1
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Grgurevic N. Testing the extreme male hypothesis in the valproate mouse model; sex-specific effects on plasma testosterone levels and tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus, but not on parental behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2023; 17:1107226. [PMID: 36818606 PMCID: PMC9932272 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1107226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a strong male bias in prevalence and severity. The extreme male hypothesis proposed that autism is a manifestation of extreme male traits as evidenced by increased masculine behaviors, hypermasculinization of some brain regions, and alterations in androgen metabolism. In the present study, the extreme male hypothesis was tested in the valproate (VPA) mouse model. Methods Females of the C57BL/6JOlaHsd mouse strain were treated with 500 mg/kg VPA on gestational day 12. Offspring of both sexes were tested at 3 to 4 months of age in the elevated plus maze (EPM), open field, sociability tests, and for parental behavior. After sacrifice at 5 to 6 months of age, plasma testosterone was measured in males, while the brains of both sexes were examined for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV). Results VPA treatment significantly increased plasma testosterone levels and decreased AVPV TH expression in males, whereas the expression of TH in females remained at the same level. In parental behavior test none of the pup-oriented behavior was affected by VPA treatment in both sexes, the exception was nest quality which was lower after VPA exposure in males, but not in females. Discussion Our results suggest a hypermasculinizing effect of VPA that occurred specifically in males but not in females, and this effect could be related to changes in androgen physiology. Nevertheless, a generalized interpretation of the extreme male hypothesis on brain and behavior should be avoided due to the complex effects of VPA.
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2
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Chen Y, Kim M, Paye S, Benayoun BA. Sex as a Biological Variable in Nutrition Research: From Human Studies to Animal Models. Annu Rev Nutr 2022; 42:227-250. [PMID: 35417195 PMCID: PMC9398923 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-062220-105852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Biological sex is a fundamental source of phenotypic variability across species. Males and females have different nutritional needs and exhibit differences in nutrient digestion and utilization, leading to different health outcomes throughout life. With personalized nutrition gaining popularity in scientific research and clinical practice, it is important to understand the fundamentals of sex differences in nutrition research. Here, we review key studies that investigate sex dimorphism in nutrition research: sex differences in nutrient intake and metabolism, sex-dimorphic response in nutrient-restricted conditions, and sex differences in diet and gut microbiome interactions. Within each area above, factors from sex chromosomes, sex hormones, and sex-specific loci are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yilin Chen
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA;
| | - Minhoo Kim
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA;
| | - Sanjana Paye
- Department of Molecular and Computational Biology, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Bérénice A Benayoun
- Leonard Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA;
- Department of Molecular and Computational Biology, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Epigenetics and Gene Regulation Program, USC Norris Comprehensive Cancer Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
- USC Stem Cell Initiative, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
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3
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Tan S, Zhou Y, Zhao H, Wu J, Yu H, Yang Y, Yang Y, Zhao H, Li H. Comprehensive transcriptome analysis of hypothalamus reveals genes associated with disorders of sex development in pigs. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 210:105875. [PMID: 33746111 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
XX sex reversal, also called XX disorders of sex development (XX-DSD), is a condition affecting the development of the gonads or genitalia, and is relatively common in pigs. However, its genetic etiology and transcriptional regulation mechanism in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA) remain mostly unknown. XX-DSD (SRY-negative) pigs and normal sows were selected by external genitalia observation. The hypothalamus, which is the integrated center of the HPGA was sampled for whole-transcriptome RNA-seq. The role of DEmiRNA was validated by its overexpression and knockdown in vitro. A total of 1,258 lncRNAs, 1,086 mRNAs, and 61 microRNAs differentially expressed in XX-DSD pigs compared with normal female pigs. Genes in the hormone biosynthesis and secretion pathway significantly up-regulated, and the up-regulation of GNRH1, KISS1 and AVP may associate with the abnormal secretion of GnRH. We also predicted the lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA co-expression triplets and constructed three competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) potentially associated with XX-DSD. Functional enrichment studies suggested that TCONS_00340886, TCONS_00000204 and miR-181a related to GnRH secretion. Further, miR-181a inhibitor up-regulated GNRH1, PAK6, and CAMK4 in the GT1-7 cells. Conversely, transfection of miR-181a mimics obtained the opposite trends. The expression levels of FSHR, LHR, ESR1 and ESR2 were significantly higher in XX-DSD gondas than those in normal sows. Taken together, we proposed that the balance of endocrine had broken in XX-DSD pigs. The current study is the first to examine the transcriptomic profile in the hypothalamus of XX-DSD pigs. It provides new insight into coding and non-coding RNAs that may be associated with DSD in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuwen Tan
- Department of Ecology, Tibetan Centre for Ecology and Conservation at WHU-TU, Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Yi Zhou
- College of Basic Medicine, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi 563006, China
| | - Haiquan Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Jinhua Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Hui Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Yin Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Yalan Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China
| | - Huabin Zhao
- Department of Ecology, Tibetan Centre for Ecology and Conservation at WHU-TU, Hubei Key Laboratory of Cell Homeostasis, College of Life Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China; College of Science, Tibet University, Lhasa 850000, China.
| | - Hua Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528225, China.
