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- Department of Infection Biology and Microbiomes, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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Pereira DFS, Ribeiro HS, Gonçalves AAM, da Silva AV, Lair DF, de Oliveira DS, Boas DFV, Conrado IDSS, Leite JC, Barata LM, Reis PCC, Mariano RMDS, Santos TAP, Coutinho DCO, Gontijo NDF, Araujo RN, Galdino AS, Paes PRDO, Melo MM, Nagem RAP, Dutra WO, Silveira-Lemos DD, Rodrigues DS, Giunchetti RC. Rhipicephalus microplus: An overview of vaccine antigens against the cattle tick. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 13:101828. [PMID: 34628330 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Rhipicephalus microplus, popularly known as the cattle tick, is the most important tick of livestock as it is responsible for significant economic losses. The use of chemical acaricides is still the most widely used control method despite its known disadvantages. Vaccination would be a safe alternative for the control of R. microplus and holds advantages over the use of chemical acaricides as it is environmental-friendly and leaves no residues in meat or milk. Two vaccines based on the Bm86 protein were commercialized, TickGARD® and Gavac®, with varying reported efficacies in different countries. The use of other vaccines, such as Tick Vac®, Go-Tick®, and Bovimune Ixovac® have been restricted to some countries. Several other proteins have been analyzed as possible antigens for more effective vaccines against R. microplus, including peptidases, serine proteinase inhibitors, glutathione S-transferases, metalloproteases, and ribosomal proteins, with efficacies ranging from 14% to 96%. Nonetheless, more research is needed to develop safe and efficient tick vaccines, such as the evaluation of the efficacy of antigens against other tick species to verify cross-reactivity and inclusion of additional antigens to promote the blocking of the infection and spreading of tick-borne diseases. This review summarizes the discoveries of candidate antigens for R. microplus tick vaccines as well as the methods used to test their efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Fonseca Soares Pereira
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Helen Silva Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ana Alice Maia Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Augusto Ventura da Silva
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Daniel Ferreira Lair
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Diana Souza de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Diego Fernandes Vilas Boas
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ingrid Dos Santos Soares Conrado
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Jaqueline Costa Leite
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Luccas Miranda Barata
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Pedro Campos Carvalhaes Reis
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Reysla Maria da Silveira Mariano
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Thaiza Aline Pereira Santos
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Danielle Carvalho Oliveira Coutinho
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Nelder de Figueiredo Gontijo
- Laboratory of Physiology of Hematophagous Insects, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Nascimento Araujo
- Laboratory of Physiology of Hematophagous Insects, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Alexsandro Sobreira Galdino
- Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory, Biochemistry, Federal University of São João Del-Rei, Divinópolis, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Paulo Ricardo de Oliveira Paes
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marília Martins Melo
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Alves Pinto Nagem
- Structural Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of biochemistry and immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Walderez Ornelas Dutra
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | | | - Rodolfo Cordeiro Giunchetti
- Laboratory of Cell-Cell Interactions, Institute of Biological Sciences, Department of Morphology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 31270-901, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Choubdar N, Karimian F, Koosha M, Oshaghi MA. An integrated overview of the bacterial flora composition of Hyalomma anatolicum, the main vector of CCHF. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009480. [PMID: 34106924 PMCID: PMC8216544 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbial flora associated with Hyalomma anatolicum ticks was investigated using culture-dependent (CD) and independent (next generation sequencing, NGS) methods. The bacterial profiles of different organs, development stages, sexes, and of host cattle skins were analyzed using the CD method. The egg and female gut microbiota were investigated using NGS. Fourteen distinct bacterial strains were identified using the CD method, of which Bacillus subtilis predominated in eggs, larval guts and in adult female and male guts, suggesting probable transovarial transmission. Bacillus velezensis and B. subtilis were identified in cattle skin and tick samples, suggesting that skin is the origin of tick bacteria. H.anatolicum males harbour lower bacterial diversity and composition than females. The NGS analysis revealed five different bacterial phyla across all samples, Proteobacteria contributing to >95% of the bacteria. In all, 56611sequences were generated representing 6,023 OTUs per female gut and 421 OTUs per egg. Francisellaceae family and Francisella make up the vast majority of the OTUs. Our findings are consistent with interference between Francisella and Rickettsia. The CD method identified bacteria, such B. subtilis that are candidates for vector control intervention approaches such paratransgenesis whereas NGS revealed high Francisella spp. prevalence, indicating that integrated methods are more accurate to characterize microbial community and diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nayyereh Choubdar
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fateh Karimian
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mona Koosha
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Ali Oshaghi
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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9
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O'Neal AJ, Singh N, Mendes MT, Pedra JHF. The genus Anaplasma: drawing back the curtain on tick-pathogen interactions. Pathog Dis 2021; 79:6207937. [PMID: 33792663 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftab022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tick-borne illnesses pose a serious concern to human and veterinary health and their prevalence is on the rise. The interactions between ticks and the pathogens they carry are largely undefined. However, the genus Anaplasma, a group of tick-borne bacteria, has been instrumental in uncovering novel paradigms in tick biology. The emergence of sophisticated technologies and the convergence of entomology with microbiology, immunology, metabolism and systems biology has brought tick-Anaplasma interactions to the forefront of vector biology with broader implications for the infectious disease community. Here, we discuss the use of Anaplasma as an instrument for the elucidation of novel principles in arthropod-microbe interactions. We offer an outlook of the primary areas of study, outstanding questions and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anya J O'Neal
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Nisha Singh
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Maria Tays Mendes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Joao H F Pedra
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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10
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Hernandez EP, Talactac MR, Fujisaki K, Tanaka T. The case for oxidative stress molecule involvement in the tick-pathogen interactions -an omics approach. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 100:103409. [PMID: 31200008 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.103409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The blood-feeding behavior of ticks has resulted in them becoming one of the most important vectors of disease-causing pathogens. Ticks possess a well-developed innate immune system to counter invading pathogens. However, the coevolution of ticks with tick-borne pathogens has adapted these pathogens to the tick's physiology and immune response through several mechanisms including transcriptional regulation. The recent development in tick and tick-borne disease research greatly involved the "omics" approach. The omics approach takes a look en masse at the different genes, proteins, metabolomes, and the microbiome of the ticks that could be differentiated during pathogen infection. Data from this approach revealed that oxidative stress-related molecules in ticks are differentiated and possibly being exploited by the pathogens to evade the tick's immune response. In this study, we review and discuss transcriptomic and proteomic data for some oxidative stress molecules differentially expressed during pathogen infection. We also discuss metabolomics and microbiome data as well as functional genomics in order to provide insight into the tick-pathogen interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Pacia Hernandez
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0056, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan
| | - Melbourne Rio Talactac
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0056, Japan; Department of Clinical and Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Cavite State University, Cavite, 4122, Philippines
| | - Kozo Fujisaki
- National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, Joint Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kagoshima University, 1-21-24 Korimoto, Kagoshima, 890-0056, Japan; Department of Pathological and Preventive Veterinary Science, The United Graduate School of Veterinary Science, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan.
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11
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Kumar D, Embers M, Mather TN, Karim S. Is selenoprotein K required for Borrelia burgdorferi infection within the tick vector Ixodes scapularis? Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:289. [PMID: 31174589 PMCID: PMC6555942 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3548-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick selenoproteins are involved in regulating oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress during prolonged tick feeding on mammalian hosts. How selenoproteins are activated upon tick-borne pathogen infection is yet to be defined. Methods To examine the functional role of selenoprotein K in Borrelia burgdorferi infection within the tick host Ixodes scapularis, RNA interference (RNAi)-based gene silencing was performed. Results Selenoprotein K is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident protein and a component of the ERAD complex involved in ER homeostasis. A qRT-PCR assay revealed the significant upregulation of selenogene K (selenoK) expression in B. burgdorferi-infected tick tissues. Silencing of the selenoK transcript significantly depleted B. burgdorferi copies within the infected tick tissues. Upon selenoK knockdown, another component of the ERAD complex, selenoprotein S (selenoS), was significantly upregulated, suggesting a compensatory mechanism to maintain ER homeostasis within the tick tissues. Knockdown of selenoK also upregulated ER stress-related unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway components, ATF6 and EIF2. Conclusions The exact mechanisms that contribute to depletion of B. burgdorferi upon selenoK knockdown is yet to be determined, but this study suggests that selenoK may play a vital role in the survival of B. burgdorferi within the tick host. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3548-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak Kumar
- Department of of Cell and Molecular Biology, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Monica Embers
- Division of Immunology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70455, USA
| | - Thomas N Mather
- Center for Vector-Borne Disease, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, 02881, USA
| | - Shahid Karim
- Department of of Cell and Molecular Biology, School of Biological, Environmental, and Earth Sciences, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA.
