Potential impurities in drug substances: Compound-specific toxicology limits for 20 synthetic reagents and by-products, and a class-specific toxicology limit for alkyl bromides

Determination of residual alkyl iodides and alkyl bromides as their corresponding alkyl chlorides in drug substances by headspace GC-FID

Primary and secondary alkyl iodides and primary alkyl bromides were quickly and conveniently converted into their corresponding alkyl chlorides via SN2 halide-halide substitution. The resultant alkyl chlorides simultaneously demonstrated increased volatility and stability paired with standard headspace GC-FID methodology. The derivatization was performed on both standard and sample alike and occurred during the headspace oven equilibration phase, eliminating the extra reaction step traditionally performed during many derivatization analyses. Reaction times, temperatures, and completeness of conversion were studied as well as response from common headspace solvents and application of various chloride sources. Recovery of iodomethane from four challenging substrates was studied from the trace level to approximately 1000 ppm. Recovery ranged 94-110 % from verapamil hydrochloride (2.5-1007 ppm), 95-102 % from methylnaltrexone bromide (26-1054 ppm), and 92-106 % from (S)-laudanosine (49-942 ppm). Using hydrogen chloride as the chloride source, a method for determination of residual iodomethane in (S)-N-methyl-laudanosine iodide was validated over a 0.5-24.9 μg/mL range with a 0.1 μg/mL detection limit, 91-103 % accuracy, and 3.2 % relative standard deviation.

Combating Pharmaceutical Folklore: No Alkyl-Sulfonate Impurities Formed During the Synthesis of Sulfonate Salts

Whilst an alcohol can be forced to react with a sulfonic acid, this reaction produces minimal ester conversion even under extreme conditions (anhydrous, very low pH) that bear no resemblance to the mild synthetic procedures typically used for the formation of sulfonate salts of basic drugs. The latter involve the addition of a molar equivalent of pharma-grade sulfonic acid to the base form of a drug substance (pKa ≥3.5), dissolved or suspended in an alcohol solvent, normally ethanol (pKa -2). All added acid is neutralized, and so there is no potential for ester formation. Many drug-substance base forms are polyamines, thus preventing the generation of acidic reaction conditions even in the presence of excess of sulfonic acid. Despite the experimental evidence, the perception that short-chain mutagenic alkyl sulfonates are "potential impurities" in sulfonate salts is widely held within regulatory bodies. This stance implies that a mechanistically-impossible reaction can occur: nucleophilic displacement by sulfonate anion of the hydroxyl group from a short-chain alcohol under non-acidic conditions. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) and the British Pharmacopoeia (BP) include "production statements" in monographs for sulfonate-salt drug substances requiring a "risk assessment" of the production process. Neither body has provided supporting evidence. Information obtained from the BP via Freedom of Information requests showed that expert-group discussions were characterised by a range of ad-hoc opinions rather than an evidence-based evaluation of mechanism, kinetics and experimental data. Alternative sources of alkyl-sulfonate impurities such as methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) arising from the use of impure, reagent-grade methanesulfonic acid (MSA) were not considered. Both BP and Ph.Eur. production statements appear to be based on policy rather than scientific evidence and so should be discontinued.

Safety assessment of protein A and derivation of a parenteral health-based exposure limit

Protein A (PA) is a bacterial cell wall component of Staphylococcus aureus whose function is to bind to Immunoglobulin G (IgG). Given its ability to bind IgG as well as its stability and resistance to harsh acidic and basic cleaning conditions, it is commonly used in the affinity chromotography purification of biotherapeutics. This use can result in levels of PA being present in a drug product and subsequent patient exposure. Interestingly, PA was previously evaluated in clinical trials as well as supporting nonclinical studies, resulting in a database that enables the derivation of a health-based exposure limit (HBEL). Given the widespread use of PA in the pharmaceutical industry, the IQ DruSafe Impurities Safety Working Group (WG) evaluated the available information with the purpose of establishing a harmonized parenteral HBEL for PA. Based on this thorough, collaborative evaluation of nonclinical and clinical data available for PA, a parenteral HBEL of 1.2 μg/kg/dose (60 μg/dose for a 50 kg individual) is expected to be health protective for patients when it is present as an impurity in a biotherapeutic.