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Aslanpour S, Rosin JM, Balakrishnan A, Klenin N, Blot F, Gradwohl G, Schuurmans C, Kurrasch DM. Ascl1 is required to specify a subset of ventromedial hypothalamic neurons. Development 2020; 147:dev180067. [PMID: 32253239 DOI: 10.1242/dev.180067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Despite clear physiological roles, the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) developmental programs are poorly understood. Here, we asked whether the proneural gene achaete-scute homolog 1 (Ascl1) contributes to VMH development. Ascl1 transcripts were detected in embryonic day (E) 10.5 to postnatal day 0 VMH neural progenitors. The elimination of Ascl1 reduced the number of VMH neurons at E12.5 and E15.5, particularly within the VMH-central (VMHC) and -dorsomedial (VMHDM) subdomains, and resulted in a VMH cell fate change from glutamatergic to GABAergic. We observed a loss of Neurog3 expression in Ascl1-/- hypothalamic progenitors and an upregulation of Neurog3 when Ascl1 was overexpressed. We also demonstrated a glutamatergic to GABAergic fate switch in Neurog3-null mutant mice, suggesting that Ascl1 might act via Neurog3 to drive VMH cell fate decisions. We also showed a concomitant increase in expression of the central GABAergic fate determinant Dlx1/2 in the Ascl1-null hypothalamus. However, Ascl1 was not sufficient to induce an ectopic VMH fate when overexpressed outside the normal window of competency. Combined, Ascl1 is required but not sufficient to specify the neurotransmitter identity of VMH neurons, acting in a transcriptional cascade with Neurog3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaghayegh Aslanpour
- Department of Neuroscience, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jessica M Rosin
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Anjali Balakrishnan
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Natalia Klenin
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Florence Blot
- Department of Development and Stem Cells, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), INSERM, Universite de Strasbourg, Illkirch 67400, France
| | - Gerard Gradwohl
- Department of Development and Stem Cells, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), INSERM, Universite de Strasbourg, Illkirch 67400, France
| | - Carol Schuurmans
- Sunnybrook Research Institute, Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Deborah M Kurrasch
- Department of Neuroscience, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
- Department of Medical Genetics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
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5
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Cisternas CD, Cabrera Zapata LE, Mir FR, Scerbo MJ, Arevalo MA, Garcia-Segura LM, Cambiasso MJ. Estradiol-dependent axogenesis and Ngn3 expression are determined by XY sex chromosome complement in hypothalamic neurons. Sci Rep 2020; 10:8223. [PMID: 32427857 PMCID: PMC7237695 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65183-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypothalamic neurons show sex differences in neuritogenesis, female neurons have longer axons and higher levels of the neuritogenic factor neurogenin 3 (Ngn3) than male neurons in vitro. Moreover, the effect of 17-β-estradiol (E2) on axonal growth and Ngn3 expression is only found in male-derived neurons. To investigate whether sex chromosomes regulate these early sex differences in neuritogenesis by regulating the E2 effect on Ngn3, we evaluated the growth and differentiation of hypothalamic neurons derived from the “four core genotypes” mouse model, in which the factors of “gonadal sex” and “sex chromosome complement” are dissociated. We showed that sex differences in neurite outgrowth are determined by sex chromosome complement (XX > XY). Moreover, E2 increased the mRNA expression of Ngn3 and axonal length only in XY neurons. ERα/β expressions are regulated by sex chromosome complement; however, E2-effect on Ngn3 expression in XY neurons was only fully reproduced by PPT, a specific ligand of ERα, and prevented by MPP, a specific antagonist of ERα. Together our data indicate that sex chromosomes regulate early development of hypothalamic neurons by orchestrating not only sex differences in neuritogenesis, but also regulating the effect of E2 on Ngn3 expression through activation of ERα in hypothalamic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Daniela Cisternas
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Departamento de Biología Bucal, Facultad de Odontología -Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Lucas Ezequiel Cabrera Zapata
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Franco Rafael Mir
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Julia Scerbo
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - María Angeles Arevalo
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Ciber de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel Garcia-Segura
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain.,Ciber de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Fragilidad y Envejecimiento Saludable (CIBERFES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Julia Cambiasso
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina. .,Departamento de Biología Bucal, Facultad de Odontología -Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.
