The control of body size in insects

Bigger isn't always better: Challenging assumptions about the associations between diapause, body weight, and overwintering survival

During the winter, animals face limited food availability. Many animals enter dormancy to reduce their winter energy expenditure. Most insects spend the winter in diapause, a state of programmed dormancy. It is often assumed that diapausing insects need nutrient stores to fuel their many months of basal metabolism and must grow heavier than their non-diapause-programmed counterparts. However, the extent to which food limitation affects body weight during overwintering preparation as well as the likelihood and duration of diapause remains unclear. We limited the duration of the feeding period and thus the total quantity of food available to diapause-destined larvae of the pupal-diapausing flesh fly, Sarcophaga crassipalpis, to test how food limitation affects body weight in the context of diapause programming. We also tested the extent to which food deprivation and body weight affect the likelihood and duration of diapause. We hypothesized that diapause-destined larvae grow more quickly and pupariate at a heavier body weight than non-diapause larvae. We also hypothesized that body weight is more dramatically reduced by food limitations when a larva is programmed for diapause. Finally, we hypothesized that larvae with lighter body weight (i.e., food limited) are less likely to enter pupal diapause and also stay in diapause for a shorter duration than heavier, well-fed, individuals. Contrary to our hypotheses that diapausing insects are heavier than their non-diapausing counterparts, we found diapausing pupae weighed less than non-diapausing pupae, especially when larvae received limited food. We found light pupae did not abort their diapause program. In both diapausing and non-diapausing pupae, body weight was positively correlated with simulated winter survival. However, above a weight threshold, body weight no longer affected simulated winter survival in diapausing pupae. Contrary to our predictions and the general consensus in much of the diapause literature, we also found that lighter pupae stayed in diapause longer than heavier pupae. Overall, our results challenge the precept that body weight and diapause are positively associated. The relationship between body weight and diapause is complex and may be affected by the availability of food before and after winter, the availability of high-quality overwintering sites, and the life history of a particular insect.

Diet Affects the Temperature-Size Relationship in the Blowfly Aldrichina grahami

In warmer environments, most ectotherms exhibit a plastic reduction in body size (the temperature-size rule, TSR). However, in such environments, growth is usually accelerated and would be expected to result in maturation at a larger body size, leading to increases in fecundity, survival, and mating success, compared to maturation at a smaller size (the 'life-history puzzle'). To explore these mechanisms, we reared Aldrichina grahami at 20 °C, 25 °C, and 30 °C, and added a nutritional challenge by using dilutions of pork liver paste to provide diets that ranged in quality from high (undiluted) to moderate (1/8), low (1/16), and poor (1/24). Larvae were randomly sampled for weighing from hatching. Growth curves were fitted to the relationships between growth rate and weight for the third instar larvae. Our results showed that body size was affected by an interaction between temperature and diet, and that following or not following the TSR can vary depending on underfeeding. Moreover, when the TSR was followed as temperature increased, there was a cross-over point that divided the two growth curves into early and later stages, which could be used to help understand the life-history puzzle in warmer temperatures, with the instantaneous growth rate being faster in the early stages of development and then slower in later stages. This study reminds us that animals have evolved to cope with multiple simultaneous environmental changes, and it has thus offered a better understanding of life-history puzzles.

Breaking the Law: Is It Correct to Use the Converse Bergmann Rule in Ceroglossus chilensis? An Overview Using Geometric Morphometrics

The converse Bergmann's rule is a pattern of body size variation observed in many ectothermic organisms that contradicts the classic Bergmann's rule and suggests that individuals inhabiting warmer climates tend to exhibit larger body sizes compared to those inhabiting colder environments. Due to the thermoregulatory nature of Bergmann's rule, its application among ectotherms might prove to be more complicated, given that these organisms obtain heat by absorbing it from their habitat. The existence of this inverse pattern therefore challenges the prevailing notion that larger body size is universally advantageous in colder climates. Ceroglossus chilensis is a native Chilean beetle that has the largest latitudinal range of any species in the genus, from 34.3° S to 47.8° S. Within Chile, it continuously inhabits regions extending from Maule to Aysen, thriving on both native and non-native forest species. Beyond their remarkable color variation, populations of C. chilensis show minimal morphological disparity, noticeable only through advanced morphological techniques (geometric morphometrics). Based on both (1) the "temperature-size rule", which suggests that body size decreases with increasing temperature, and (2) the reduced resource availability in high-latitude environments that may lead to smaller body sizes, we predict that C. chilensis populations will follow the converse Bergmann's rule. Our results show a clear converse pattern to the normal Bergmann rule, where smaller centroid sizes were found to be measured in the specimens inhabiting the southern areas of Chile. Understanding the prevalence of the converse Bergmann's rule for ectotherm animals and how often this rule is broken is of utmost importance to understand the underlying mechanisms allowing organisms to adapt to different environments and the selective pressures they face.

The complex interactions between nutrition, immunity and infection in insects

Insects are the most diverse animal group on the planet. Their success is reflected by the diversity of habitats in which they live. However, these habitats have undergone great changes in recent decades; understanding how these changes affect insect health and fitness is an important challenge for insect conservation. In this Review, we focus on the research that links the nutritional environment with infection and immune status in insects. We first discuss the research from the field of nutritional immunology, and we then investigate how factors such as intracellular and extracellular symbionts, sociality and transgenerational effects may interact with the connection between nutrition and immunity. We show that the interactions between nutrition and resistance can be highly specific to insect species and/or infection type - this is almost certainly due to the diversity of insect social interactions and life cycles, and the varied environments in which insects live. Hence, these connections cannot be easily generalised across insects. We finally suggest that other environmental aspects - such as the use of agrochemicals and climatic factors - might also influence the interaction between nutrition and resistance, and highlight how research on these is essential.