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12
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Martins LA, Malossi CD, Galletti MFBDM, Ribeiro JM, Fujita A, Esteves E, Costa FB, Labruna MB, Daffre S, Fogaça AC. The Transcriptome of the Salivary Glands of Amblyomma aureolatum Reveals the Antimicrobial Peptide Microplusin as an Important Factor for the Tick Protection Against Rickettsia rickettsii Infection. Front Physiol 2019; 10:529. [PMID: 31130872 PMCID: PMC6509419 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The salivary glands (SG) of ixodid ticks play a pivotal role in blood feeding, producing both the cement and the saliva. The cement is an adhesive substance that helps the attachment of the tick to the host skin, while the saliva contains a rich mixture of antihemostatic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory substances that allow ticks to properly acquire the blood meal. The tick saliva is also a vehicle used by several pathogens to be transmitted to the vertebrate host, including various bacterial species from the genus Rickettsia. Rickettsia rickettsii is a tick-borne obligate intracellular bacterium that causes the severe Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In Brazil, the dog yellow tick Amblyomma aureolatum is a vector of R. rickettsii. In the current study, the effects of an experimental infection with R. rickettsii on the global gene expression profile of A. aureolatum SG was determined by next-generation RNA sequencing. A total of 260 coding sequences (CDSs) were modulated by infection, among which 161 were upregulated and 99 were downregulated. Regarding CDSs in the immunity category, we highlight one sequence encoding one microplusin-like antimicrobial peptide (AMP) (Ambaur-69859). AMPs are important effectors of the arthropod immune system, which lack the adaptive response of the immune system of vertebrates. The expression of microplusin was confirmed to be significantly upregulated in the SG as well as in the midgut (MG) of infected A. aureolatum by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction preceded by reverse transcription. The knockdown of the microplusin expression by RNA interference caused a significant increase in the prevalence of infected ticks in relation to the control. In addition, a higher rickettsial load of one order of magnitude was recorded in both the MG and SG of ticks that received microplusin-specific dsRNA. No effect of microplusin knockdown was observed on the R. rickettsii transmission to rabbits. Moreover, no significant differences in tick engorgement and oviposition were recorded in ticks that received dsMicroplusin, demonstrating that microplusin knockdown has no effect on tick fitness. Further studies must be performed to determine the mechanism of action of this AMP against R. rickettsii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa A Martins
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila D Malossi
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria F B de M Galletti
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - José M Ribeiro
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - André Fujita
- Departamento de Ciência da Computação, Instituto de Matemática e Estatística, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Eliane Esteves
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco B Costa
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcelo B Labruna
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sirlei Daffre
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andréa C Fogaça
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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13
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Wang H, Zhang X, Wang X, Zhang B, Wang M, Yang X, Han X, Wang R, Ren S, Hu Y, Liu J. Comprehensive Analysis of the Global Protein Changes That Occur During Salivary Gland Degeneration in Female Ixodid Ticks Haemaphysalis longicornis. Front Physiol 2019; 9:1943. [PMID: 30723423 PMCID: PMC6349780 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are notorious blood-sucking arthropods that can spread a variety of pathogens and cause great harm to the health of humans, wildlife and domestic animals. The salivary glands of female ticks degenerate rapidly when the ticks reach critical weight or become engorged, which can be caused by hormones and by the synergistic effects of multiple proteins. To explore the complex molecular mechanisms of salivary gland degeneration in ticks, this study applies iTRAQ quantitative proteomic technology for the first time to study changes in protein expression in the salivary glands of female Haemaphysalis longicornis during the process of degeneration and to search for proteins that play an important role in salivary gland degeneration. It was found that the expression of some proteins associated with energy production was continuously down-regulated during salivary gland degeneration, while some proteins associated with DNA or protein degradation were consistently up-regulated. Furthermore, the expression of some proteins related to cell apoptosis or autophagy was also changed. These proteins were knocked down by RNAi to observe the phenotypic and physiological changes in female ticks. The results showed that the time required for engorgement and the mortality rates of the female ticks increased after RNAi of F0F1-type ATP synthase, NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase, cytochrome C, or apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). The corresponding engorged weights, oviposition amounts, and egg hatching rates of the female ticks decreased after RNAi. Interference of the expression of AIF in engorged ticks by RNAi showed that the degeneration of salivary glands of female ticks was slowed down.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Baowen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Minjing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xiaolong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Xuying Han
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Shuguang Ren
- The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yuhong Hu
- Instrumental Analysis Center, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Jingze Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Hebei Province, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
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De La Fuente J, Villar M, Estrada-Peña A, Olivas JA. High throughput discovery and characterization of tick and pathogen vaccine protective antigens using vaccinomics with intelligent Big Data analytic techniques. Expert Rev Vaccines 2018; 17:569-576. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2018.1493928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- José De La Fuente
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - Margarita Villar
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | | | - José A. Olivas
- Technologies and Information Systems Institute UCLM, Ciudad Real, Spain
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15
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Greay TL, Gofton AW, Paparini A, Ryan UM, Oskam CL, Irwin PJ. Recent insights into the tick microbiome gained through next-generation sequencing. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:12. [PMID: 29301588 PMCID: PMC5755153 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2550-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The tick microbiome comprises communities of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria and eukaryotes, and is being elucidated through modern molecular techniques. The advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies has enabled the genes and genomes within these microbial communities to be explored in a rapid and cost-effective manner. The advantages of using NGS to investigate microbiomes surpass the traditional non-molecular methods that are limited in their sensitivity, and conventional molecular approaches that are limited in their scalability. In recent years the number of studies using NGS to investigate the microbial diversity and composition of ticks has expanded. Here, we provide a review of NGS strategies for tick microbiome studies and discuss the recent findings from tick NGS investigations, including the bacterial diversity and composition, influential factors, and implications of the tick microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Telleasha L Greay
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia.
| | - Alexander W Gofton
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Andrea Paparini
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Una M Ryan
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Charlotte L Oskam
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Peter J Irwin
- Vector and Waterborne Pathogens Research Group, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
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16
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Immune-related redox metabolism of embryonic cells of the tick Rhipicephalus microplus (BME26) in response to infection with Anaplasma marginale. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:613. [PMID: 29258559 PMCID: PMC5738103 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2575-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is well known that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are involved in the control of pathogens and microbiota in insects. However, the knowledge of the role of ROS and RNS in tick-pathogen and tick-microbiota interactions is limited. Here, we evaluated the immune-related redox metabolism of the embryonic cell line BME26 from the cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus in response to Anaplasma marginale infection. Methods A high-throughput qPCR approach was used to determine the expression profile of 16 genes encoding proteins involved in either production or detoxification of ROS and RNS in response to different microbial challenges. In addition, the effect of RNAi-mediated gene silencing of catalase, glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin and protein oxidation resistance 1 in the control of infection with A. marginale was evaluated. Results Infection with A. marginale resulted in downregulation of the genes encoding ROS-generating enzymes dual oxidase and endoplasmic reticulum oxidase. In contrast, the genes encoding the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione S-transferase, thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and peroxiredoxin were upregulated. The gene expression pattern in response to infection with Rickettsia rickettsii and exposure to heat-killed microorganisms, Micrococcus luteus, Enterobacter cloacae or S. cerevisiae was the opposite of that triggered by A. marginale challenge. The simultaneous silencing of three genes, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and thioredoxin as well as the oxidation resistance 1 gene by RNAi apparently favoured the colonization of BME26 cells by A. marginale, suggesting that the antioxidant response might play a role in the control of infection. Conclusions Taken together, our results suggest that a general response of tick cells upon microbial stimuli is to increase ROS/RNS production. In contrast, A. marginale infection triggers an opposite profile, suggesting that this pathogen might manipulate the tick redox metabolism to evade the deleterious effect of the oxidant-based innate immune response. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2575-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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17