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6
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Mir FR, Wilson C, Cabrera Zapata LE, Aguayo LG, Cambiasso MJ. Gonadal hormone-independent sex differences in GABA A receptor activation in rat embryonic hypothalamic neurons. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:3075-3090. [PMID: 32133616 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE GABAA receptor functions are dependent on subunit composition, and, through their activation, GABA can exert trophic actions in immature neurons. Although several sex differences in GABA-mediated responses are known to be dependent on gonadal hormones, few studies have dealt with sex differences detected before the critical period of brain masculinisation. In this study, we assessed GABAA receptor functionality in sexually segregated neurons before brain hormonal masculinisation. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Ventromedial hypothalamic neurons were obtained from embryonic day 16 rat brains and grown in vitro for 2 days. Calcium imaging and electrophysiology recordings were carried out to assess GABAA receptor functional parameters. KEY RESULTS GABAA receptor activation elicited calcium entry in immature hypothalamic neurons mainly through L-type voltage-dependent calcium channels. Nifedipine blocked calcium entry more efficiently in male than in female neurons. There were more male than female neurons responding to GABA, and they needed more time to return to resting levels. Pharmacological characterisation revealed that propofol enhanced GABAA -mediated currents and blunted GABA-mediated calcium entry more efficiently in female neurons than in males. Testosterone treatment did not erase such sex differences. These data suggest sex differences in the expression of GABAA receptor subtypes. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS GABA-mediated responses are sexually dimorphic even in the absence of gonadal hormone influence, suggesting genetically biased differences. These results highlight the importance of GABAA receptors in hypothalamic neurons even before hormonal masculinisation of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franco R Mir
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Cátedra de Fisiología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Cátedra de Fisiología Animal, Departamento de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de La Rioja, La Rioja, Argentina
| | - Carlos Wilson
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Centro de Investigación en Medicina Traslaciona, Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Biomédicas de Córdoba (IUCBC), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Lucas E Cabrera Zapata
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Luis G Aguayo
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - María Julia Cambiasso
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología, Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra, INIMEC-CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina.,Departamento de Biología Bucal, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Argentina
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7
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Ventura-Clapier R, Dworatzek E, Seeland U, Kararigas G, Arnal JF, Brunelleschi S, Carpenter TC, Erdmann J, Franconi F, Giannetta E, Glezerman M, Hofmann SM, Junien C, Katai M, Kublickiene K, König IR, Majdic G, Malorni W, Mieth C, Miller VM, Reynolds RM, Shimokawa H, Tannenbaum C, D'Ursi AM, Regitz-Zagrosek V. Sex in basic research: concepts in the cardiovascular field. Cardiovasc Res 2018; 113:711-724. [PMID: 28472454 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvx066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Women and men, female and male animals and cells are biologically different, and acknowledgement of this fact is critical to advancing medicine. However, incorporating concepts of sex-specific analysis in basic research is largely neglected, introducing bias into translational findings, clinical concepts and drug development. Research funding agencies recently approached these issues but implementation of policy changes in the scientific community is still limited, probably due to deficits in concepts, knowledge and proper methodology. This expert review is based on the EUGenMed project (www.eugenmed.eu) developing a roadmap for implementing sex and gender in biomedical and health research. For sake of clarity and conciseness, examples are mainly taken from the cardiovascular field that may serve as a paradigm for others, since a significant amount of knowledge how sex and oestrogen determine the manifestation of many cardiovascular diseases (CVD) has been accumulated. As main concepts for implementation of sex in basic research, the study of primary cell and animals of both sexes, the study of the influence of genetic vs. hormonal factors and the analysis of sex chromosomes and sex specific statistics in genome wide association studies (GWAS) are discussed. The review also discusses methodological issues, and analyses strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in implementing sex-sensitive aspects into basic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renée Ventura-Clapier
- Signalisation et Physiopathologie Cardiovasculaire UMR-S 1180, Inserm, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, 92296 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Elke Dworatzek
- Institute of Gender in Medicine and Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Germany
| | - Ute Seeland
- Institute of Gender in Medicine and Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Germany
| | - Georgios Kararigas
- Institute of Gender in Medicine and Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Germany
| | - Jean-Francois Arnal
- Faculté Médecine Toulouse-Rangueil, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Sandra Brunelleschi
- Department of Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy
| | - Thomas C Carpenter
- College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jeanette Erdmann
- Institut für Kardiogenetik, Universität zu Lübeck, 23562 Lübeck, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, Germany
| | - Flavia Franconi
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sassari,Sassari, Italy
| | - Elisa Giannetta
- Ricercatore TD in Endocrinologia, Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Fisiopatologia Medica, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Marek Glezerman
- International Society for Gender Medicine, Research Center for Medicine, Rabin Medical Center, and Tel Aviv University, Israel
| | - Susanna M Hofmann
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der LMU München, Munich 80336, Germany; Institute for Diabetes and Regeneration, Helmholtz Center Munich, Germany; German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD) München-Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Claudine Junien
- BDR Biologie du Développement et Reproduction Developmental Biology and Reproduction UMR, INRA, France