Periods of environmental sensitivity couple larval behavior and development

The typical life cycle in most animal phyla includes a larval period that bridges embryogenesis and adulthood1. Despite the great diversity of larval forms, all larvae grow, acquire adult morphology and function, while navigating their habitats to obtain resources necessary for development. How larval development is coordinated with behavior remains substantially unclear. Here, we describe features of the iterative organization of larval stages that serve to assess the environment and procure resources prior to costly developmental commitments. We found that male-excreted pheromones accelerate2-4 the onset of adulthood in C. elegans hermaphrodites by coordinately advancing multiple developmental events and growth during the last larval stage. The larvae are sensitive to the accelerating male pheromones only at the end of the penultimate larval stage, just before the acceleration begins. Other larval stages also contain windows of sensitivity to environmental inputs. Importantly, behaviors associated with search and consumption of food are distinct between early and late portions of larval stages. We infer that each larval stage in C. elegans is subdivided into two epochs: A) global assessment of the environment to identify the most suitable patch and B) consumption of sufficient food and acquisition of salient information for developmental events in the next stage. We predict that in larvae of other species behavior is also divided into distinct epochs optimized either for assessing the habitat or obtaining the resources. Thus, a major role of larval behavior is to coordinate the orderly progression of development in variable environments.

Ontogenetic trajectories and early shape differentiation of treehopper pronota (Hemiptera: Membracidae)

Membracids (family: Membracidae), commonly known as treehoppers, are recognizable by their enlarged and often elaborated pronota. Much of the research investigating the development and evolution of this structure has focused on the fifth instar to adult transition, in which the pronotum undergoes the largest transformation as it takes on adult identity. However, little is known about the earlier nymphal stages, the degree to which the pronotum develops at these timepoints, and how development has changed relative to the ancestral state. Here, we studied the nymphal stages and adults of five morphologically distinct membracid species and of Aetalion reticulatum (family: Aetalionidae), the outgroup which was used as an ancestral state proxy. We found that shape differentiation in the pronotum of membracids can start as early as the second instar stage. Most shape differentiation occurs within the nymphal stages and not in the embryo since the shape of the first-instar pronotum did not differ from the outgroup species in all but one species we investigated. We found the anterior-posterior axis of the pronotum elongated at a faster relative rate in membracid species than in A. reticulatum, which contributed to the development of exaggerated pronotal size. Finally, we found differences in the morphogenesis of shape across species. We suggest this is due to the developmental and evolutionary divergence of differential growth patterning of the dorsal surface of the pronotum, not only across species, but also between stages within the same species. This lability may contribute to the evolvability and diversification of the membracid pronotum.

A transcriptomic investigation of heat-induced transgenerational plasticity in beetles

In response to environmental stressors, parents can shape the developmental outcomes of their offspring by contributing non-genetic but heritable factors. The transmission of such factors can potentially allow offspring, from the beginning of their lives, to express phenotypes that match their anticipated environments. In this study, I ask whether enhanced growth in larvae of Onthophagus taurus (the bull-headed dung beetle) is modified by parental exposure to heat or by exposure of the offspring to heat during early life. I find that, irrespective of the early environment of the offspring, individuals produced by parents exposed to heat grow larger. Furthermore, taking a transcriptomic approach, I find that ecdysone signalling might mediate the transgenerational effect and that increased insulin signalling or reduced production of heat shock proteins might be responsible for the enhanced growth in larvae derived from parents exposed to heat. Together, my results provide evidence for a thermally induced transgenerational effect and a foundation for functional testing of candidate mechanisms mediating the effect.

Using physiology to better support wild bee conservation

There is accumulating evidence that wild bees are experiencing a decline in terms of species diversity, abundance or distribution, which leads to major concerns about the sustainability of both pollination services and intrinsic biodiversity. There is therefore an urgent need to better understand the drivers of their decline, as well as design conservation strategies. In this context, the current approach consists of linking observed occurrence and distribution data of species to environmental features. While useful, a highly complementary approach would be the use of new biological metrics that can link individual bee responses to environmental alteration with population-level responses, which could communicate the actual bee sensitivity to environmental changes and act as early warning signals of bee population decline or sustainability. We discuss here through several examples how the measurement of bee physiological traits or performance can play this role not only in better assessing the impact of anthropogenic pressures on bees, but also in guiding conservation practices with the help of the documentation of species' physiological needs. Last but not least, because physiological changes generally occur well in advance of demographic changes, we argue that physiological traits can help in predicting and anticipating future population trends, which would represent a more proactive approach to conservation. In conclusion, we believe that future efforts to combine physiological, ecological and population-level knowledge will provide meaningful contributions to wild bee conservation-based research.