Impact of Manufacturing Process and Compounding on Properties and Quality of Follow-On GLP-1 Polypeptide Drugs

PURPOSE

The prevalence of follow-on and compounded products of glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs is increasing. We assessed glucagon-like peptide-1 analogs semaglutide and liraglutide for purity, potential immunogenicity, and expected stability, by comparing a representative selection of commercially available follow-on drug substances (DSs) and drug products (DPs) with their corresponding originators.

METHODS

Tests included several chromatography methods coupled with ultraviolet and mass spectrometry detectors, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, dissolution analyses, in silico peptide/major histocompatibility complex II-binding prediction, and fibrillation assays.

RESULTS

Overall, 16 injectable semaglutide, 8 oral semaglutide, and 2 injectable liraglutide follow-on products were analyzed alongside originator products. Compared with originator, follow-on injectable semaglutide DSs and DPs had new impurities and impurity patterns, including high molecular weight proteins, trace metals, anions, counterions, and residual solvents. Analyses showed that several commercialized follow-on oral semaglutide DPs had a markedly lower quantity of semaglutide than the label claim, while dissolution tests indicated different semaglutide and sodium N-(8-[2-hydroxybenzoyl] amino)caprylate (SNAC) release profiles, which may reduce bioavailability. Neoepitopes were identified in DS and DP semaglutide follow-ons, indicating potential immunogenicity. Fibrillation assays showed increased fibrillation tendency and reduced physical stability in liraglutide follow-on DP samples compared with originator.

CONCLUSION

This study highlights that differences in the manufacturing processes of follow-on semaglutide and liraglutide (vs those used for originators) can result in several changes to the DSs and DPs. The impact of these changes on efficacy and safety outcomes remains unknown and should be investigated by clinical studies.

Analytical Methodologies to Detect N-Nitrosamine Impurities in Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Drug Products and Other Matrices

Since 2018, N-nitrosamine impurities have become a widespread concern in the global regulatory landscape of pharmaceutical products. This concern arises due to their potential for contamination, toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity and their presence in many active pharmaceutical ingredients, drug products, and other matrices. N-Nitrosamine impurities in humans can lead to severe chemical toxicity effects. These include carcinogenic effects, metabolic disruptions, reproductive harm, liver diseases, obesity, DNA damage, cell death, chromosomal alterations, birth defects, and pregnancy loss. They are particularly known to cause cancer (tumors) in various organs and tissues such as the liver, lungs, nasal cavity, esophagus, pancreas, stomach, urinary bladder, colon, kidneys, and central nervous system. Additionally, N-nitrosamine impurities may contribute to the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and type-2 diabetes. Therefore, it is very important to control or avoid them by enhancing effective analytical methodologies using cutting-edge analytical techniques such as LC-MS, GC-MS, CE-MS, SFC, etc. Moreover, these analytical methods need to be sensitive and selective with suitable precision and accuracy, so that the actual amounts of N-nitrosamine impurities can be detected and quantified appropriately in drugs. Regulatory agencies such as the US FDA, EMA, ICH, WHO, etc. need to focus more on the hazards of N-nitrosamine impurities by providing guidance and regular updates to drug manufacturers and applicants. Similarly, drug manufacturers should be more vigilant to avoid nitrosating agents and secondary amines during the manufacturing processes. Numerous review articles have been published recently by various researchers, focusing on N-nitrosamine impurities found in previously notified products, including sartans, metformin, and ranitidine. These impurities have also been detected in a wide range of other products. Consequently, this review aims to concentrate on products recently reported to contain N-nitrosamine impurities. These products include rifampicin, champix, famotidine, nizatidine, atorvastatin, bumetanide, itraconazole, diovan, enalapril, propranolol, lisinopril, duloxetine, rivaroxaban, pioglitazones, glifizones, cilostazol, and sunitinib.

Retrospective application of ICH M7 to anti-hypertensive drugs in Brazil: Risk assessment of potentially mutagenic impurities

Potentially mutagenic impurities are likely to be formed in any drug substance, since their synthesis requires reactive intermediates which may also react with DNA. The ICH M7 guideline, which defines how to risk assess and control mutagenic impurities, was first published in 2014 and is not to be applied retrospectively; however, some impurities have been found above the permitted limits in drug products which were already on the market. This study assessed the implications of applying ICH M7 retrospectively to anti-hypertensive drugs marketed in Brazil by performing a risk assessment and establishing control strategies. The manufacturing processes of 15 drug substances were evaluated and 262 impurities were identified, from which 21% were classified as potentially mutagenic. Most of the impurities were identified below ICH M7 acceptable limits, except for impurities described in a pharmacopoeial monograph. Compendial specifications are defined based on scientific evidence and play an important role in setting quality and safety standards for pharmaceuticals, however there are opportunities for further alignment with ICH guidelines, aiming for a holistic assessment of the impurities profile to ensure the safety of medicines.