| | - Miyuki Katai
- Section of Gender Medicine, Department of General Medicine, Tokyo Women's Medical University, 162-8666 Tokyo, Japan
| | - Karolina Kublickiene
- Centre for Gender Medicine and Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Renal Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, 14186 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Inke R König
- German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Hamburg/Kiel/Lübeck, Germany.,Institut für Medizinische Biometrie und Statistik, Universität zu Lübeck, 235620 Lübeck, Germany
| | - Gregor Majdic
- Institute for Preclinical Sciences, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana & Institute of Physiology, Medical Faculty, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Walter Malorni
- National Center for Gender-Specific Medicine, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, 00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Christin Mieth
- German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Germany.,Max-Delbrück-Centrum für Molekulare Medizin in der Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Rebecca M Reynolds
- Center for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, EH16 4TJ Edinburgh, UK
| | - Hiroaki Shimokawa
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Cara Tannenbaum
- Institute of Gender and Health, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), Canada
| | - Anna Maria D'Ursi
- Medicinal Chemistry DIFARMA, Università di Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, Italy
| | - Vera Regitz-Zagrosek
- Institute of Gender in Medicine and Center for Cardiovascular Research, Charité Universitaetsmedizin Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany.,German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, Germany
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8
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Nguyen TV, Ducharme S, Karama S. Effects of Sex Steroids in the Human Brain. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:7507-7519. [PMID: 27822715 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0198-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Sex steroids are thought to play a critical developmental role in shaping both cortical and subcortical structures in the human brain. Periods of profound changes in sex steroids invariably coincide with the onset of sex differences in mental health vulnerability, highlighting the importance of sex steroids in determining sexual differentiation of the brain. Yet, most of the evidence for the central effects of sex steroids relies on non-human studies, as several challenges have limited our understanding of these effects in humans: the lack of systematic assessment of the human sex steroid metabolome, the different developmental trajectories of specific sex steroids, the impact of genetic variation and epigenetic changes, and the plethora of interactions between sex steroids, sex chromosomes, neurotransmitters, and other hormonal systems. Here we review how multimodal strategies may be employed to bridge the gap between the basic and clinical understanding of sex steroid-related changes in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuong-Vi Nguyen
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1A1, Canada.,Department of Obstetrics-Gynecology, McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1A1, Canada
| | - Simon Ducharme
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University Health Centre, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 1A1, Canada.,McConnell Brain Imaging Center, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Sherif Karama
- McConnell Brain Imaging Center, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 2B4, Canada. .,Department of Psychiatry, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 Boulevard LaSalle, Montreal, QC, H4H 1R3, Canada.
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9
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Spanic T, Grgurevic N, Majdic G. Haploinsufficiency for Steroidogenic Factor 1 Affects Maternal Behavior in Mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2016; 10:131. [PMID: 27445727 PMCID: PMC4923121 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1), officially designated NR5A1, is essential for gonadal and adrenal development and for the normal structure of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), as demonstrated by SF-1 knockout mice (SF-1 KO), but much less is known about the possible effects of haploinsufficiency of the SF-1 gene. In the present study, maternal behavior in SF-1 KO heterozygous mice was evaluated. Behavioral tests revealed that SF-1 KO heterozygous females have impaired maternal behavior. In comparison to wild-type (WT) females, SF-1 KO heterozygous females retrieved significantly fewer pups into their nests, latency to retrieve and crouch over the pups was longer, and their nests were lower quality. As suggested by previous studies full dosage of SF-1 gene is needed for appropriate stress response and expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the brain, and this might present a mechanism through which maternal behavior in SF-1 KO heterozygous females is impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Spanic
- Veterinary Faculty, Institute for Preclinical Sciences, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Neza Grgurevic
- Veterinary Faculty, Institute for Preclinical Sciences, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Majdic
- Veterinary Faculty, Institute for Preclinical Sciences, University of LjubljanaLjubljana, Slovenia; Institute of Physiology, Medical School, University of MariborMaribor, Slovenia
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10
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Sex differences in the brain–an interplay of sex steroid hormones and sex chromosomes. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016; 130:1481-97. [DOI: 10.1042/cs20160299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although considerable progress has been made in our understanding of brain function, many questions remain unanswered. The ultimate goal of studying the brain is to understand the connection between brain structure and function and behavioural outcomes. Since sex differences in brain morphology were first observed, subsequent studies suggest different functional organization of the male and female brains in humans. Sex and gender have been identified as being a significant factor in understanding human physiology, health and disease, and the biological differences between the sexes is not limited to the gonads and secondary sexual characteristics, but also affects the structure and, more crucially, the function of the brain and other organs. Significant variability in brain structures between individuals, in addition to between the sexes, is factor that complicates the study of sex differences in the brain. In this review, we explore the current understanding of sex differences in the brain, mostly focusing on preclinical animal studies.