Within-population variation in body size plasticity in response to combined nutritional and thermal stress is partially independent from variation in development time

Ongoing climate change has forced animals to face changing thermal and nutritional environments. Animals can adjust to such combinations of stressors via plasticity. Body size is a key trait influencing organismal fitness, and plasticity in this trait in response to nutritional and thermal conditions varies among genetically diverse, locally adapted populations. The standing genetic variation within a population can also influence the extent of body size plasticity. We generated near-isogenic lines from a newly collected population of Drosophila melanogaster at the mid-point of east coast Australia and assayed body size for all lines in combinations of thermal and nutritional stress. We found that isogenic lines showed distinct underlying patterns of body size plasticity in response to temperature and nutrition that were often different from the overall population response. We then tested whether plasticity in development time could explain, and therefore regulate, variation in body size to these combinations of environmental conditions. We selected five genotypes that showed the greatest variation in response to combined thermal and nutritional stress and assessed the correlation between response of developmental time and body size. While we found significant genetic variation in development time plasticity, it was a poor predictor of body size among genotypes. Our results therefore suggest that multiple developmental pathways could generate genetic variation in body size plasticity. Our study emphasizes the need to better understand genetic variation in plasticity within a population, which will help determine the potential for populations to adapt to ongoing environmental change.

Integrin β2 and β3: Two plasmatocyte markers deepen our understanding of the development of plasmatocytes in the silkworm Bombyx mori

Insect hemocytes play important biological roles at developmental stages, metamorphosis, and innate immunity. As one of the most abundant cell types, plasmatocytes can participate in various innate immune responses, especially in encapsulation and node formation. Here, 2 molecular markers of plasmatocytes, consisting of integrin β2 and β3, were identified and used to understand the development of plasmatocytes. Plasmatocytes are widely distributed in the hematopoietic system, including circulating hemolymph and hematopoietic organs (HPOs). HPOs constantly release plasmatocytes with high proliferative activity in vitro; removal of HPOs leads to a dramatic reduction in the circulating plasmatocytes, and the remaining plasmatocytes gradually lose their ability to proliferate in vivo. Our results demonstrated that the release of plasmatocytes from HPOs is regulated by insulin-mediated signals and their downstream pathways, including PI3K/Akt and MAPK/Erk signals. The insulin/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway can significantly irritate the hematopoiesis, and its inhibitor LY294002 could inhibit the hemocytes discharged from HPOs. While the insulin/MAPK/Erk signaling pathway plays a negative regulatory role, inhibiting its activity with U0126 can markedly promote the discharge of plasmatocytes from HPOs. Our results indicate that the circulating plasmatocytes are mainly generated and discharged by HPOs. This process is co-regulated by the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/Erk signals in an antagonistic manner to adjust the dynamic balance of the hemocytes. These findings can enhance our understanding of insect hematopoiesis.

Effect of non-essential amino acids (proline and glutamic acid) and sugar polyol (sorbitol) on brood of honey bees

Dietary nutrients provide fuel for the growth and development of insects as well as chemicals for their tissue construction. Apis mellifera L., an important pollinator, collects nectar and pollens from different plants to get their nutritional needs. Honey bees use protein for growth and development and carbohydrates as energy sources. Pollens predominantly contain proline and glutamic acid (non-essential amino acids). This is the first study to evaluate the role of proline, glutamic acid and sorbitol on bee broods. The composition of the diet can optimize the in vitro rearing process. Therefore, we elaborated on the possible impact of these amino acids and sugar alcohol on bee broods. This study aimed to achieve this objective by rearing honey bee larvae under different concentrations of proline, glutamic acid, and sorbitol (1, 4 and 8%), which were supplemented into the standard larval diet. The supplementation of proline helped the quick development of larvae and pupae of honey bees, whereas developmental time only decreased in pupae in the case of glutamic acid. The duration of the total bee brood development was the shortest (20.1 and 20.6 days) on Pro8 and Glu4, respectively. Proline only increased larvae survival (93.8%), whereas glutamic acid did not increase the survival of any brood stage. Pupal and adult weights were also increased with proline and glutamic acid-supplemented diets. Sorbitol did not change the developmental period of the honey bee brood but increased larval survival (93.7%) only at the lowest concentration (Sor1). The small concentration of sorbitol can be used to increase the survival of the honey bee brood. However, a higher concentration (Sor8) of sorbitol reduced the body weight of both pupae and adults. This study predicted that rearing bee brood could be one of the factors for the selectivity of pollen with higher proline and glutamic acid during the foraging of bees.

Pupal size as a proxy for fat content in laboratory-reared and field-collected Drosophila species

In arthropods, larger individuals tend to have more fat reserves, but data for many taxa are still missing. For the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster, only few studies have provided experimental data linking body size to fat content. This is rather surprising considering the widespread use of D. melanogaster as a model system in biology. Here, we hypothesized that fat content in D. melanogaster is positively correlated with body size. To test this, we manipulated the developmental environment of D. melanogaster by decreasing food availability. We then measured pupal size and quantified fat content of laboratory-reared D. melanogaster. We subsequently measured pupal size and fat content of several field-caught Drosophila species. Starvation, crowding, and reduced nutrient content led to smaller laboratory-reared pupae that contained less fat. Pupal size was indeed found to be positively correlated with fat content. The same correlation was found for field-caught Drosophila pupae belonging to different species. As fat reserves are often strongly linked to fitness in insects, further knowledge on the relationship between body size and fat content can provide important information for studies on insect ecology and physiology.