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Villar M, Marina A, de la Fuente J. Applying proteomics to tick vaccine development: where are we? Expert Rev Proteomics 2017; 14:211-221. [PMID: 28099817 DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2017.1284590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ticks are second to mosquitoes as a vector of human diseases and are the first vector of animal diseases with a great impact on livestock farming. Tick vaccines represent a sustainable and effective alternative to chemical acaricides for the control of tick infestations and transmitted pathogens. The application of proteomics to tick vaccine development is a fairly recent area, which has resulted in the characterization of some tick-host-pathogen interactions and the identification of candidate protective antigens. Areas covered: In this article, we review the application and possibilities of various proteomic approaches for the discovery of tick and pathogen derived protective antigens, and the design of effective vaccines for the control of tick infestations and pathogen infection and transmission. Expert commentary: In the near future, the application of reverse proteomics, immunoproteomics, structural proteomics, and interactomics among other proteomics approaches will likely contribute to improve vaccine design to control multiple tick species with the ultimate goal of controlling tick-borne diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Villar
- a Sabio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM , Ciudad Real , Spain
| | - Anabel Marina
- b Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa CBM-SO (CSIC-UAM) , Cantoblanco , Spain
| | - José de la Fuente
- a Sabio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM , Ciudad Real , Spain.,c Department of Veterinary Pathobiology , Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University , Stillwater , OK , USA
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18
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Zhang SM, Loker ES, Sullivan JT. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns activate expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, immunity and detoxification in the amebocyte-producing organ of the snail Biomphalaria glabrata. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 56:25-36. [PMID: 26592964 PMCID: PMC5335875 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The anterior pericardial wall of the snail Biomphalaria glabrata has been identified as a site of hemocyte production, hence has been named the amebocyte-producing organ (APO). A number of studies have shown that exogenous abiotic and biotic substances, including pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), are able to stimulate APO mitotic activity and/or enlarge its size, implying a role for the APO in innate immunity. The molecular mechanisms underlying such responses have not yet been explored, in part due to the difficulty in obtaining sufficient APO tissue for gene expression studies. By using a modified RNA extraction technique and microarray technology, we investigated transcriptomic responses of APOs dissected from snails at 24 h post-injection with two bacterial PAMPs, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and peptidoglycan (PGN), or with fucoidan (FCN), which may mimic fucosyl-rich glycan PAMPs on sporocysts of Schistosoma mansoni. Based upon the number of genes differentially expressed, LPS exhibited the strongest activity, relative to saline-injected controls. A concurrent activation of genes involved in cell proliferation, immune response and detoxification metabolism was observed. A gene encoding checkpoint 1 kinase, a key regulator of mitosis, was highly expressed after stimulation by LPS. Also, seven different aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that play an essential role in protein synthesis were found to be highly expressed. In addition to stimulating genes involved in cell proliferation, the injected substances, especially LPS, also induced expression of a number of immune-related genes including arginase, peptidoglycan recognition protein short form, tumor necrosis factor receptor, ficolin, calmodulin, bacterial permeability increasing proteins and E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase. Importantly, significant up-regulation was observed in four GiMAP (GTPase of immunity-associated protein) genes, a result which provides the first evidence suggesting an immune role of GiMAP in protostome animals. Moreover, altered expression of genes encoding cytochrome P450, glutathione-S-transferase, multiple drug resistance protein as well as a large number of genes encoding enzymes associated with degradation and detoxification metabolism was elicited in response to the injected substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Ming Zhang
- Center for Evolutionarily and Theoretical Immunology, Department of Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
| | - Eric S Loker
- Center for Evolutionarily and Theoretical Immunology, Department of Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Parasite Division, Museum of Southwestern Biology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA
| | - John T Sullivan
- Department of Biology, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA
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19
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Weisheit S, Villar M, Tykalová H, Popara M, Loecherbach J, Watson M, Růžek D, Grubhoffer L, de la Fuente J, Fazakerley JK, Bell-Sakyi L. Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes ricinus tick cell lines respond to infection with tick-borne encephalitis virus: transcriptomic and proteomic analysis. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:599. [PMID: 26582129 PMCID: PMC4652421 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1210-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ixodid ticks are important vectors of a wide variety of viral, bacterial and protozoan pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. Although several studies have elucidated tick responses to bacteria, little is known about the tick response to viruses. To gain insight into the response of tick cells to flavivirus infection, the transcriptomes and proteomes of two Ixodes spp cell lines infected with the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) were analysed. METHODS RNA and proteins were isolated from the Ixodes scapularis-derived cell line IDE8 and the Ixodes ricinus-derived cell line IRE/CTVM19, mock-infected or infected with TBEV, on day 2 post-infection (p.i.) when virus production was increasing, and on day 6 p.i. when virus production was decreasing. RNA-Seq and mass spectrometric technologies were used to identify changes in abundance of, respectively, transcripts and proteins. Functional analyses were conducted on selected transcripts using RNA interference (RNAi) for gene knockdown in tick cells infected with the closely-related but less pathogenic flavivirus Langat virus (LGTV). RESULTS Differential expression analysis using DESeq resulted in totals of 43 and 83 statistically significantly differentially-expressed transcripts in IDE8 and IRE/CTVM19 cells, respectively. Mass spectrometry detected 76 and 129 statistically significantly differentially-represented proteins in IDE8 and IRE/CTVM19 cells, respectively. Differentially-expressed transcripts and differentially-represented proteins included some that may be involved in innate immune and cell stress responses. Knockdown of the heat-shock proteins HSP90, HSP70 and gp96, the complement-associated protein Factor H and the protease trypsin resulted in increased LGTV replication and production in at least one tick cell line, indicating a possible antiviral role for these proteins. Knockdown of RNAi-associated proteins Argonaute and Dicer, which were included as positive controls, also resulted in increased LGTV replication and production in both cell lines, confirming their role in the antiviral RNAi pathway. CONCLUSIONS This systems biology approach identified several molecules that may be involved in the tick cell innate immune response against flaviviruses and highlighted that ticks, in common with other invertebrate species, have other antiviral responses in addition to RNAi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Weisheit
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, Scotland, EH25 9RG, UK.
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK.
- Institute for Cancer Research, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, 0377, Norway.
| | - Margarita Villar
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real, 13005, Spain.
| | - Hana Tykalová
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, České Budějovice (Budweis), 37005, Czech Republic.
| | - Marina Popara
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real, 13005, Spain.
| | - Julia Loecherbach
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, Scotland, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Mick Watson
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, Scotland, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Daniel Růžek
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, České Budějovice (Budweis), 37005, Czech Republic.
- Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 70, Brno, 62100, Czech Republic.
| | - Libor Grubhoffer
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Branisovska 31, České Budějovice (Budweis), 37005, Czech Republic.
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real, 13005, Spain.
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - John K Fazakerley
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, Scotland, EH25 9RG, UK.
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NF, UK.
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Kocan KM, de la Fuente J, Coburn LA. Insights into the development of Ixodes scapularis: a resource for research on a medically important tick species. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:592. [PMID: 26576940 PMCID: PMC4650338 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1185-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) are arthropod ectoparasites dependent on a bloodmeal from a vertebrate host at each developmental stage for completion of their life cycle. This tick feeding cycle impacts animal health by causing damage to hides, secondary infections, immune reactions and diseases caused by transmission of pathogens. The genus Ixodes includes several medically important species that vector diseases, including granulocytic anaplasmosis and Lyme disease. I. scapularis, commonly called the black-legged or deer tick, is a medically-important tick species in North America and therefore was the first tick genome to be sequenced, thus serving as an important resource for tick research. This Primer focuses on the normal developmental cycle and laboratory rearing of I. scapularis. Definition of normal morphology, along with a consistent source of laboratory-reared I. scapularis, are fundamental for all aspects of future research, especially the effects of genetic manipulation and the evaluation of tick vaccine efficacy. Recent research important for the advancement of tick research, namely the development of tick cell culture systems for study of ticks and tick-borne pathogens, RNA interference for genetic manipulation of ticks and discovery of candidate antigens for development of tick vaccines, are briefly presented along with areas to target for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M Kocan
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
| | - José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos (IREC)-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC)-Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha (UCLM)-Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha (JCCM), Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain.