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Saunders PA, Franco T, Sottas C, Maurice T, Ganem G, Veyrunes F. Masculinised Behaviour of XY Females in a Mammal with Naturally Occuring Sex Reversal. Sci Rep 2016; 6:22881. [PMID: 26964761 PMCID: PMC4786791 DOI: 10.1038/srep22881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Most sex differences in phenotype are controlled by gonadal hormones, but recent work on laboratory strain mice that present discordant chromosomal and gonadal sex showed that sex chromosome complement can have a direct influence on the establishment of sex-specific behaviours, independently from gonads. In this study, we analyse the behaviour of a rodent with naturally occurring sex reversal: the African pygmy mouse Mus minutoides, in which all males are XY, while females are of three types: XX, XX* or X*Y (the asterisk represents an unknown X-linked mutation preventing masculinisation of X*Y embryos). X*Y females show typical female anatomy and, interestingly, have greater breeding performances. We investigate the link between sex chromosome complement, behaviour and reproductive success in females by analysing several behavioural features that could potentially influence their fitness: female attractiveness, aggressiveness and anxiety. Despite sex chromosome complement was not found to impact male mate preferences, it does influence some aspects of both aggressiveness and anxiety: X*Y females are more aggressive than the XX and XX*, and show lower anxiogenic response to novelty, like males. We discuss how these behavioural differences might impact the breeding performances of females, and how the sex chromosome complement could shape the differences observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Saunders
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5554, IRD, EPHE, France
| | - Thomas Franco
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5554, IRD, EPHE, France
| | - Camille Sottas
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5554, IRD, EPHE, France
| | - Tangui Maurice
- INSERM U1198, Université de Montpellier, Inserm, EPHE, France
| | - Guila Ganem
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5554, IRD, EPHE, France
| | - Frédéric Veyrunes
- Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution de Montpellier, Université de Montpellier, CNRS UMR 5554, IRD, EPHE, France
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12
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Arnold AP, Reue K, Eghbali M, Vilain E, Chen X, Ghahramani N, Itoh Y, Li J, Link JC, Ngun T, Williams-Burris SM. The importance of having two X chromosomes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:20150113. [PMID: 26833834 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Historically, it was thought that the number of X chromosomes plays little role in causing sex differences in traits. Recently, selected mouse models have been used increasingly to compare mice with the same type of gonad but with one versus two copies of the X chromosome. Study of these models demonstrates that mice with one X chromosome can be strikingly different from those with two X chromosomes, when the differences are not attributable to confounding group differences in gonadal hormones. The number of X chromosomes affects adiposity and metabolic disease, cardiovascular ischaemia/reperfusion injury and behaviour. The effects of X chromosome number are likely the result of inherent differences in expression of X genes that escape inactivation, and are therefore expressed from both X chromosomes in XX mice, resulting in a higher level of expression when two X chromosomes are present. The effects of X chromosome number contribute to sex differences in disease phenotypes, and may explain some features of X chromosome aneuploidies such as in Turner and Klinefelter syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Karen Reue
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Mansoureh Eghbali
- Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eric Vilain
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Pediatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Xuqi Chen
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Negar Ghahramani
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Yuichiro Itoh
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jingyuan Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jenny C Link
- Molecular Biology Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Tuck Ngun
- Department of Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Shayna M Williams-Burris
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Interdepartmental Program for Neuroscience, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, UCLA Brain Research Institute, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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13
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Bayless DW, Shah NM. Genetic dissection of neural circuits underlying sexually dimorphic social behaviours. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:20150109. [PMID: 26833830 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The unique hormonal, genetic and epigenetic environments of males and females during development and adulthood shape the neural circuitry of the brain. These differences in neural circuitry result in sex-typical displays of social behaviours such as mating and aggression. Like other neural circuits, those underlying sex-typical social behaviours weave through complex brain regions that control a variety of diverse behaviours. For this reason, the functional dissection of neural circuits underlying sex-typical social behaviours has proved to be difficult. However, molecularly discrete neuronal subpopulations can be identified in the heterogeneous brain regions that control sex-typical social behaviours. In addition, the actions of oestrogens and androgens produce sex differences in gene expression within these brain regions, thereby highlighting the neuronal subpopulations most likely to control sexually dimorphic social behaviours. These conditions permit the implementation of innovative genetic approaches that, in mammals, are most highly advanced in the laboratory mouse. Such approaches have greatly advanced our understanding of the functional significance of sexually dimorphic neural circuits in the brain. In this review, we discuss the neural circuitry of sex-typical social behaviours in mice while highlighting the genetic technical innovations that have advanced the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Bayless