Evaluating old truths: Final adult size in holometabolous insects is set by the end of larval development

For centuries, it has been understood that the final size of adult holometabolous insects is determined by the end of the larval stage, and that once they transform to adults, holometabolous insects do not grow. Despite this, no previous study has directly tested these "old truths" across holometabolous insects. Here, we demonstrate that final adult size is set at the end of the last larval stage in species representing each of the four orders of holometabolous insects: the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster (Diptera), the tobacco hornworm Manduca sexta (Lepidoptera), the dung beetle Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera), and the Florida carpenter ant Camponotus floridanus (Hymenoptera). Furthermore, in both D. melanogaster and C. floridanus, we show that the size of adult individuals fluctuates but does not significantly change. Therefore, our study finally confirms these two basic assumptions in the biology of insects, which have for centuries served as the foundation for studies of insect growth, size, and allometry.

When does diet matter? The roles of larval and adult nutrition in regulating adult size traits in Drosophila melanogaster

Adult body size is determined by the quality and quantity of nutrients available to animals. In insects, nutrition affects adult size primarily during the nymphal or larval stages. However, measures of adult size like body weight are likely to also change with adult nutrition. In this study, we sought to explore the roles of nutrition throughout the life cycle on adult body weight and the size of two appendages, the wing and the femur, in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. We manipulated nutrition in two ways: by varying the protein to carbohydrate content of the diet, called macronutrient restriction, and by changing the caloric density of the diet, termed caloric restriction. We employed a fully factorial design to manipulate both the larval and adult diets for both diet types. We found that manipulating the larval diet had greater impacts on all measures of adult size. Further, macronutrient restriction was more detrimental to adult size than caloric restriction. For adult body weight, a rich adult diet mitigated the negative effects of poor larval nutrition for both types of diets. In contrast, small wing and femur size caused by poor larval diet could not be increased with the adult diet. Taken together, these results suggest that appendage size is fixed by the larval diet, while those related to body composition remain sensitive to adult diet. Further, our studies provide a foundation for understanding how the nutritional environment of juveniles affects how adults respond to diet.

An integrative approach to dietary balance across the life course

Animals require specific blends of nutrients that vary across the life course and with circumstances, e.g., health and activity levels. Underpinning and complicating these requirements is that individual traits may be optimized on different dietary compositions leading to nutrition-mediated trade-offs among outcomes. Additionally, the food environment may constrain which nutrient mixtures are achievable. Natural selection has equipped animals for solving such multi-dimensional, dynamic challenges of nutrition, but little is understood about the details and their theoretical and practical implications. We present an integrative framework, nutritional geometry, which models complex nutritional interactions in the context of multiple nutrients and across levels of biological organization (e.g., cellular, individual, and population) and levels of analysis (e.g., mechanistic, developmental, ecological, and evolutionary). The framework is generalizable across different situations and taxa. We illustrate this using examples spanning insects to primates and settings (laboratory, and the wild), and demonstrate its relevance for human health.

Ecdysone coordinates plastic growth with robust pattern in the developing wing

Animals develop in unpredictable, variable environments. In response to environmental change, some aspects of development adjust to generate plastic phenotypes. Other aspects of development, however, are buffered against environmental change to produce robust phenotypes. How organ development is coordinated to accommodate both plastic and robust developmental responses is poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that the steroid hormone ecdysone coordinates both plasticity of organ size and robustness of organ pattern in the developing wings of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Using fed and starved larvae that lack prothoracic glands, which synthesize ecdysone, we show that nutrition regulates growth both via ecdysone and via an ecdysone-independent mechanism, while nutrition regulates patterning only via ecdysone. We then demonstrate that growth shows a graded response to ecdysone concentration, while patterning shows a threshold response. Collectively, these data support a model where nutritionally regulated ecdysone fluctuations confer plasticity by regulating disc growth in response to basal ecdysone levels and confer robustness by initiating patterning only once ecdysone peaks exceed a threshold concentration. This could represent a generalizable mechanism through which hormones coordinate plastic growth with robust patterning in the face of environmental change.

The Effect of Rearing Scale and Density on the Growth and Nutrient Composition of Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae

With the worldwide industrialization of black soldier fly (BSF) production, it is necessary to better understand how the rearing scale and larvae density influence the performance of larvae and the quality of the final product. In this study, a factorial experiment was conducted to test the effect of rearing scale and density on the growth and composition of the BSF larvae. The larvae were grown in four different scales (box sizes), keeping the area and feed provided to each larva constant and in two different densities. The results reveal significant differences in the larval growth depending on the scale and density, which could be attributed to the higher temperatures achieved in the bigger scales with a temperature difference of more than 5 °C between the smallest and the biggest scale. Both the scale and the density influenced the composition of the larvae. The crude protein levels were higher on the smallest scale, and the lower density (ranging from 32.5% to 36.5%), and crude fat concentrations were the opposite (ranging from 31.7% to 20.1%). The density also influenced the concentrations of S, Mg, K, P, Fe, Zn, Cu, Al, B, and Co, in addition to the analyzed free amino acids PPS, ALA, CIT, and ANS. Furthermore, the rearing scale influenced the concentration of S, Zn, Cu, and Mo. The results provide further insight into the optimization of BSF production processes and the transfer of lab-scale results into big-scale production.