| | - Lisa A Coburn
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
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Machado-Ferreira E, Balsemão-Pires E, Dietrich G, Hojgaard A, Vizzoni VF, Scoles G, Bell-Sakyi L, Piesman J, Zeidner NS, Soares CAG. Transgene expression in tick cells using Agrobacterium tumefaciens. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2015; 67:269-287. [PMID: 26188857 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-015-9949-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ticks transmit infectious agents to humans and other animals. Genetic manipulation of vectors like ticks could enhance the development of alternative disease control strategies. Transgene expression using the phytopathogen Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been shown to promote the genetic modification of non-plant cells. In the present work we developed T-DNA constructs for A. tumefaciens to mediate transgene expression in HeLa cells as well as Rhipicephalus microplus tick cells. Translational fusions eGfp:eGfp or Salp15:eGfp, including the enhanced-green fluorescent protein and the Ixodes scapularis salivary factor SALP15 genes, were constructed using the CaMV 35S (cauliflower mosaic virus) promoter, "PBm" tick promoter (R. microplus pyrethroid metabolizing esterase gene) or the Simian Virus SV40 promoter. Confocal microscopy, RT-PCR and Western-blot assays demonstrated transgene(s) expression in both cell lines. Transgene expression was also achieved in vivo, in both R. microplus and I. scapularis larvae utilizing a soaking method including the A. tumefaciens donor cells and confirmed by nested-RT-PCR showing eGfp or Salp15 poly-A-mRNA(s). This strategy opens up a new avenue to express exogenous genes in ticks and represents a potential breakthrough for the study of tick-host pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Machado-Ferreira
- Lab. Genética Molecular de Eucariontes e Simbiotes, Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Ilha do Fundão, CCS, Bloco A, Sala A2-120, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, CEP 21941-617, Brazil
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Atif FA. Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum: Rickettsiales pathogens of veterinary and public health significance. Parasitol Res 2015; 114:3941-57. [PMID: 26346451 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4698-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum are the most important tick-borne bacteria of veterinary and public health significance in the family Anaplasmataceae. The objective of current review is to provide knowledge on ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum and compare major similarities and differences of A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum. Bovine anaplasmosis is globally distributed tick-borne disease of livestock with great economic importance in cattle industry. A. phagocytophilum, a cosmopolitan zoonotic tick transmitted pathogen of wide mammalian hosts. The infection in domestic animals is generally referred as tick-borne fever. Concurrent infections exist in ticks, domestic and wild animals in same geographic area. All age groups are susceptible, but the prevalence increases with age. Movement of susceptible domestic animals from tick free non-endemic regions to disease endemic regions is the major risk factor of bovine anaplasmosis and tick-borne fever. Recreational activities or any other high-risk tick exposure habits as well as blood transfusion are important risk factors of human granulocytic anaplasmosis. After infection, individuals remain life-long carriers. Clinical anaplasmosis is usually diagnosed upon examination of stained blood smears. Generally, detection of serum antibodies followed by molecular diagnosis is usually recommended. There are problems of sensitivity and cross-reactivity with both the Anaplasma species during serological tests. Tetracyclines are the drugs of choice for treatment and elimination of anaplasmosis in animals and humans. Universal vaccine is not available for either A. marginale or A. phagocytophilum, effective against geographically diverse strains. Major control measures for bovine anaplasmosis and tick-borne fever include rearing of tick-resistant breeds, endemic stability, breeding Anaplasma-free herds, identification of regional vectors, domestic/wild reservoirs and control, habitat modification, biological control, chemotherapy, and vaccinations (anaplasmosis and/or tick vaccination). Minimizing the tick exposure activities, identification and control of reservoirs are important control measures for human granulocytic anaplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhan Ahmad Atif
- Department of Animal Sciences, University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan.
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Identification and Characterization of Anaplasma phagocytophilum Proteins Involved in Infection of the Tick Vector, Ixodes scapularis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137237. [PMID: 26340562 PMCID: PMC4560377 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Anaplasma phagocytophilum is an emerging zoonotic pathogen transmitted by Ixodes scapularis that causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis. Here, a high throughput quantitative proteomics approach was used to characterize A. phagocytophilum proteome during rickettsial multiplication and identify proteins involved in infection of the tick vector, I. scapularis. The first step in this research was focused on tick cells infected with A. phagocytophilum and sampled at two time points containing 10–15% and 65–71% infected cells, respectively to identify key bacterial proteins over-represented in high percentage infected cells. The second step was focused on adult female tick guts and salivary glands infected with A. phagocytophilum to compare in vitro results with those occurring during bacterial infection in vivo. The results showed differences in the proteome of A. phagocytophilum in infected ticks with higher impact on protein synthesis and processing than on bacterial replication in tick salivary glands. These results correlated well with the developmental cycle of A. phagocytophilum, in which cells convert from an intracellular reticulated, replicative form to the nondividing infectious dense-core form. The analysis of A. phagocytophilum differentially represented proteins identified stress response (GroEL, HSP70) and surface (MSP4) proteins that were over-represented in high percentage infected tick cells and salivary glands when compared to low percentage infected cells and guts, respectively. The results demonstrated that MSP4, GroEL and HSP70 interact and bind to tick cells, thus playing a role in rickettsia-tick interactions. The most important finding of these studies is the increase in the level of certain bacterial stress response and surface proteins in A. phagocytophilum-infected tick cells and salivary glands with functional implication in tick-pathogen interactions. These results gave a new dimension to the role of these stress response and surface proteins during A. phagocytophilum infection in ticks. Characterization of Anaplasma proteome contributes information on host-pathogen interactions and provides targets for development of novel control strategies for pathogen infection and transmission.
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24
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de la Fuente J, Contreras M. Tick vaccines: current status and future directions. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1367-76. [DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1076339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Tuckow AP, Temeyer KB. Discovery, adaptation and transcriptional activity of two tick promoters: Construction of a dual luciferase reporter system for optimization of RNA interference in rhipicephalus (boophilus) microplus cell lines. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 24:454-466. [PMID: 25892533 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Dual luciferase reporter systems are valuable tools for functional genomic studies, but have not previously been developed for use in tick cell culture. We evaluated expression of available luciferase constructs in tick cell cultures derived from Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, an important vector of bovine babesiosis and anaplasmosis. Commercial promoters were evaluated for transcriptional activity driving luciferase expression in the tick cell lines. The human phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) promoter resulted in detectable firefly luciferase activity within 2 days post-transfection of the R. microplus cell line BME26, with maximal activity at 5 days post-transfection. Several other promoters were weaker or inactive in the tick cells, prompting identification and assessment of transcriptional activity of the homologous ribosomal protein L4 (rpL4, GenBank accession no.: KM516205) and elongation factor 1α (EF-1α, GenBank accession no.: KM516204) promoters cloned from R. microplus. Evaluation of luciferase expression driven by various promoters in tick cell culture resulted in selection of the R. microplus rpL4 promoter and the human PGK promoter driving transcription of sequences encoding modified firefly and NanoLuc® luciferases for construction of a dual luciferase reporter system for use in tick cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- A P Tuckow
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory, Kerrville, TX, USA
| | - K B Temeyer
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Knipling-Bushland U.S. Livestock Insects Research Laboratory, Kerrville, TX, USA
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26
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Domingos A, Antunes S, Villar M, de la Fuente J. Functional genomics of tick vectors challenged with the cattle parasite Babesia bigemina. Methods Mol Biol 2015; 1247:475-489. [PMID: 25399115 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2004-4_32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites considered as vectors of animal diseases, having a huge economic impact in cattle industry. Babesia spp. are tick-borne pathogens that cause a disease called babesiosis in a wide range of animals and in humans. Control of tick infestations is mainly based on the use of acaricides, which have limited efficacy reducing tick infestations, mostly due to wrong usage, and is often accompanied by the selection of acaricide-resistant ticks, environmental contamination, and contamination of milk and meat products. Vaccines affecting both vector and pathogens constitute new control strategies for tick and tick-borne diseases and are, therefore, a good alternative to chemical control. In this chapter we describe the identification of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus genes differentially expressed in response to infection with B. bigemina by using suppression-subtractive hybridization (SSH), which allows the identification of differentially expressed genes. The results of the SSH studies are validated by real-time reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. Functional analyses are conducted by RNAi on selected R. annulatus genes to determine their putative role in B. bigemina-tick interactions. Gathered data may be useful for the future development of improved vaccines and vaccination strategies to control babesiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Domingos
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal,
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27
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Bifano TD, Ueti MW, Esteves E, Reif KE, Braz GRC, Scoles GA, Bastos RG, White SN, Daffre S. Knockdown of the Rhipicephalus microplus cytochrome c oxidase subunit III gene is associated with a failure of Anaplasma marginale transmission. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98614. [PMID: 24878588 PMCID: PMC4039488 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhipicephalus microplus is an obligate hematophagous ectoparasite of cattle and an important biological vector of Anaplasma marginale in tropical and subtropical regions. The primary determinants for A. marginale transmission are infection of the tick gut, followed by infection of salivary glands. Transmission of A. marginale to cattle occurs via infected saliva delivered during tick feeding. Interference in colonization of either the tick gut or salivary glands can affect transmission of A. marginale to naïve animals. In this study, we used the tick embryonic cell line BME26 to identify genes that are modulated in response to A. marginale infection. Suppression-subtractive hybridization libraries (SSH) were constructed, and five up-regulated genes {glutathione S-transferase (GST), cytochrome c oxidase sub III (COXIII), dynein (DYN), synaptobrevin (SYN) and phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-triphosphate 3-phosphatase (PHOS)} were selected as targets for functional in vivo genomic analysis. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to determine the effect of tick gene knockdown on A. marginale acquisition and transmission. Although RNAi consistently knocked down all individually examined tick genes in infected tick guts and salivary glands, only the group of ticks injected with dsCOXIII failed to transmit A. marginale to naïve calves. To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that RNAi of a tick gene is associated with a failure of A. marginale transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thais D. Bifano
- Department of Parasitology, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Massaro W. Ueti
- Animal Diseases Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, Washington United States of America
| | - Eliane Esteves
- Department of Parasitology, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Kathryn E. Reif
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Glória R. C. Braz
- Department of Biochemistry, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Glen A. Scoles