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nirao M Shah
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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14
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Büdefeld T, Tobet S, Majdic G. The Influence of Gonadal Steroid Hormones on Immunoreactive Kisspeptin in the Preoptic Area and Arcuate Nucleus of Developing Agonadal Mice with a Genetic Disruption of Steroidogenic Factor 1. Neuroendocrinology 2016; 103:248-58. [PMID: 26138474 PMCID: PMC4696913 DOI: 10.1159/000437166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Kisspeptin, a regulator of reproductive function and puberty in mammals, is expressed in the rostral (anteroventral) periventricular nucleus (AVPV) and arcuate nucleus (Arc), and its expression is at least partially regulated by estradiol in rodents. The aim of the present study was to determine contributions of genetic factors and gonadal steroid hormones to the sexual differentiation of kisspeptin-immunoreactive (kisspeptin-ir) cell populations in the AVPV and Arc during postnatal development using agonadal steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) knockout (KO) mice. To examine the effects of gonadal hormones on pubertal development of kisspeptin neurons, SF-1 KO mice were treated with estradiol benzoate (EB) from postnatal day (P)25 to P36, and their brains were examined at P36. No sex differences were observed in the SF-1 KO mice during postnatal development and after treatment with EB - which failed to increase the number of kisspeptin-ir cells at P36 to the levels found in wild-type (WT) control females. This suggests that specific time periods of estradiol actions or other factors are needed for sexual differentiation of the pattern of immunoreactive kisspeptin in the AVPV. Kisspeptin immunoreactivity in the Arc was significantly higher in gonadally intact WT and SF-1 KO females than in male mice at P36 during puberty. Further, in WT and SF-1 KO females, but not in males, adult levels were reached at P36. This suggests that maturation of the kisspeptin system in the Arc differs between sexes and is regulated by gonad-independent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomaz Büdefeld
- Centre for Animal Genomics, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Stuart Tobet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Gregor Majdic
- Centre for Animal Genomics, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Institute of Physiology, Medical School, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Corresponding author and person to whom proofs and reprint requests should be addressed: Gregor Majdic; Center for Animal Genomics, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia-1000 Ljubljana; Phone: 0038614779210, Fax: 0038612832243,
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15
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Sex differences in mood disorders: perspectives from humans and rodent models. Biol Sex Differ 2014; 5:17. [PMID: 25520774 PMCID: PMC4268901 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-014-0017-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Mood disorders are devastating, often chronic illnesses characterized by low mood, poor affect, and anhedonia. Notably, mood disorders are approximately twice as prevalent in women compared to men. If sex differences in mood are due to underlying biological sex differences, a better understanding of the biology is warranted to develop better treatment or even prevention of these debilitating disorders. In this review, our goals are to: 1) summarize the literature related to mood disorders with respect to sex differences in prevalence, 2) introduce the corticolimbic brain network of mood regulation, 3) discuss strategies and challenges of modeling mood disorders in mice, 4) discuss mechanisms underlying sex differences and how these can be tested in mice, and 5) discuss how our group and others have used a translational approach to investigate mechanisms underlying sex differences in mood disorders in humans and mice.
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16
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Cox KH, Bonthuis PJ, Rissman EF. Mouse model systems to study sex chromosome genes and behavior: relevance to humans. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:405-19. [PMID: 24388960 PMCID: PMC4079771 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 12/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Sex chromosome genes directly influence sex differences in behavior. The discovery of the Sry gene on the Y chromosome (Gubbay et al., 1990; Koopman et al., 1990) substantiated the sex chromosome mechanistic link to sex differences. Moreover, the pronounced connection between X chromosome gene mutations and mental illness produces a strong sex bias in these diseases. Yet, the dominant explanation for sex differences continues to be the gonadal hormones. Here we review progress made on behavioral differences in mouse models that uncouple sex chromosome complement from gonadal sex. We conclude that many social and cognitive behaviors are modified by sex chromosome complement, and discuss the implications for human research. Future directions need to include identification of the genes involved and interactions with these genes and gonadal hormones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly H Cox
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Paul J Bonthuis
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States
| | - Emilie F Rissman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, United States.