UHPLC-OrbiTrap MS Characterization of Phenolic Profiles in French Marigold Extracts and Analysis of Their Antifeedant Activity against Colorado Potato Beetle

French marigold is an aromatic plant rich in polyphenolic secondary metabolites, which pesticidal potential was examined in this study. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) connected with OrbiTrap mass spectrometer (MS) identified 113 phenolics and revealed the most detailed phytochemistry of French marigold published so far. Depending on plant material (flowers or leaves) and solvents used for extraction (water, methanol, dichloromethane), the phenolic composition varied. Methanol extract of flowers, with 89 identified phenolics and high antioxidant activity statistically comparable with positive control Trolox, was chosen for testing of antifeedant potential against the 3rd and 4th instars of Colorado potato beetle (CPB). A significant reduction in final body mass of 4th larval stage fed with potato leaves coated with methanol extract of flowers in the concentration of 10 mg/mL was observed (157.67 mg vs. 182.26 mg of controls fed with non-treated leaves). This caused delayed molting since treated larvae reached the maximal mass a day after controls and this delay persisted during the entire larval development. Continuous feeding caused a 25% decline in digestive proteolytic activity of the 4th instar in comparison to controls. The results suggest that French marigold methanol extract of flowers could be proposed as a promising antifeedant for CPB management, with an impact on the reduction in the environmental footprint associated with synthetic pesticide application.

Black soldier fly larvae for treatment and segregation of commingled municipal solid waste at different environmental conditions

The commingled nature of the municipal solid waste in many developing nations is one of the primary reasons behind the failure to its successful management. Although there are technologies to effectively treat and process well-segregated and classified waste, they are ineffective in managing the commingled waste. Commingled waste has neither calorific value enough to support waste-to-energy operations nor is it suitable for producing quality compost to generate market value. In this article, a novel Black Soldier Fly Larva (BSFL) -based technology has been proposed and tested to auto-segregate and treat the biodegradable fraction of the Commingled Municipal Solid Waste (CMSW). Several BSFL feeding experiments on five different CMSW compositions were conducted at various temperatures and relative humidity conditions. BSFL could selectively consume the biodegradable fraction of the CMSW to convert it into its body mass and separate itself from the rest of the waste, which mainly consisted of inert and recyclable waste fractions that can be further treated using appropriate waste treatment technology. The mature larvae or the pre-pupae grown at the expense of the biodegradable waste fraction can find several commercial uses. The larvae's consumption rate and weight gain were dependent on the environmental conditions; 30 °C and relative humidity of 65-75% provided the highest consumption rate and most significant weight gain. The batch experiments in the laboratory proved that BSFL could be promising for the treatment of CMSW. The experimental data presented may help design a process for further scaling up an effective treatment method for CMSW, which might benefit many developing nations in managing their waste effectively and economically.

How Social Experience and Environment Impacts Behavioural Plasticity in Drosophila

An organism's behaviour is influenced by its social environment. Experiences such as social isolation or crowding may have profound short or long-term effects on an individual's behaviour. The composition of the social environment also depends on the genetics and previous experiences of the individuals present, leading to additional potential outcomes from each social interaction. In this article, we review selected literature related to the social environment of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, and how Drosophila respond to variation in their social experiences throughout their lifetimes. We focus on the effects of social environment on behavioural phenotypes such as courtship, aggression, and group dynamics, as well as other phenotypes such as development and physiology. The consequences of phenotypic plasticity due to social environment are discussed with respect to the ecology and evolution of Drosophila. We also relate these studies to laboratory research practices involving Drosophila and other animals.

The proximate sources of genetic variation in body size plasticity: The relative contributions of feeding behaviour and development in Drosophila melanogaster

Body size is a key life-history trait that influences many aspects of an animal's biology and is shaped by a variety of factors, both genetic and environmental. While we know that locally-adapted populations differ in the extent to which body size responds plastically to environmental conditions like diet, we have a limited understanding of what causes these differences. We hypothesized that populations could differ in the way body size responds to nutrition either by modulating growth rate, development time, feeding rate, or a combination of the above. Using three locally-adapted populations of Drosophila melanogaster from along the east coast of Australia, we investigated body size plasticity across five different diets. We then assessed how these populations differed in feeding behaviour and developmental timing on each of the diets. We observed population-specific plastic responses to nutrition for body size and feeding rate, but not development time. However, differences in feeding rate did not fully explain the differences in the way body size responded to diet. Thus, we conclude that body size variation in locally-adapted populations is shaped by a combination of growth rate and feeding behaviour. This paves the way for further studies that explore how differences in the regulation of the genetic pathways that control feeding behaviour and growth rate contribute to population-specific responses of body size to diet.

Comprehensive thermal performance curves for yellow dung fly life history traits and the temperature-size-rule

Ambient temperature strongly determines the behaviour, physiology, and life history of all organisms. The technical assessment of organismal thermal niches in form of now so-called thermal performance curves (TPC) thus has a long tradition in biological research. Nevertheless, several traits do not display the idealized, intuitive dome-shaped TPC, and in practice assessments often do not cover the entire realistic or natural temperature range of an organism. We here illustrate this by presenting comprehensive sex-specific TPCs for the major (juvenile) life history traits of yellow dung flies (Scathophaga stercoraria; Diptera: Scathophagidae). This concerns estimation of prominent biogeographic rules, such as the temperature-size-rule (TSR), the common phenomenon in ectothermic organisms that body size decreases as temperature increases. S. stercoraria shows an untypical asymptotic TPC of continuous body size increase with decreasing temperature without a peak (optimum), thus following the TSR throughout their entire thermal range (unlike several other insects presented here). Egg-to-adult mortality (our best fitness estimator) also shows no intermediate maximum. Both may relate to this fly entering pupal winter diapause below 12 °C. While development time presents a negative exponential relationship with temperature, development rate and growth rate typify the classic TPC form for this fly. The hitherto largely unexplored close relative S. suilla with an even more arctic distribution showed very similar responses, demonstrating large overlap among two ecologically similar, coexisting dung fly species, thus implying limited utility of even complete TPCs for predicting species distribution and coexistence.