- Animal Diseases Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, Washington United States of America
| | - Reginaldo G. Bastos
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, United States of America
| | - Stephen N. White
- Animal Diseases Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, Washington United States of America
| | - Sirlei Daffre
- Department of Parasitology, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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28
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Moniuszko A, Rückert C, Alberdi MP, Barry G, Stevenson B, Fazakerley JK, Kohl A, Bell-Sakyi L. Coinfection of tick cell lines has variable effects on replication of intracellular bacterial and viral pathogens. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:415-22. [PMID: 24685441 PMCID: PMC4058533 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2014.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ticks transmit various human and animal microbial pathogens and may harbour more than one pathogen simultaneously. Both viruses and bacteria can trigger, and may subsequently suppress, vertebrate host and arthropod vector anti-microbial responses. Microbial coinfection of ticks could lead to an advantage or disadvantage for one or more of the microorganisms. In this preliminary study, cell lines derived from the ticks Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes ricinus were infected sequentially with 2 arthropod-borne pathogens, Borrelia burgdorferi s.s., Ehrlichia ruminantium, or Semliki Forest virus (SFV), and the effect of coinfection on the replication of these pathogens was measured. Prior infection of tick cell cultures with the spirochaete B. burgdorferi enhanced subsequent replication of the rickettsial pathogen E. ruminantium whereas addition of spirochaetes to cells infected with E. ruminantium had no effect on growth of the latter. Both prior and subsequent presence of B. burgdorferi also had a positive effect on SFV replication. Presence of E. ruminantium or SFV had no measurable effect on B. burgdorferi growth. In tick cells infected first with E. ruminantium and then with SFV, virus replication was significantly higher across all time points measured (24, 48, 72h post infection), while presence of the virus had no detectable effect on bacterial growth. When cells were infected first with SFV and then with E. ruminantium, there was no effect on replication of either pathogen. The results of this preliminary study indicate that interplay does occur between different pathogens during infection of tick cells. Further study is needed to determine if this results from direct pathogen-pathogen interaction or from effects on host cell defences, and to determine if these observations also apply in vivo in ticks. If presence of one pathogen in the tick vector results in increased replication of another, this could have implications for disease transmission and incidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Moniuszko
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK; Department of Infectious Diseases and Neuroinfections, Medical University in Białystok, Żurawia 14, 15-540 Białystok, Poland
| | - Claudia Rückert
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK
| | - M Pilar Alberdi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK
| | - Gerald Barry
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK
| | - Brian Stevenson
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, MS421 Chandler Medical Center, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0298, USA
| | - John K Fazakerley
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK; The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Alain Kohl
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK
| | - Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG, Scotland, UK.
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Duscher GG, Galindo RC, Tichy A, Hummel K, Kocan KM, de la Fuente J. Glutathione S-transferase affects permethrin detoxification in the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 5:225-33. [PMID: 24548526 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Control of ticks on dogs is often done by application of repellents that contain permethrin as the active ingredient. In this research, we studied the role of a glutathione S-transferase (GST) gene in detoxification of permethrin by ticks using a gene silencing method RNA interference (RNAi). The brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, used in these studies, has a notable host preference for dogs, but also infests other mammals. In this research, R. sanguineus females were injected with gst double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to effect gene silencing by RNAi and then exposed to sublethal doses of permethrin. Sixty hours after injection, the females were allowed to feed on sheep. The female ticks subjected to RNAi proved to be more susceptible to permethrin than the untreated controls. The effect of gene silencing was most notable in the highest dose group (50.3 ppm) in which all ticks died, while in the corresponding controls that were not subjected to RNAi this dose was not lethal. The acaricide treatment of the ticks resulted in a change in tick attachment behavior. Acaricide-treated ticks attached in a scattered pattern in contrast to the control ticks that attached and fed tightly clustered together. The time required for repletion for both the injected and non-injected females exposed to the higher permethrin level was shorter than that observed in the lower-dose groups and unexposed controls, and this more rapid attachment and feeding would likely favor more rapid transmission of pathogens. However, engorgement and egg mass weights were not significantly different among the experimental groups. This research demonstrated that the silencing of the gst gene increased the tick's susceptibility to permethrin. Overall, these results have contributed to our understanding of the detoxification mechanism of ticks and provide new considerations for the formulation of treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Gerhard Duscher
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Ruth Cecilia Galindo
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, USA; Institute for Population Genetics, Department for Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Tichy
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Karin Hummel
- VetCore Facility for Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Katherine M Kocan
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, USA
| | - José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, USA; Institute for Population Genetics, Department for Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
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30
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Petchampai N, Sunyakumthorn P, Guillotte ML, Thepparit C, Kearney MT, Mulenga A, Azad AF, Macaluso KR. Molecular and functional characterization of vacuolar-ATPase from the American dog tick Dermacentor variabilis. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2014; 23:42-51. [PMID: 24164319 PMCID: PMC4237192 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Vacuolar (V)-ATPase is a proton-translocating enzyme that acidifies cellular compartments for various functions such as receptor-mediated endocytosis, intracellular trafficking and protein degradation. Previous studies in Dermacentor variabilis chronically infected with Rickettsia montanensis have identified V-ATPase as one of the tick-derived molecules transcribed in response to rickettsial infection. To examine the role of the tick V-ATPase in tick-Rickettsia interactions, a full-length 2887-bp cDNA (2532-bp open reading frame) clone corresponding to the transcript of the V0 domain subunit a of D. variabilis V-ATPase (DvVATPaseV0a) gene encoding an 843 amino acid protein with an estimated molecular weight of ~96 kDa was isolated from D. variabilis. Amino acid sequence analysis of DvVATPaseV0a showed the highest similarity to VATPaseV0a from Ixodes scapularis. A potential N-glycosylation site and eight putative transmembrane segments were identified in the sequence. Western blot analysis of tick tissues probed with polyclonal antibody raised against recombinant DvVATPaseV0a revealed the expression of V-ATPase in the tick ovary. Transcriptional profiles of DvVATPaseV0a demonstrated a greater mRNA expression in the tick ovary, compared with the midgut and salivary glands; however, the mRNA level in each of these tick tissues remained unchanged after infection with R. montanensis for 1 h. V-ATPase inhibition bioassays resulted in a significant decrease in the ability of R. montanensis to invade tick cells in vitro, suggesting a role of V-ATPase in rickettsial infection of tick cells. Characterization of tick-derived molecules involved in rickettsial infection is essential for a thorough understanding of rickettsial transmission within tick populations and the ecology of tick-borne rickettsial diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Petchampai
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - P Sunyakumthorn
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Mahidol UniversityBangkok, Thailand
| | - M L Guillotte
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - C Thepparit
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
- Center for Vaccine Development, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol UniversityNakorn Pathom, Thailand
| | - M T Kearney
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - A Mulenga
- Department of Entomology, 2475 Texas A & M UniversityCollege Station, TX, USA
| | - A F Azad
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of MarylandBaltimore, MD, USA
| | - K R Macaluso
- Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, LA, USA
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Abstract
Ticks are the most common arthropod vector, after mosquitoes, and are capable of transmitting the greatest variety of pathogens. For both humans and animals, the worldwide emergence or re-emergence of tick-borne disease is becoming increasingly problematic. Despite being such an important issue, our knowledge of pathogen transmission by ticks is incomplete. Several recent studies, reviewed here, have reported that the expression of some tick factors can be modulated in response to pathogen infection, and that some of these factors can impact on the pathogenic life cycle. Delineating the specific tick factors required for tick-borne pathogen transmission should lead to new strategies in the disruption of pathogen life cycles to combat emerging tick-borne disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Ye Liu
- USC INRA Bartonella-tiques, UMR BIPAR ENVA-ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Sarah I. Bonnet
- USC INRA Bartonella-tiques, UMR BIPAR ENVA-ANSES, Maisons-Alfort, France
- * E-mail:
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32
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Antunes S, Merino O, Mosqueda J, Moreno-Cid JA, Bell-Sakyi L, Fragkoudis R, Weisheit S, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Alberdi P, Domingos A, de la Fuente J. Tick capillary feeding for the study of proteins involved in tick-pathogen interactions as potential antigens for the control of tick infestation and pathogen infection. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:42. [PMID: 24450836 PMCID: PMC3900739 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ticks represent a significant health risk to animals and humans due to the variety of pathogens they can transmit during feeding. The traditional use of chemicals to control ticks has serious drawbacks, including the selection of acaricide-resistant ticks and environmental contamination with chemical residues. Vaccination with the tick midgut antigen BM86 was shown to be a good alternative for cattle tick control. However, results vary considerably between tick species and geographic location. Therefore, new antigens are required for the development of vaccines controlling both tick infestations and pathogen infection/transmission. Tick proteins involved in tick-pathogen interactions may provide good candidate protective antigens for these vaccines, but appropriate screening procedures are needed to select the best candidates. Methods In this study, we selected proteins involved in tick-Anaplasma (Subolesin and SILK) and tick-Babesia (TROSPA) interactions and used in vitro capillary feeding to characterize their potential as antigens for the control of cattle tick infestations and infection with Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina. Purified rabbit polyclonal antibodies were generated against recombinant SUB, SILK and TROSPA and added to uninfected or infected bovine blood to capillary-feed female Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus ticks. Tick weight, oviposition and pathogen DNA levels were determined in treated and control ticks. Results The specificity of purified rabbit polyclonal antibodies against tick recombinant proteins was confirmed by Western blot and against native proteins in tick cell lines and tick tissues using immunofluorescence. Capillary-fed ticks ingested antibodies added to the blood meal and the effect of these antibodies on tick weight and oviposition was shown. However, no effect was observed on pathogen DNA levels. Conclusions These results highlighted the advantages and some of the disadvantages of in vitro tick capillary feeding for the characterization of candidate tick protective antigens. While an effect on tick weight and oviposition was observed, the effect on pathogen levels was not evident probably due to high tick-to-tick variations among other factors. Nevertheless, these results together with previous results of RNA interference functional studies suggest that these proteins are good candidate vaccine antigens for the control of R. microplus infestations and infection with A. marginale and B. bigemina.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain.