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17
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Tsukahara S, Kanaya M, Yamanouchi K. Neuroanatomy and sex differences of the lordosis-inhibiting system in the lateral septum. Front Neurosci 2014; 8:299. [PMID: 25278832 PMCID: PMC4166118 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Female sexual behavior in rodents, termed lordosis, is controlled by facilitatory and inhibitory systems in the brain. It has been well demonstrated that a neural pathway from the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus (VMN) to the midbrain central gray (MCG) is essential for facilitatory regulation of lordosis. The neural pathway from the arcuate nucleus to the VMN, via the medial preoptic nucleus, in female rats mediates transient suppression of lordosis, until female sexual receptivity is induced. In addition to this pathway, other regions are involved in inhibitory regulation of lordosis in female rats. The lordosis-inhibiting systems exist not only in the female brain but also in the male brain. The systems contribute to suppression of heterotypical sexual behavior in male rats, although they have the potential ability to display lordosis. The lateral septum (LS) exerts an inhibitory influence on lordosis in both female and male rats. This review focuses on the neuroanatomy and sex differences of the lordosis-inhibiting system in the LS. The LS functionally and anatomically links to the MCG to exert suppression of lordosis. Neurons of the intermediate part of the LS (LSi) serve as lordosis-inhibiting neurons and project axons to the MCG. The LSi-MCG neural connection is sexually dimorphic, and formation of the male-like LSi-MCG neural connection is affected by aromatized testosterone originating from the testes in the postnatal period. The sexually dimorphic LSi-MCG neural connection may reflect the morphological basis of sex differences in the inhibitory regulation of lordosis in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinji Tsukahara
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University Saitama, Japan
| | - Moeko Kanaya
- Division of Life Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Saitama University Saitama, Japan
| | - Korehito Yamanouchi
- Department of Human Behavior and Environment Sciences, Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University Saitama, Japan
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18
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Abstract
Sexually dimorphic behaviors, qualitative or quantitative differences in behaviors between the sexes, result from the activity of a sexually differentiated nervous system. Sensory cues and sex hormones control the entire repertoire of sexually dimorphic behaviors, including those commonly thought to be charged with emotion such as courtship and aggression. Such overarching control mechanisms regulate distinct genes and neurons that in turn specify the display of these behaviors in a modular manner. How such modular control is transformed into cohesive internal states that correspond to sexually dimorphic behavior is poorly understood. We summarize current understanding of the neural circuit control of sexually dimorphic behaviors from several perspectives, including how neural circuits in general, and sexually dimorphic neurons in particular, can generate sexually dimorphic behaviors, and how molecular mechanisms and evolutionary constraints shape these behaviors. We propose that emergent themes such as the modular genetic and neural control of dimorphic behavior are broadly applicable to the neural control of other behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy F Yang
- Program in Neuroscience, University of California San Francisco, MC2722, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA; Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, MC2722, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nirao M Shah
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, MC2722, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
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19
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Identification of sexually dimorphic genes in the neonatal mouse cortex and hippocampus. Brain Res 2014; 1562:23-38. [PMID: 24661915 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 03/08/2014] [Accepted: 03/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex and hippocampus are important for the control of cognitive functions and social behaviors, many of which are sexually dimorphic and tightly regulated by gonadal steroid hormones via activation of their respective nuclear receptors. As different levels of sex steroid hormones are present between the sexes during early development and their receptors act as transcription factors to regulate gene expression, we hypothesize that sexually dimorphic gene expression in the developing mouse cortex and hippocampus might result in sex differences in brain structures and neural circuits governing distinct behaviors between the sexes as adults. To test our hypothesis, we used gene expression microarrays to identify 90 candidate genes differentially expressed in the neonatal cortex/hippocampus between male and female mice, including 55 male-biased and 35 female-biased genes. Among these genes, sexually dimorphic expression of eight sex chromosome genes was confirmed by reverse transcription with quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR), including three located on the X chromosome (Xist, Eif2s3x, and Kdm6a), three on the Y chromosome (Ddx3y, Eif2s3y, and Kdm5d), and two in the pseudoautosomal region of the X and Y chromosomes (Erdr1 and Mid1). In addition, five autosomal genes (Cd151, Dab2, Klk8, Meg3, and Prkdc) were also validated for their sexually dimorphic expression in the neonatal mouse cortex/hippocampus. Gene Ontology annotation analysis suggests that many of these sexually dimorphic genes are involved in histone modifications, cell proliferation/death, androgen/estrogen signaling pathways, and synaptic organization, and these biological processes have been implicated in differential neural development, cognitive function, and neurological diseases between the sexes.