Inferring temporal organization of postembryonic development from high-content behavioral tracking

Understanding temporal regulation of development remains an important challenge. Whereas average, species-typical timing of many developmental processes has been established, less is known about inter-individual variability and correlations in timing of specific events. We addressed these questions in the context of postembryonic development in Caenorhabditis elegans. Based on patterns of locomotor activity of freely moving animals, we inferred durations of four larval stages (L1-L4) in over 100 individuals. Analysis of these data supports several conclusions. Individuals have consistently faster or slower rates of development because durations of L1 through L3 stages are positively correlated. The last larval stage, the L4, is less variable than the earlier stages and its duration is largely independent of the rate of early larval development, implying existence of two distinct larval epochs. We describe characteristic patterns of variation and correlation, as well as the fact that stage durations tend to scale relative to total developmental time. This scaling relationship suggests that each larval stage is not limited by an absolute duration, but is instead terminated when a subset of events that must occur prior to adulthood have been completed. The approach described here offers a scalable platform that will facilitate the study of temporal regulation of postembryonic development.

IP3-mediated Ca2+ signals regulate larval to pupal transition under nutrient stress through the H3K36 methyltransferase Set2

Persistent loss of dietary protein usually signals a shutdown of key metabolic pathways. In Drosophila larvae that have reached a 'critical weight' and can pupariate to form viable adults, such a metabolic shutdown would needlessly lead to death. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-mediated calcium (IP3/Ca2+) release in some interneurons (vGlutVGN6341) allows Drosophila larvae to pupariate on a protein-deficient diet by partially circumventing this shutdown through upregulation of neuropeptide signaling and the expression of ecdysone synthesis genes. Here, we show that IP3/Ca2+ signals in vGlutVGN6341 neurons drive expression of Set2, a gene encoding Drosophila Histone 3 Lysine 36 methyltransferase. Furthermore, Set2 expression is required for larvae to pupariate in the absence of dietary protein. IP3/Ca2+ signal-driven Set2 expression upregulates key Ca2+-signaling genes through a novel positive-feedback loop. Transcriptomic studies, coupled with analysis of existing ChIP-seq datasets, identified genes from larval and pupal stages that normally exhibit robust H3K36 trimethyl marks on their gene bodies and concomitantly undergo stronger downregulation by knockdown of either the intracellular Ca2+ release channel IP3R or Set2. IP3/Ca2+ signals thus regulate gene expression through Set2-mediated H3K36 marks on select neuronal genes for the larval to pupal transition.

Regulation of ecdysone production in Drosophila by neuropeptides and peptide hormones

In both mammals and insects, steroid hormones play a major role in directing the animal's progression through developmental stages. To maximize fitness outcomes, steroid hormone production is regulated by the environmental conditions experienced by the animal. In insects, the steroid hormone ecdysone mediates transitions between developmental stages and is regulated in response to environmental factors such as nutrition. These environmental signals are communicated to the ecdysone-producing gland via the action of neuropeptide and peptide hormone signalling pathways. While some of these pathways have been well characterized, there is evidence to suggest more signalling pathways than has previously been thought function to control ecdysone production, potentially in response to a greater range of environmental conditions. Here, we review the neuropeptide and peptide hormone signalling pathways known to regulate the production of ecdysone in the model genetic insect Drosophila melanogaster, as well as what is known regarding the environmental signals that trigger these pathways. Areas for future research are highlighted that can further contribute to our overall understanding of the complex orchestration of environmental, physiological and developmental cues that together produce a functioning adult organism.

Determining the effects of nutrition on the reproductive physiology of male mosquitoes

Nutrition affects multiple aspects of insect physiology such as body size and fecundity, but we lack a detailed understanding of how nutrition influences the reproductive physiology of male insects such as mosquitoes. Given that female mosquitoes are vectors of many deadly diseases and can quickly proliferate, understanding how male nutrition impacts female fecundity could be of critical importance. To uncover the relationship between nutrition in adult male mosquitoes and its impacts on reproductive physiology, we reared larvae of the Northern house mosquito, Culex pipiens, on a standard lab diet and divided adult males among three different dietary treatments: low (3%), moderate (10%), and high (20%) sucrose. We found that although overall body size did not differ among treatments, one-week-old males raised on the 3% sucrose diet had significantly smaller male accessory glands (MAGs) compared to males that consumed the 10% and the 20% sucrose diets. Diet affected whole-body lipid content but did not affect whole-body protein content. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, we found that diet altered the metabolic composition of the MAGs, including changes in lactic acid, formic acid, and glucose. We also observed changes in protein and lipid abundance and composition in MAGs. Females who mated with males on the 3% diet were found to produce significantly fewer larvae than females who had mated with males on the 10% diet. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the diet of adult male mosquitoes clearly affects male reproductive physiology and female fecundity.