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Cotté V, Sabatier L, Schnell G, Carmi-Leroy A, Rousselle JC, Arsène-Ploetze F, Malandrin L, Sertour N, Namane A, Ferquel E, Choumet V. Differential expression of Ixodes ricinus salivary gland proteins in the presence of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. J Proteomics 2014; 96:29-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Adamson SW, Browning RE, Budachetri K, Ribeiro JMC, Karim S. Knockdown of selenocysteine-specific elongation factor in Amblyomma maculatum alters the pathogen burden of Rickettsia parkeri with epigenetic control by the Sin3 histone deacetylase corepressor complex. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82012. [PMID: 24282621 PMCID: PMC3840058 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Selenocysteine is the 21st naturally-occurring amino acid. Selenoproteins have diverse functions and many remain uncharacterized, but they are typically associated with antioxidant activity. The incorporation of selenocysteine into the nascent polypeptide chain recodes the TGA stop codon and this process depends upon a number of essential factors including the selenocysteine elongation factor (SEF). The transcriptional expression of SEF did not change significantly in tick midguts throughout the blood meal, but decreased in salivary glands to 20% at the end of the fast feeding phase. Since selenoprotein translation requires this specialized elongation factor, we targeted this gene for knockdown by RNAi to gain a global view of the role selenoproteins play in tick physiology. We found no significant differences in tick engorgement and embryogenesis but detected no antioxidant capacity in tick saliva. The transcriptional profile of selenoproteins in R. parkeri-infected Amblyomma maculatum revealed declined activity of selenoprotein M and catalase and increased activity of selenoprotein O, selenoprotein S, and selenoprotein T. Furthermore, the pathogen burden was significantly altered in SEF-knockdowns. We then determined the global impact of SEF-knockdown by RNA-seq, and mapped huge shifts in secretory gene expression that could be the result of downregulation of the Sin3 histone deacetylase corepressor complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven W. Adamson
- Department of Biological Sciences, the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Rebecca E. Browning
- Department of Biological Sciences, the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - Khemraj Budachetri
- Department of Biological Sciences, the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, United States of America
| | - José M. C. Ribeiro
- Vector Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Shahid Karim
- Department of Biological Sciences, the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, Mississippi, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Choy A, Severo MS, Sun R, Girke T, Gillespie JJ, Pedra JHF. Decoding the ubiquitin-mediated pathway of arthropod disease vectors. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78077. [PMID: 24205097 PMCID: PMC3804464 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein regulation by ubiquitin has been extensively described in model organisms. However, characterization of the ubiquitin machinery in disease vectors remains mostly unknown. This fundamental gap in knowledge presents a concern because new therapeutics are needed to control vector-borne diseases, and targeting the ubiquitin machinery as a means for disease intervention has been already adopted in the clinic. In this study, we employed a bioinformatics approach to uncover the ubiquitin-mediated pathway in the genomes of Anopheles gambiae, Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus, Ixodes scapularis, Pediculus humanus and Rhodnius prolixus. We observed that (1) disease vectors encode a lower percentage of ubiquitin-related genes when compared to Drosophila melanogaster, Mus musculus and Homo sapiens but not Saccharomyces cerevisiae; (2) overall, there are more proteins categorized as E3 ubiquitin ligases when compared to E2-conjugating or E1-activating enzymes; (3) the ubiquitin machinery within the three mosquito genomes is highly similar; (4) ubiquitin genes are more than doubled in the Chagas disease vector (R. prolixus) when compared to other arthropod vectors; (5) the deer tick I. scapularis and the body louse (P. humanus) genomes carry low numbers of E1-activating enzymes and HECT-type E3 ubiquitin ligases; (6) R. prolixus have low numbers of RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligases; and (7) C. quinquefasciatus present elevated numbers of predicted F-box E3 ubiquitin ligases, JAB and UCH deubiquitinases. Taken together, these findings provide novel opportunities to study the interaction between a pathogen and an arthropod vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Choy
- Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Maiara S. Severo
- Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Ruobai Sun
- "Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Thomas Girke
- "Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph J. Gillespie
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Joao H. F. Pedra
- Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Merino O, Antunes S, Mosqueda J, Moreno-Cid JA, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Rosario-Cruz R, Rodríguez S, Domingos A, de la Fuente J. Vaccination with proteins involved in tick-pathogen interactions reduces vector infestations and pathogen infection. Vaccine 2013; 31:5889-96. [PMID: 24084474 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Tick-borne pathogens cause diseases that greatly impact animal health and production worldwide. The ultimate goal of tick vaccines is to protect against tick-borne diseases through the control of vector infestations and reducing pathogen infection and transmission. Tick genetic traits are involved in vector-pathogen interactions and some of these molecules such as Subolesin (SUB) have been shown to protect against vector infestations and pathogen infection. Based on these premises, herein we characterized the efficacy of cattle vaccination with tick proteins involved in vector-pathogen interactions, TROSPA, SILK, and Q38 for the control of cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus infestations and infection with Anaplasma marginale and Babesia bigemina. SUB and adjuvant/saline placebo were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The results showed that vaccination with Q38, SILK and SUB reduced tick infestations and oviposition with vaccine efficacies of 75% (Q38), 62% (SILK) and 60% (SUB) with respect to ticks fed on placebo control cattle. Vaccination with TROSPA did not have a significant effect on any of the tick parameters analyzed. The results also showed that vaccination with Q38, TROSPA and SUB reduced B. bigemina DNA levels in ticks while vaccination with SILK and SUB resulted in lower A. marginale DNA levels when compared to ticks fed on placebo control cattle. The positive correlation between antigen-specific antibody titers and reduction of tick infestations and pathogen infection strongly suggested that the effect of the vaccine was the result of the antibody response in vaccinated cattle. Vaccination and co-infection with A. marginale and B. bigemina also affected the expression of genes encoding for vaccine antigens in ticks fed on cattle. These results showed that vaccines using tick proteins involved in vector-pathogen interactions could be used for the dual control of tick infestations and pathogen infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Octavio Merino
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
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Stuen S, Granquist EG, Silaghi C. Anaplasma phagocytophilum--a widespread multi-host pathogen with highly adaptive strategies. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:31. [PMID: 23885337 PMCID: PMC3717505 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 368] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Anaplasma phagocytophilum has for decades been known to cause the disease tick-borne fever (TBF) in domestic ruminants in Ixodes ricinus-infested areas in northern Europe. In recent years, the bacterium has been found associated with Ixodes-tick species more or less worldwide on the northern hemisphere. A. phagocytophilum has a broad host range and may cause severe disease in several mammalian species, including humans. However, the clinical symptoms vary from subclinical to fatal conditions, and considerable underreporting of clinical incidents is suspected in both human and veterinary medicine. Several variants of A. phagocytophilum have been genetically characterized. Identification and stratification into phylogenetic subfamilies has been based on cell culturing, experimental infections, PCR, and sequencing techniques. However, few genome sequences have been completed so far, thus observations on biological, ecological, and pathological differences between genotypes of the bacterium, have yet to be elucidated by molecular and experimental infection studies. The natural transmission cycles of various A. phagocytophilum variants, the involvement of their respective hosts and vectors involved, in particular the zoonotic potential, have to be unraveled. A. phagocytophilum is able to persist between seasons of tick activity in several mammalian species and movement of hosts and infected ticks on migrating animals or birds may spread the bacterium. In the present review, we focus on the ecology and epidemiology of A. phagocytophilum, especially the role of wildlife in contribution to the spread and sustainability of the infection in domestic livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snorre Stuen
- Department of Production Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science Sandnes, Norway.