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Yang CF, Chiang MC, Gray DC, Prabhakaran M, Alvarado M, Juntti SA, Unger EK, Wells JA, Shah NM. Sexually dimorphic neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus govern mating in both sexes and aggression in males. Cell 2013; 153:896-909. [PMID: 23663785 PMCID: PMC3767768 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 467] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Revised: 02/11/2013] [Accepted: 04/05/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Sexual dimorphisms in the brain underlie behavioral sex differences, but the function of individual sexually dimorphic neuronal populations is poorly understood. Neuronal sexual dimorphisms typically represent quantitative differences in cell number, gene expression, or other features, and it is unknown whether these dimorphisms control sex-typical behavior exclusively in one sex or in both sexes. The progesterone receptor (PR) controls female sexual behavior, and we find many sex differences in number, distribution, or projections of PR-expressing neurons in the adult mouse brain. Using a genetic strategy we developed, we have ablated one such dimorphic PR-expressing neuronal population located in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). Ablation of these neurons in females greatly diminishes sexual receptivity. Strikingly, the corresponding ablation in males reduces mating and aggression. Our findings reveal the functions of a molecularly defined, sexually dimorphic neuronal population in the brain. Moreover, we show that sexually dimorphic neurons can control distinct sex-typical behaviors in both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy F Yang
- Program in Neuroscience, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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21
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Arnold AP, Chen X, Link JC, Itoh Y, Reue K. Cell-autonomous sex determination outside of the gonad. Dev Dyn 2013; 242:371-9. [PMID: 23361913 PMCID: PMC3672066 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.23936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 01/07/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The classic model of sex determination in mammals states that the sex of the individual is determined by the type of gonad that develops, which in turn determines the gonadal hormonal milieu that creates sex differences outside of the gonads. However, XX and XY cells are intrinsically different because of the cell-autonomous sex-biasing action of X and Y genes. RESULTS Recent studies of mice, in which sex chromosome complement is independent of gonadal sex, reveal that sex chromosome complement has strong effects contributing to sex differences in phenotypes such as metabolism. Adult mice with two X chromosomes (relative to mice with one X chromosome) show dramatically greater increases in body weight and adiposity after gonadectomy, irrespective of their gonadal sex. When fed a high-fat diet, XX mice develop striking hyperinsulinemia and fatty liver, relative to XY mice. The sex chromosome effects are modulated by the presence of gonadal hormones, indicating an interaction of the sex-biasing effects of gonadal hormones and sex chromosome genes. CONCLUSIONS Other cell-autonomous sex chromosome effects are detected in mice in many phenotypes. Birds (relative to eutherian mammals) are expected to show more widespread cell-autonomous sex determination in non-gonadal tissues, because of ineffective sex chromosome dosage compensation mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, and Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology of the Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
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Wolstenholme JT, Rissman EF, Bekiranov S. Sexual differentiation in the developing mouse brain: contributions of sex chromosome genes. GENES BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR 2013; 12:166-80. [PMID: 23210685 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2012] [Revised: 10/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Neural sexual differentiation begins during embryogenesis and continues after birth for a variable amount of time depending on the species and brain region. Because gonadal hormones were the first factors identified in neural sexual differentiation, their role in this process has eclipsed investigation of other factors. Here, we use a mouse with a spontaneous translocation that produces four different unique sets of sex chromosomes. Each genotype has one normal X-chromosome and a unique second sex chromosome creating the following genotypes: XY(*x) , XX, XY(*) , XX(Y) (*) . This Y(*) mouse line is used by several laboratories to study two human aneuploid conditions: Turner and Klinefelter syndromes. As sex chromosome number affects behavior and brain morphology, we surveyed brain gene expression at embryonic days 11.5 and 18.5 to isolate X-chromosome dose effects in the developing brain as possible mechanistic changes underlying the phenotypes. We compared gene expression differences between gonadal males and females as well as individuals with one vs. two X-chromosomes. We present data showing, in addition to genes reported to escape X-inactivation, a number of autosomal genes are differentially expressed between the sexes and in mice with different numbers of X-chromosomes. Based on our results, we can now identify the genes present in the region around the chromosomal break point that produces the Y(*) model. Our results also indicate an interaction between gonadal development and sex chromosome number that could further elucidate the role of sex chromosome genes and hormones in the sexual differentiation of behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- J T Wolstenholme
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
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