Analysis of non-mutagenic substances in the context of drug impurity assessment - Few are potent toxicants

ICH Q3A/B guidelines provide qualification thresholds for impurities or degradation products in new drug substances and products. However, the guidelines note that certain impurities/degradation products may warrant further safety evaluation for being unusually potent or toxic. The purpose of this study was to confirm that especially toxic non-mutagenic compounds are rare and to identify classes of compounds that could warrant lower qualification thresholds. A total of 2815 compounds were evaluated, of which 2213 were assessed as non-mutagenic. For the purpose of this analysis, compounds were considered potent when the point of departure was ≤0.2 mg/kg/day based on the qualification threshold (1 mg/day or 0.02 mg/kg/day for a 50 kg human) in a new drug substance, with an additional 10-fold margin. Only 54 of the entire set (2.4%) would be considered potent based on this conservative potency analysis, confirming that the existing ICH Q3A/B qualification thresholds are appropriate for the majority of impurities. If the Q3A/B threshold, without the additional 10-fold margin is used, 14 compounds (0.6%) are considered "highly potent". Very few non-mutagenic structural classes were identified, including organothiophosphates and derivatives, polychlorinated benzenes and polychlorinated polycyclic aliphatics, that correlate with potential high potency, consistent with prior publications.

Comparison of permitted daily exposure (PDE) values for active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) - Evidence of a robust approach

Permitted Daily Exposure Limits (PDEs) are set for Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) to control cross-contamination when manufacturing medicinal products in shared facilities. With the lack of official PDE lists for pharmaceuticals, PDEs have to be set by each company separately. Although general rules and guidelines for the setting of PDEs exist, inter-company variations in the setting of PDEs occur and are considered acceptable within a certain range. To evaluate the robustness of the PDE approach between different pharmaceutical companies, data on PDE setting of five marketed APIs (amlodipine, hydrochlorothiazide, metformin, morphine, and omeprazole) were collected and compared. Findings show that the variability between PDE values is within acceptable ranges (below 10-fold) for all compounds, with the highest difference for morphine due to different Point of Departures (PODs) and Adjustment Factors (AFs). Factors of PDE variability identified and further discussed are: (1) availability of data, (2) selection of POD, (3) assignment of AFs, (4) route-to-route extrapolation, and (5) expert judgement and differences in company policies. We conclude that the investigated PDE methods and calculations are robust and scientifically defensible. Additionally, we provide further recommendations to harmonize PDE calculation approaches across the pharmaceutical industry.

Pathogenesis of chemically induced nasal cavity tumors in rodents: contribution to adverse outcome pathway

The pathogenesis of nasal cavity tumors induced in rodents has been critically reviewed. Chemical substances that induce nasal cavity tumors in rats, mice, and hamsters were searched in the National Toxicology Program (NTP), International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), and Japan Bioassay Research Center (JBRC) databases, in addition to PubMed. Detailed data such as animal species, administration routes, and histopathological types were extracted for induced nasal cavity tumors. Data on non-neoplastic lesions were also extracted. The relationship between the tumor type and non-neoplastic lesions at equivalent sites was analyzed to evaluate tumor pathogenesis. Genotoxicity data were also analyzed. Squamous cell carcinoma was the most frequent lesion, regardless of the dosing route, and its precursor lesions were squamous metaplasia and/or respiratory epithelial hyperplasia, similar to squamous cell papilloma. The precursor lesions of adenocarcinoma, the second most frequent tumor type, were mainly olfactory epithelial hyperplasia, whereas those of adenoma were respiratory epithelial lesions. These pathways were consistent among species. Our results suggest that the responsible lesions may be commonly linked with chemically-induced cytotoxicity in each tumor type, irrespective of genotoxicity, and that the pathways may largely overlap between genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogens. These findings may support the documentation of adverse outcome pathways (AOPs), such as cytotoxicity, leading to nasal cavity tumors and the integrated approaches to testing and assessment (IATA) for non-genotoxic carcinogens.