Female-biased upregulation of insulin pathway activity mediates the sex difference in Drosophila body size plasticity

Nutrient-dependent body size plasticity differs between the sexes in most species, including mammals. Previous work in Drosophila showed that body size plasticity was higher in females, yet the mechanisms underlying increased female body size plasticity remain unclear. Here, we discover that a protein-rich diet augments body size in females and not males because of a female-biased increase in activity of the conserved insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway (IIS). This sex-biased upregulation of IIS activity was triggered by a diet-induced increase in stunted mRNA in females, and required Drosophila insulin-like peptide 2, illuminating new sex-specific roles for these genes. Importantly, we show that sex determination gene transformer promotes the diet-induced increase in stunted mRNA via transcriptional coactivator Spargel to regulate the male-female difference in body size plasticity. Together, these findings provide vital insight into conserved mechanisms underlying the sex difference in nutrient-dependent body size plasticity.

Growing Up in a Changing World: Environmental Regulation of Development in Insects

All organisms are exposed to changes in their environment throughout their life cycle. When confronted with these changes, they adjust their development and physiology to ensure that they can produce the functional structures necessary for survival and reproduction. While some traits are remarkably invariant, or robust, across environmental conditions, others show high degrees of variation, known as plasticity. Generally, developmental processes that establish cell identity are thought to be robust to environmental perturbation, while those relating to body and organ growth show greater degrees of plasticity. However, examples of plastic patterning and robust organ growth demonstrate that this is not a hard-and-fast rule.In this review, we explore how the developmental context and the gene regulatory mechanisms underlying trait formation determine the impacts of the environment on development in insects. Furthermore, we outline future issues that need to be resolved to understand how the structure of signaling networks defines whether a trait displays plasticity or robustness.

A review of organic waste enrichment for inducing palatability of black soldier fly larvae: Wastes to valuable resources

The increase of annual organic wastes generated worldwide has become a major problem for many countries since the mismanagement could bring about negative effects on the environment besides, being costly for an innocuous disposal. Recently, insect larvae have been investigated to valorize organic wastes. This entomoremediation approach is rising from the ability of the insect larvae to convert organic wastes into its biomass via assimilation process as catapulted by the natural demand to complete its lifecycle. Among the insect species, black soldier fly or Hermetia illucens is widely researched since the larvae can grow in various environments while being saprophagous in nature. Even though black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) can ingest various decay materials, some organic wastes such as sewage sludge or lignocellulosic wastes such as waste coconut endosperm are destitute of decent nutrients that could retard the BSFL growth. Hence, blending with nutrient-rich low-cost substrates such as palm kernel expeller, soybean curd residue, etc. is employed to fortify the nutritional contents of larval feeding substrates prior to administering to the BSFL. Alternatively, microbial fermentation can be adopted to breakdown the lignocellulosic wastes, exuding essential nutrients for growing BSFL. Upon reaching maturity, the BSFL can be harvested to serve as the protein and lipid feedstock. The larval protein can be made into insect meal for farmed animals, whilst the lipid source could be extracted and transesterified into larval biodiesel to cushion the global energy demands. Henceforth, this review presents the influence of various organic wastes introduced to feed BSFL, targeting to reduce wastes and producing biochemicals from mature larvae through entomoremediation. Modification of recalcitrant organic wastes via fermentation processes is also unveiled to ameliorate the BSFL growth. Lastly, the sustainable applications of harvested BSFL biomass are as well covered together with the immediate shortcomings that entail further researches.

Metamorphosis in Insect Muscle: Insights for Engineering Muscle-Based Actuators

One of the major limitations to advancing the development of soft robots is the absence of lightweight, effective soft actuators. While synthetic systems, such as pneumatics and shape memory alloys, have created important breakthroughs in soft actuation, they typically rely on large external power sources and some rigid components. Muscles provide an ideal actuator for soft constructs, as they are lightweight, deformable, biodegradable, silent, and powered by energy-dense hydrocarbons such as glucose. Vertebrate cell lines and embryonic cultures have allowed critical foundational work to this end, but progress there is limited by the difficulty of identifying individual pathways in embryonic development, and the divergence of immortal cell lines from these normal developmental programs. An alternative to culturing muscles from embryonic cells is to exploit the advantages of species with metamorphic stages. In these animals, muscles develop from a predefined pool of myoblasts with well-characterized contacts to other tissues. In addition, the endocrine triggers for development into adult muscles are often known and tractable for experimental manipulation. This is particularly true for metamorphic muscle development in holometabolous insects, which provide exciting new avenues for tissue engineering. Using insect tissues for actuator development confers additional benefits; insect muscles are more robust to varying pH, temperature, and oxygenation than are vertebrate cells. Given that biohybrid robots are likely to be used in ambient conditions and changing environments, this sort of hardiness is likely to be required for practical use. In this study, we summarize key processes and signals in metamorphic muscle development, drawing attention to those pathways that offer entry points for manipulation. By focusing on lessons learned from in vivo insect development, we propose that future culture designs will be able to use more systematic, hypothesis-driven approaches to optimizing engineered muscle. Impact statement This review summarizes our current understanding of metamorphic muscle development in insects. It provides a framework for engineering muscle-based actuators that can be used in robotic applications in a wide range of ambient conditions. The focus is on identifying key processes that might be manipulated to solve current challenges in controlling tissue development such as myoblast proliferation, myotube formation and fusion, cytoskeletal alignment, myotendinous attachment and full differentiation. An important goal is to gather findings that cross disciplinary boundaries and to promote the development of better bioactuators for nonclinical applications.