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Hajdušek O, Síma R, Ayllón N, Jalovecká M, Perner J, de la Fuente J, Kopáček P. Interaction of the tick immune system with transmitted pathogens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:26. [PMID: 23875177 PMCID: PMC3712896 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks are hematophagous arachnids transmitting a wide variety of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, and protozoans to their vertebrate hosts. The tick vector competence has to be intimately linked to the ability of transmitted pathogens to evade tick defense mechanisms encountered on their route through the tick body comprising midgut, hemolymph, salivary glands or ovaries. Tick innate immunity is, like in other invertebrates, based on an orchestrated action of humoral and cellular immune responses. The direct antimicrobial defense in ticks is accomplished by a variety of small molecules such as defensins, lysozymes or by tick-specific antimicrobial compounds such as microplusin/hebraein or 5.3-kDa family proteins. Phagocytosis of the invading microbes by tick hemocytes is likely mediated by the primordial complement-like system composed of thioester-containing proteins, fibrinogen-related lectins and convertase-like factors. Moreover, an important role in survival of the ingested microbes seems to be played by host proteins and redox balance maintenance in the tick midgut. Here, we summarize recent knowledge about the major components of tick immune system and focus on their interaction with the relevant tick-transmitted pathogens, represented by spirochetes (Borrelia), rickettsiae (Anaplasma), and protozoans (Babesia). Availability of the tick genomic database and feasibility of functional genomics based on RNA interference greatly contribute to the understanding of molecular and cellular interplay at the tick-pathogen interface and may provide new targets for blocking the transmission of tick pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Hajdušek
- Biological Centre ASCR, Institute of Parasitology České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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Naranjo V, Ayllón N, Pérez de la Lastra JM, Galindo RC, Kocan KM, Blouin EF, Mitra R, Alberdi P, Villar M, de la Fuente J. Reciprocal regulation of NF-kB (Relish) and Subolesin in the tick vector, Ixodes scapularis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e65915. [PMID: 23776567 PMCID: PMC3680474 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0065915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tick Subolesin and its ortholog in insects and vertebrates, Akirin, have been suggested to play a role in the immune response through regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB)-dependent and independent gene expression via interaction with intermediate proteins that interact with NF-kB and other regulatory proteins, bind DNA or remodel chromatin to regulate gene expression. The objective of this study was to characterize the structure and regulation of subolesin in Ixodes scapularis. I. scapularis is a vector of emerging pathogens such as Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti that cause in humans Lyme disease, anaplasmosis and babesiosis, respectively. The genome of I. scapularis was recently sequenced, and this tick serves as a model organism for the study of vector-host-pathogen interactions. However, basic biological questions such as gene organization and regulation are largely unknown in ticks and other arthropod vectors. Principal Findings The results presented here provide evidence that subolesin/akirin are evolutionarily conserved at several levels (primary sequence, gene organization and function), thus supporting their crucial biological function in metazoans. These results showed that NF-kB (Relish) is involved in the regulation of subolesin expression in ticks, suggesting that as in other organisms, different NF-kB integral subunits and/or unknown interacting proteins regulate the specificity of the NF-kB-mediated gene expression. These results suggested a regulatory network involving cross-regulation between NF-kB (Relish) and Subolesin and Subolesin auto-regulation with possible implications in tick immune response to bacterial infection. Significance These results advance our understanding of gene organization and regulation in I. scapularis and have important implications for arthropod vectors genetics and immunology highlighting the possible role of NF-kB and Subolesin/Akirin in vector-pathogen interactions and for designing new strategies for the control of vector infestations and pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Naranjo
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Nieves Ayllón
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | | | - Ruth C. Galindo
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Katherine M. Kocan
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Edmour F. Blouin
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Ruchira Mitra
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Pilar Alberdi
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Margarita Villar
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - José de la Fuente
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
- SaBio, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Domingos A, Antunes S, Borges L, Rosario VED. Approaches towards tick and tick-borne diseases control. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2013; 46:265-9. [DOI: 10.1590/0037-8682-0014-2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 02/21/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Domingos
- Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Portugal
| | | | - Lara Borges
- Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Portugal
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Severo MS, Sakhon OS, Choy A, Stephens KD, Pedra JHF. The 'ubiquitous' reality of vector immunology. Cell Microbiol 2013; 15:1070-8. [PMID: 23433059 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ubiquitination (ubiquitylation) is a common protein modification that regulates a multitude of processes within the cell. This modification is typically accomplished through the covalent binding of ubiquitin to a lysine residue onto a target protein and is catalysed by the presence of three enzymes: an activating enzyme (E1), ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2) and ubiquitin-protein ligase (E3). In recent years, ubiquitination has risen as a major signalling regulator of immunity and microbial pathogenesis in the mammalian system. Still, little is known about how ubiquitin relates specifically to vector immunology. Here, we provide a brief overview of ubiquitin biochemistry and describe how ubiquitination regulates immune responses in arthropods of medical relevance. We also discuss scientific gaps in the literature and suggest that, similar to mammals, ubiquitin is a major regulator of immunity in medically important arthropods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maiara S Severo
- Center for Disease Vector Research and Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Barry G, Alberdi P, Schnettler E, Weisheit S, Kohl A, Fazakerley JK, Bell-Sakyi L. Gene silencing in tick cell lines using small interfering or long double-stranded RNA. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2013; 59:319-38. [PMID: 22773071 PMCID: PMC3557390 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-012-9598-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Gene silencing by RNA interference (RNAi) is an important research tool in many areas of biology. To effectively harness the power of this technique in order to explore tick functional genomics and tick-microorganism interactions, optimised parameters for RNAi-mediated gene silencing in tick cells need to be established. Ten cell lines from four economically important ixodid tick genera (Amblyomma, Hyalomma, Ixodes and Rhipicephalus including the sub-species Boophilus) were used to examine key parameters including small interfering RNA (siRNA), double stranded RNA (dsRNA), transfection reagent and incubation time for silencing virus reporter and endogenous tick genes. Transfection reagents were essential for the uptake of siRNA whereas long dsRNA alone was taken up by most tick cell lines. Significant virus reporter protein knockdown was achieved using either siRNA or dsRNA in all the cell lines tested. Optimum conditions varied according to the cell line. Consistency between replicates and duration of incubation with dsRNA were addressed for two Ixodes scapularis cell lines; IDE8 supported more consistent and effective silencing of the endogenous gene subolesin than ISE6, and highly significant knockdown of the endogenous gene 2I1F6 in IDE8 cells was achieved within 48 h incubation with dsRNA. In summary, this study shows that gene silencing by RNAi in tick cell lines is generally more efficient with dsRNA than with siRNA but results vary between cell lines and optimal parameters need to be determined for each experimental system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Barry
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
- Present Address: Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH UK
| | - Pilar Alberdi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
| | - Esther Schnettler
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
- Present Address: MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 8 Church Street, Glasgow, G11 5JR UK
| | - Sabine Weisheit
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
| | - Alain Kohl
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
- Present Address: MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, 8 Church Street, Glasgow, G11 5JR UK
| | - John K. Fazakerley
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
- Present Address: Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF UK
| | - Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian EH25 9RG UK
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Passos LMF. In vitro cultivation of Anaplasma marginale and A. phagocytophilum in tick cell lines: a review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 21:81-6. [PMID: 22832744 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612012000200002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Continuous cell lines have been established from several ixodid and argasid tick species, representing an excellent tool suitable for the isolation of pathogens and their subsequent propagation, which in turn allows the production of antigenic material for diagnostic tests, antibody and vaccine production, and also for studies on host-vector-pathogen relationships. This paper reviews the use of tick cells for culture initiation and maintenance of two obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens, Anaplasma marginale and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. These in vitro cultivation systems have been used in a wide range of studies, covering morphological ultrastructural analysis, genetics, proteomics and biological differences between strains, including genome transcriptional and protein expression approaches, enabling comparisons between host and vector cells. Thus, such systems open a new window for a better understanding of interactions between pathogens and tick cells. Last but not least, such systems contribute to the reduction in usage of animals for experimental research, as antigenic material can be produced in reasonably large quantities without the use of in vivo species-specific systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lygia Maria Friche Passos
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Instituto Nacional em Ciência e Tecnologia--Informação Genético-Sanitária da Pecuária Brasileira, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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45