Synergistic Inhibitory Effect of Multiple Polyphenols from Spice on Acrolein during High-Temperature Processing

Acrolein (ACR) is a toxic unsaturated aldehyde that is produced during food thermal processing. Here, we investigated the synergistic effect of polyphenols in binary, ternary, and quaternary combinations on ACR by the Chou-Talalay method, and then explored the synergistic effect of cardamonin (CAR), alpinetin (ALP), and pinocembrin (PIN) in fixed proportion from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata (AKH) combined with curcumin (CUR) in the model, and roasted pork using LC-MS/MS. Our results showed that their synergistic effect depended on the intensification of their individual trapping ACR activities, which resulted in the formation of more ACR adducts. In addition, by adding 1% AKH (as the carrier of CAR, ALP, and PIN) and 0.01% CUR (vs. 6% AKH single) as spices, more than 71.5% (vs. 54.0%) of ACR was eliminated in roast pork. Our results suggested that selective complex polyphenols can synergistically remove the toxic ACR that is produced in food processing.

Enhancing global and local decision making for chemical safety assessments through increasing the availability of data

Toxicity safety assessments are a fundamental part of the lifecycle of products and aim to protect human health and the environment from harmful exposures to chemical substances. To make decisions regarding the suitability of testing strategies, the applicability of individual tests or concluding an assessment for an individual chemical requires data. This review outlines how different forms of data sharing, from enhancing publicly-available data to extracting knowledge from commercially-sensitive data, leads to increased quantity and quality of evidence being available for safety assessors to review. This can result in more confident decisions for different use cases in the context of chemical safety assessments. Although a number of challenges remain with progressing the evolution of toxicity safety assessments, data sharing should be considered as a key approach to accelerating the development and uptake of new best practices.

Setting impurity limits for endogenous substances: Recommendations for a harmonized procedure and an example using fatty acids

Endogenous substances, such as fatty, amino, and nucleic acids, are often purposefully used in parenterally pharmaceuticals, but may be present as impurities. Currently, no consensus guidance exists on setting impurity limits for these substances. Specific procedures are needed, as the amount and types of toxicity data available for endogenous substances are typically far less than those for other chemical impurities. Additionally, the parenteral route of administration of these substances is inherently non-physiological, resulting in potentially different or increased severity of toxicity. Risk Assessment Process Maps (RAPMAPs) are proposed as a model to facilitate the development of health-based exposure limits (HBELs) for endogenous substances. This yielded a framework that was applied to derive HBELs for several fatty acids commonly used in parenteral pharmaceuticals. This approach was used to derive HBELs with further vetting based on anticipated perturbations in physiological serum levels, impacts of dose-rate, and consideration of intermittent dosing. Parenteral HBELs of 100-500 mg/day were generated for several fatty acids, and a proposed class-based limit of 50 mg/day to be used in the absence of chemical-specific data. This default limit is consistent with the low toxicity of this chemical class and ICH Q3C value for Class 3 solvents.

Analytical Method Development for 19 Alkyl Halides as Potential Genotoxic Impurities by Analytical Quality by Design

Major issues in the pharmaceutical industry involve efficient risk management and control strategies of potential genotoxic impurities (PGIs). As a result, the development of an appropriate method to control these impurities is required. An optimally sensitive and simultaneous analytical method using gas chromatography with a mass spectrometry detector (GC–MS) was developed for 19 alkyl halides determined to be PGIs. These 19 alkyl halides were selected from 144 alkyl halides through an in silico study utilizing quantitative structure–activity relationship (Q-SAR) approaches via expert knowledge rule-based software and statistical-based software. The analytical quality by design (QbD) approach was adopted for the development of a sensitive and robust analytical method for PGIs. A limited number of literature studies have reviewed the analytical QbD approach in the PGI method development using GC–MS as the analytical instrument. A GC equipped with a single quadrupole mass spectrometry detector (MSD) and VF-624 ms capillary column was used. The developed method was validated in terms of specificity, the limit of detection, quantitation, linearity, accuracy, and precision, according to the ICH Q2 guideline.

Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA1535 and E. coli WP2 uvrA are highly sensitive to detect the mutagenicity of short Alkyl-N-Nitrosamines in the Bacterial Reverse Mutation Test

Humans are exposed to low levels of N-nitrosamines via different sources. N-Nitrosamines have recently been detected as impurities in various marketed drugs and they are known mutagenic carcinogens belonging to the cohort of concern as referred to in the ICH M7 guideline. Despite their well-known mutagenic properties, there is ongoing discussion on the suitability of the bacterial reverse mutation assay and using induced rat liver S9 as the external source of metabolism to detect their mutagenic potential. Therefore, we have investigated the mutagenic potential of N-nitrosodimethylamine, N-nitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosodipropylamine, and N-nitrosodibutylamine in vitro under various conditions. Our work showed that the bacterial reverse mutation assay applying plate incorporation or preincubation protocols and using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA100 and TA1535 and E. coli WP2 uvrA is suitable to predict the mutagenicity of n-nitrosamines in the presence of phenobarbital/β-naphthoflavone induced rat liver S9.

Utility of a next-generation framework for assessment of genomic damage: A case study using the pharmaceutical drug candidate etoposide

We present a hypothetical case study to examine the use of a next-generation framework developed by the Genetic Toxicology Technical Committee of the Health and Environmental Sciences Institute for assessing the potential risk of genetic damage from a pharmaceutical perspective. We used etoposide, a genotoxic carcinogen, as a representative pharmaceutical for the purposes of this case study. Using the framework as guidance, we formulated a hypothetical scenario for the use of etoposide to illustrate the application of the framework to pharmaceuticals. We collected available data on etoposide considered relevant for assessment of genetic toxicity risk. From the data collected, we conducted a quantitative analysis to estimate margins of exposure (MOEs) to characterize the risk of genetic damage that could be used for decision-making regarding the predefined hypothetical use. We found the framework useful for guiding the selection of appropriate tests and selecting relevant endpoints that reflected the potential for genetic damage in patients. The risk characterization, presented as MOEs, allows decision makers to discern how much benefit is critical to balance any adverse effect(s) that may be induced by the pharmaceutical. Interestingly, pharmaceutical development already incorporates several aspects of the framework per regulations and health authority expectations. Moreover, we observed that quality dose response data can be obtained with carefully planned but routinely conducted genetic toxicity testing. This case study demonstrates the utility of the next-generation framework to quantitatively model human risk based on genetic damage, as applicable to pharmaceuticals.

Lack of In Vivo Mutagenicity of Acetamide in a 13-Week Comprehensive Toxicity Study Using F344 gpt Delta Rats

Acetamide, a food contaminant, has been shown to induce hepatocellular tumors in rats. However, the mode of action underlying acetamide-induced hepatocarcinogenesis remains unclear. In the current study, we aimed to examine the possible involvement of in vivo mutagenicity in hepatocarcinogenesis of acetamide and evaluate its toxicological profile using a comprehensive medium-term toxicity study in gpt delta rats. Six-week-old male F344 gpt delta rats were given a basal diet containing 0%, 0.625%, 1.25%, or 2.5% acetamide for 13 weeks. In general toxicologic assessment, hepatotoxic parameters in serum, such as aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase were significantly changed at the 1.25% group and higher. Histopathological examination of the liver revealed that various changes related to hepatic injury were observed at the 1.25% group and higher. Interestingly, Feulgen-positive cytoplasmic inclusion was frequently observed in hepatocytes in these groups. In the hematopoietic system, red blood cell parameters in plasma, such as mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin were significantly changed at the 1.25% group and higher, and decrease of erythroblast in the spleen was observed histopathologically in the 2.5% group. Thus, the no-observed-adverse-effect level of acetamide in this study was 0.625% (equivalent to 394 mg/kg body weight/day). In vivo mutation assays showed that acetamide induced no changes in gpt and red/gam gene mutant frequencies, even at the carcinogenic target site. In contrast, Ki67-positive hepatocytes were increased significantly at carcinogenic doses. Therefore, these results suggested that cell proliferation activity, but not mutagenicity, played crucial roles in acetamide-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in rats.

Permitted daily exposure limits for noteworthy N-nitrosamines

A genotoxic carcinogen, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), was detected as a synthesis impurity in some valsartan drugs in 2018, and other N-nitrosamines, such as N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), were later detected in other sartan products. N-nitrosamines are pro-mutagens that can react with DNA following metabolism to produce DNA adducts, such as O⁶ -alkyl-guanine. The adducts can result in DNA replication miscoding errors leading to GC>AT mutations and increased risk of genomic instability and carcinogenesis. Both NDMA and NDEA are known rodent carcinogens in male and female rats. The DNA repair enzyme, methylguanine DNA-methyltransferase can restore DNA integrity via the removal of alkyl groups from guanine in an error-free fashion and this can result in nonlinear dose responses and a point of departure or "practical threshold" for mutation at low doses of exposure. Following International recommendations (ICHM7; ICHQ3C and ICHQ3D), we calculated permissible daily exposures (PDE) for NDMA and NDEA using published rodent cancer bioassay and in vivo mutagenicity data to determine benchmark dose values and define points of departure and adjusted with appropriate uncertainty factors (UFs). PDEs for NDMA were 6.2 and 0.6 μg/person/day for cancer and mutation, respectively, and for NDEA, 2.2 and 0.04 μg/person/day. Both PDEs are higher than the acceptable daily intake values (96 ng for NDMA and 26.5 ng for NDEA) calculated by regulatory authorities using simple linear extrapolation from carcinogenicity data. These PDE calculations using a bench-mark approach provide a more robust assessment of exposure limits compared with simple linear extrapolations and can better inform risk to patients exposed to the contaminated sartans.

Utilisation of parametric methods to improve percentile-based estimates for the carcinogenic potency of nitrosamines

N-Nitrosamines have recently been the subject of intense regulatory scrutiny, including the setting of low exposure limits (18 ng/day) (European Medicines Agency (EMA), 2020). This paper evaluates different methodologies to determine statistically robust bounds on the carcinogenic potency of chemical classes, using historic TD₅₀ data (Peto et al., 1984; Thresher et al., 2019) and exemplified for N-nitrosamines. Initially, the distribution of TD₅₀ values (TD₅₀s) for N-nitrosamines of known potency was characterised. From this, it is possible to compare parametric and non-parametric methods to obtain percentiles of interest from the distribution of TD₅₀s, which are shown to be robust to uncertainty in the initial TD₅₀ estimates. These methods may then be applied to different chemical subclasses. The values obtained may be of use in refining acceptable intakes for N-nitrosamines and their subclasses.

Deriving Compound-Specific Exposure Limits for Chemicals Used in Pharmaceutical Synthesis: Challenges in Expert Decision-Making Exemplified Through a Case Study-Based Workshop

A workshop entitled "Deriving Compound-Specific Exposure Limits for Chemicals Used in Pharmaceutical Synthesis" was held at the 2018 Genetic Toxicology Association annual meeting. The objectives of the workshop were to provide an educational forum and use case studies and live multiple-choice polling to establish the degree of similarity/diversity in approach/opinion of the industry experts and other delegates present for some of the more challenging decision points that need to be considered when developing a compound-specific exposure limit (ie, acceptable intake or permissible or permitted daily exposure). Herein we summarize the relevant background and case study information for each decision point topic presented as well as highlight significant polling responses and discussion points. A common observation throughout was the requirement for expert judgment to be applied at each of the decision points presented which often results in different reasoning being applied by the risk assessor when deriving a compound-specific exposure limit. This supports the value of precompetitive cross-industry collaborations to develop compound-specific limits and harmonize the methodology applied, thus reducing the associated uncertainty inherent in the application of isolated expert judgment in this context. An overview of relevant precompetitive cross-industry collaborations working to achieve this goal is described.

Synthesis of stable-isotope-labeled N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide and N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylurea

N-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylcarbodiimide (EDC) is a carbodiimide coupling reagent commonly used for the preparation of amides from carboxylic acids and amines. Because of initial concerns regarding the genotoxicity of EDC and its use in GMP syntheses at Bristol Myers Squibb, the quantitation of residual EDC and its by-product N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N'-ethylurea (EDU) by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS) impurity analysis was required. These analyses required the use of stable-isotope-labeled EDC and EDU to serve as internal standards. To meet this need, stable-isotope-labeled EDC 9 and EDU 10 were prepared from [1,2-13 C2 ] ethylene glycol and [13 C,15 N] potassium cyanide in overall yields of 6% and 8%, respectively.