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Louw E, van der Merwe NA, Neitz AWH, Maritz-Olivier C. Evolution of the tissue factor pathway inhibitor-like Kunitz domain-containing protein family in Rhipicephalus microplus. Int J Parasitol 2012; 43:81-94. [PMID: 23220044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2012] [Revised: 11/14/2012] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
One of the principle mechanisms utilised by ticks to obtain a blood meal is the subversion of the host's haemostatic response. This is achieved through the secretion of saliva containing anti-haemostatic proteins into the feeding lesion. Lineage-specific expansion of predicted secretory protein families have been observed in all previously studied ticks and occurred in response to adaptation to a blood-feeding environment. Of these, the predominant families are common between both hard and soft ticks. One of these families, namely the Kunitz domain-containing protein family, includes proven tissue factor pathway inhibitor-like (TFPI-like) anti-haemostatics such as ixolaris and penthalaris that play a crucial role during tick feeding. Although Kunitz-type proteins have been found in Rhipicephalus microplus, the TFPI-like Kunitz protein family has not yet been studied. We report a comprehensive search for TFPI-like Kunitz domain-containing proteins in R. microplus expressed sequence tag libraries, resulting in the identification of 42 homologues. The homologues were bioinformatically and phylogenetically studied, including the application of an intensive Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) analysis of the individual Kunitz domain nucleotide sequences. We show that the R. microplus TFPI-like Kunitz protein family groups into two main clades that presumably underwent ancient duplication, which indicates that a whole genome duplication event occurred at least 150 million years ago. Evidence for recent and ancient gene and domain duplication events was also found. Furthermore, the divergence times of the various tick lineages estimated in this paper correspond with those presented in previous studies. The elucidation of this large protein family's evolution within R. microplus adds to current knowledge of this economically important tick.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Louw
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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46
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Barnard AC, Nijhof AM, Fick W, Stutzer C, Maritz-Olivier C. RNAi in Arthropods: Insight into the Machinery and Applications for Understanding the Pathogen-Vector Interface. Genes (Basel) 2012; 3:702-41. [PMID: 24705082 PMCID: PMC3899984 DOI: 10.3390/genes3040702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2012] [Revised: 10/19/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The availability of genome sequencing data in combination with knowledge of expressed genes via transcriptome and proteome data has greatly advanced our understanding of arthropod vectors of disease. Not only have we gained insight into vector biology, but also into their respective vector-pathogen interactions. By combining the strengths of postgenomic databases and reverse genetic approaches such as RNAi, the numbers of available drug and vaccine targets, as well as number of transgenes for subsequent transgenic or paratransgenic approaches, have expanded. These are now paving the way for in-field control strategies of vectors and their pathogens. Basic scientific questions, such as understanding the basic components of the vector RNAi machinery, is vital, as this allows for the transfer of basic RNAi machinery components into RNAi-deficient vectors, thereby expanding the genetic toolbox of these RNAi-deficient vectors and pathogens. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge of arthropod vector RNAi machinery and the impact of RNAi on understanding vector biology and vector-pathogen interactions for which vector genomic data is available on VectorBase.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ard M Nijhof
- Institut für Parasitologie und Tropenveterinärmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Königsweg 67, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Wilma Fick
- Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa.
| | - Christian Stutzer
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, South Africa.
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Bell-Sakyi L, Kohl A, Bente DA, Fazakerley JK. Tick cell lines for study of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus and other arboviruses. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012; 12:769-81. [PMID: 21955214 PMCID: PMC3438810 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2011.0766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Continuous cell lines derived from many of the vectors of tick-borne arboviruses of medical and veterinary importance are now available. Their role as tools in arbovirus research to date is reviewed and their potential application in studies of tick cell responses to virus infection is explored, by comparison with recent progress in understanding mosquito immunity to arbovirus infection. A preliminary study of propagation of the human pathogen Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) in tick cell lines is reported; CCHFV replicated in seven cell lines derived from the ticks Hyalomma anatolicum (a known vector), Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus, and Ixodes ricinus, but not in three cell lines derived from Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Ornithodoros moubata. This indicates that tick cell lines can be used to study growth of CCHFV in arthropod cells and that there may be species-specific restriction in permissive CCHFV infection at the cellular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lesley Bell-Sakyi
- The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, United Kingdom.
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Characterization of the tick-pathogen interface by quantitative proteomics. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2012; 3:154-8. [PMID: 22647712 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2012.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are vectors of pathogens that affect human and animal health worldwide. Ticks and the pathogens they transmit have co-evolved molecular interactions involving genetic traits of both the tick and the pathogen that mediate their development and survival. Proteomics and genomics studies of infected ticks are required to understand tick-pathogen interactions and identify potential vaccine antigens to control tick infestations and pathogen transmission. In this paper, the application of quantitative proteomics to characterize differential protein expression in ticks and cultured tick cells in response to pathogen infection is reviewed. Analyses using (a) two-dimensional differential in gel electrophoresis (DIGE) labeling and (b) protein one-step in gel digestion, peptide iTRAQ labeling, and isoelectric focusing fractionation, both followed by peptide and protein identifications by mass spectrometry resulted in the identification of host, pathogen, and tick proteins differentially expressed in response to infection. Although at its infancy, these results showed that quantitative proteomics is a powerful approach to characterize the tick-pathogen interface and demonstrated pathogen and tick-specific differences in protein expression in ticks and cultured tick cells in response to pathogen infection.
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49
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Estrada-Peña A, Ayllón N, de la Fuente J. Impact of climate trends on tick-borne pathogen transmission. Front Physiol 2012; 3:64. [PMID: 22470348 PMCID: PMC3313475 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in climate research together with a better understanding of tick-pathogen interactions, the distribution of ticks and the diagnosis of tick-borne pathogens raise questions about the impact of environmental factors on tick abundance and spread and the prevalence and transmission of tick-borne pathogens. While undoubtedly climate plays a role in the changes in distribution and seasonal abundance of ticks, it is always difficult to disentangle factors impacting on the abundance of tick hosts from those exerted by human habits. All together, climate, host abundance, and social factors may explain the upsurge of epidemics transmitted by ticks to humans. Herein we focused on tick-borne pathogens that affect humans with epidemic potential. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (Lyme disease), Anaplasma phagocytophilum (human granulocytic anaplasmosis), and tick-borne encephalitis virus (tick-borne encephalitis) are transmitted by Ixodes spp. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever) is transmitted by Hyalomma spp. In this review, we discussed how vector tick species occupy the habitat as a function of different climatic factors, and how these factors impact on tick survival and seasonality. How molecular events at the tick-pathogen interface impact on pathogen transmission is also discussed. Results from statistically and biologically derived models are compared to show that while statistical models are able to outline basic information about tick distributions, biologically derived models are necessary to evaluate pathogen transmission rates and understand the effect of climatic variables and host abundance patterns on pathogen transmission. The results of these studies could be used to build early alert systems able to identify the main factors driving the subtle changes in tick distribution and seasonality and the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Estrada-Peña
- Department of Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of ZaragozaZaragoza, Spain
| | - Nieves Ayllón
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos CinegéticosCSIC–UCLM–JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - José de la Fuente
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos CinegéticosCSIC–UCLM–JCCM, Ciudad Real, Spain
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State UniversityStillwater, OK, USA
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Marcelino I, de Almeida AM, Ventosa M, Pruneau L, Meyer DF, Martinez D, Lefrançois T, Vachiéry N, Coelho AV. Tick-borne diseases in cattle: applications of proteomics to develop new generation vaccines. J Proteomics 2012; 75:4232-50. [PMID: 22480908 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2012.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Revised: 03/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Tick-borne diseases (TBDs) affect 80% of the world's cattle population, hampering livestock production throughout the world. Livestock industry is important to rural populations not only as food supply, but also as a source of income. Tick control is usually achieved by using acaricides which are expensive, deleterious to the environment and can induce chemical resistance of vectors; the development of more effective and sustainable control methods is therefore required. Theileriosis, babesiosis, anaplasmosis and heartwater are the most important TBDs in cattle. Immunization strategies are currently available but with variable efficacy. To develop a new generation of vaccines which are more efficient, cheaper and safer, it is first necessary to better understand the mechanisms by which these parasites are transmitted, multiply and cause disease; this becomes especially difficult due to their complex life cycles, in vitro culture conditions and the lack of genetic tools to manipulate them. Proteomics and other complementary post-genomic tools such as transcriptomics and metabolomics in a systems biology context are becoming key tools to increase knowledge on the biology of infectious diseases. Herein, we present an overview of the so called "Omics" studies currently available on these tick-borne pathogens, giving emphasis to proteomics and how it may help to discover new vaccine candidates to control TBDs.
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