Strategies in genotoxicology: Acceptance of innovative scientific methods in a regulatory context and from an industrial perspective

The tests used and the general principles behind test strategies are now often over 30 years old. It may be time by now, given that our knowledge of genetic toxicology has improved and that we also technically are better able to investigate DNA damage making use of modern molecular biological techniques, to start thinking on a new test strategy. In the present paper, it is discussed that the time is there to consider a new approach for genotoxicity assessment of substances. A fit for all test strategy was discussed making use of the most recent technological methods and techniques. It was also indicated that in silico tools should be more accepted by regulatory institutes/bodies as supporting information to better conclude which tests should be required for each separate substance to demonstrate its genotoxic potency. Next to that there should be a good rationale for performing in vivo studies. Finally, the need for germ cell genotoxicity testing, essential when classification and labeling of substances is mandatory, was discussed. It was suggested to change the GHS for genotoxicity classification and labelling from in vivo tests in germ cells into in vivo tests in somatic cells. Quantitative genotoxicology was also discussed. It appeared that we are currently at a transition, where the science developing to justify carrying out human health risk assessments based on genetic toxicology data sets supported by mechanistic data and exposure data. However, implementation will take time, and acceptance will be supported through the development of numerous case studies. Major remaining questions are: is genetic damage a relevant endpoint in itself, or should the risk assessment be carried out on the apical endpoint of cancer and which genotoxic endpoint should be used to derive the point of departure (PoD) for the human exposure limit?

A toxicogenomic approach for the risk assessment of the food contaminant acetamide

Acetamide (CAS 60-35-5) is detected in common foods. Chronic rodent bioassays led to its classification as a group 2B possible human carcinogen due to the induction of liver tumors in rats. We used a toxicogenomics approach in Wistar rats gavaged daily for 7 or 28 days at doses of 300 to 1500 mg/kg/day (mkd) to determine a point of departure (POD) and investigate its mode of action (MoA). Ki67 labeling was increased at doses ≥750 mkd up to 3.3-fold representing the most sensitive apical endpoint. Differential gene expression analysis by RNA-Seq identified 1110 and 1814 differentially expressed genes in male and female rats, respectively, following 28 days of treatment. Down-regulated genes were associated with lipid metabolism while up-regulated genes included cell signaling, immune response, and cell cycle functions. Benchmark dose (BMD) modeling of the Ki67 labeling index determined the BMD10 lower confidence limit (BMDL10) as 190 mkd. Transcriptional BMD modeling revealed excellent concordance between transcriptional POD and apical endpoints. Collectively, these results indicate that acetamide is most likely acting through a mitogenic MoA, though specific key initiating molecular events could not be elucidated. A POD value of 190 mkd determined for cell proliferation is suggested for risk assessment purposes.

Presence of Acetamide in Milk and Beef from Cattle Consuming AFEX-Treated Crop Residues

AFEX treatment of crop residues can greatly increase their nutrient availability for ruminants. This study investigated the concentration of acetamide, an ammoniation byproduct, in AFEX-treated crop residues and in milk and meat from ruminants fed these residues. Acetamide concentrations in four AFEX-treated cereal crop residues were comparable and reproducible (4-7 mg/g dry matter). A transient acetamide peak in milk was detected following introduction of AFEX-treated residues to the diet, but an alternative regimen showed the peak can be effectively mitigated. Milk acetamide concentration following this transition was 6 and 10 ppm for cattle and buffalo, respectively, but also decreased over time for cattle while tending to decrease (p = 0.08) for buffalo. There was no difference in acetamide concentration in the meat of cattle consuming AFEX-treated residues for 160 days compared to controls. Further investigation is necessary to determine the metabolism of acetamide in ruminants and a maximum acceptable daily intake for humans.

Generation of TD50 values for carcinogenicity study data

Carcinogenic potency is a key factor in the understanding of chemical risk assessment. Measures of carcinogenic potency, for example TD50, are instrumental in the determination of metrics such as the threshold of toxicological concern (TTC), acceptable intake (AI) and permitted daily exposure (PDE), which in turn impact on human exposure. The Carcinogenic Potency Data Base (CPDB) has provided a source of study information, complete with calculated TD50 values. However, this is no longer actively updated. An understanding of carcinogenic potency, which can be derived from dose-response data, can be used as part of human risk assessments to generate safety thresholds under which cancer risk is judged to be minimal. The aim of this paper is to produce a transparent methodology for calculating TD50 values from experimental data in a manner consistent with the CPDB. This was then applied across the same data as used in the CPDB and analysis done on the correlation with the CPDB TD50 values. While the two sets of values showed a high level of correlation overall, there were some significant discrepancies. These were predominantly due to a lack of clarity in the CPDB methodology and inappropriate use of a linear model in TD50 calculation where the data was not suitable for such an approach.

Elemental impurities in pharmaceutical products adding fuel to the fire

The pharmaceuticals may generate impurities at various stages of development, transportation and storage which make them risky to be administered. Thus, it is essential that these impurities must be detected and quantified. However, their presence as impurities in finished products is virtually unavoidable, even under GMP conditions. Control of elemental impurities in pharmaceutical materials is currently undergoing a transition from control based on concentrations in components of drug products to control based on permitted daily exposures in drug products. Within the pharmaceutical community, there is uncertainty regarding the impact of these changes on manufactures of drug products. This uncertainty is fueled due to lack of publicly available information on elemental impurity levels in common pharmaceutical excipients. The present compilation gives an account of updated information about elemental impurities and reviews the regulatory aspects for such impurities in active pharmaceutical ingredients/drug formulations. In addition, the aim of this article is to review and discuss the currently used quantitative analytical method, which is used for quality control of elemental impurities in pharmaceutical products.

Improvement of quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) tools for predicting Ames mutagenicity: outcomes of the Ames/QSAR International Challenge Project

The International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) M7 guideline allows the use of in silico approaches for predicting Ames mutagenicity for the initial assessment of impurities in pharmaceuticals. This is the first international guideline that addresses the use of quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) models in lieu of actual toxicological studies for human health assessment. Therefore, QSAR models for Ames mutagenicity now require higher predictive power for identifying mutagenic chemicals. To increase the predictive power of QSAR models, larger experimental datasets from reliable sources are required. The Division of Genetics and Mutagenesis, National Institute of Health Sciences (DGM/NIHS) of Japan recently established a unique proprietary Ames mutagenicity database containing 12140 new chemicals that have not been previously used for developing QSAR models. The DGM/NIHS provided this Ames database to QSAR vendors to validate and improve their QSAR tools. The Ames/QSAR International Challenge Project was initiated in 2014 with 12 QSAR vendors testing 17 QSAR tools against these compounds in three phases. We now present the final results. All tools were considerably improved by participation in this project. Most tools achieved >50% sensitivity (positive prediction among all Ames positives) and predictive power (accuracy) was as high as 80%, almost equivalent to the inter-laboratory reproducibility of Ames tests. To further increase the predictive power of QSAR tools, accumulation of additional Ames test data is required as well as re-evaluation of some previous Ames test results. Indeed, some Ames-positive or Ames-negative chemicals may have previously been incorrectly classified because of methodological weakness, resulting in false-positive or false-negative predictions by QSAR tools. These incorrect data hamper prediction and are a source of noise in the development of QSAR models. It is thus essential to establish a large benchmark database consisting only of well-validated Ames test results to build more accurate QSAR models.

Managing emerging mutagenicity risks: Late stage mutagenic impurity control within the atovaquone second generation synthesis

The mutagenic-impurity control strategy for a second generation manufacturing route to the non-mutagenic antipneumocystic agent atovaquone (2-((1R,4R)-4-(4-chlorophenyl)cyclohexyl)-3-hydroxynaphthalene-1,4-dione) 1 is described. Preliminary assessment highlighted multiple materials of concern which were largely discharged either through returning a negative bacterial mutagenicity assay or through confidence that the impurity would be purged during the downstream processing from when it was first introduced. Additional genotoxicity testing highlighted two materials of concern where initial assessment suggested that testing for these impurities at trace levels within the drug substance would be required. Following a thorough review of process purging detail, spiking and purging experimentation, and an understanding of the process parameters to which they were exposed an ICH M7 Option 4 approach could be justified for their control. The development of two 1H NMR spectroscopy methods for measurement of these impurities is also described as well as a proposed summary table for describing the underlying rationale for ICH M7 control rationales to regulators. This manuscript demonstrates that process purging of potential mutagenic impurities can be realised even when they are introduced in the later stages of a process and highlights the importance of scientific understanding rather than relying on a stage-counting approach.