Metabolism and growth adaptation to environmental conditions in Drosophila

Organisms adapt to changing environments by adjusting their development, metabolism, and behavior to improve their chances of survival and reproduction. To achieve such flexibility, organisms must be able to sense and respond to changes in external environmental conditions and their internal state. Metabolic adaptation in response to altered nutrient availability is key to maintaining energy homeostasis and sustaining developmental growth. Furthermore, environmental variables exert major influences on growth and final adult body size in animals. This developmental plasticity depends on adaptive responses to internal state and external cues that are essential for developmental processes. Genetic studies have shown that the fruit fly Drosophila, similarly to mammals, regulates its metabolism, growth, and behavior in response to the environment through several key hormones including insulin, peptides with glucagon-like function, and steroid hormones. Here we review emerging evidence showing that various environmental cues and internal conditions are sensed in different organs that, via inter-organ communication, relay information to neuroendocrine centers that control insulin and steroid signaling. This review focuses on endocrine regulation of development, metabolism, and behavior in Drosophila, highlighting recent advances in the role of the neuroendocrine system as a signaling hub that integrates environmental inputs and drives adaptive responses.

The development of body and organ shape

Background

Organisms show an incredibly diverse array of body and organ shapes that are both unique to their taxon and important for adapting to their environment. Achieving these specific shapes involves coordinating the many processes that transform single cells into complex organs, and regulating their growth so that they can function within a fully-formed body.

Main text

Conceptually, body and organ shape can be separated in two categories, although in practice these categories need not be mutually exclusive. Body shape results from the extent to which organs, or parts of organs, grow relative to each other. The patterns of relative organ size are characterized using allometry. Organ shape, on the other hand, is defined as the geometric features of an organ’s component parts excluding its size. Characterization of organ shape is frequently described by the relative position of homologous features, known as landmarks, distributed throughout the organ. These descriptions fall into the domain of geometric morphometrics.

Conclusion

In this review, we discuss the methods of characterizing body and organ shape, the developmental programs thought to underlie each, highlight when and how the mechanisms regulating body and organ shape might overlap, and provide our perspective on future avenues of research.

Intraspecific variation of body size in fleas: effects of host sex and flea phenology

We investigated the effects of host sex and flea phenology (estimated as periods of high versus low abundance) on individual body size in four fleas of small mammals. Amalaraeus penicilliger and Ctenophthalmus uncinatus are ectoparasites of the bank vole Myodes glareolus, whereas Doratopsylla dasycnema and Palaeopsylla soricis are ectoparasites of the common shrew Sorex araneus. We found significant effects of host sex and phenology on the body size of all flea species, although there was no general trend in the directions of these effects. Larger A. penicilliger were found on female hosts, whereas larger P. soricis were found on male hosts. In the remaining species, larger fleas were collected from male hosts during periods of high abundance (male C. uncinatus and female D. dasycnema) and from female hosts during periods of low abundance (male C. uncinatus). Regarding phenology, larger fleas were recorded during periods of either high (A. penicilliger, C. uncinatus, D. dasycnema) or low (C. uncinatus, P. soricis) abundance, but this depended on flea and/or host sex. We conclude that the directions of the host sex and phenology effects varied between flea species. Furthermore, the direction of the host sex effect was mediated by the effect of phenology and vice versa.

Effects of benzothiazole on survival for reduced reproduction and development in Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)

BACKGROUND

The red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), is an important stored-product pest that is distributed worldwide and has developed resistance to many insecticides. Identifying novel and effective alternative insecticides is important for the control of T. castaneum. The volatile compound benzothiazole has been identified as having great acute toxic activity against T. castaneum. However, a comprehensive evaluation of a new insecticide should include both direct toxic effects and sublethal effects. The aim of this study was therefore to evaluate the effects of benzothiazole on the development and reproduction of T. castaneum.

RESULTS

Exposure of fourth-instar larvae to lethal and sublethal concentrations of benzothiazole (LC₁₀ , LC₃₀ and LC₅₀ ) significantly decreased pupation rates, food intake and growth rates in T. castaneum. Larval duration was significantly reduced by approximately 1 day in the LC₃₀ and LC₅₀ treatment groups. The LC₅₀ benzothiazole caused a significant decrease in the weight of pupae and adults, fecundity and egg hatchability. Increased and decreased nutrient (carbohydrate and lipid) contents were observed in surviving larvae and pupae, respectively. The LC₃₀ and LC₅₀ treatments caused the down-regulation of five growth-positive regulated genes (PI3K, AKT, CyclinE, S6K1 and S6K2) and the up-regulation of two growth-negative regulated genes (4EBP and FOXO).

CONCLUSION

Benzothiazole presented adverse effects on the development and reproduction of T. castaneum, further supporting benzothiazole as a highly active compound in stored-product protection. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

A New Role for Neuropeptide F Signaling in Controlling Developmental Timing and Body Size in Drosophila melanogaster

As juvenile animals grow, their behavior, physiology, and development need to be matched to environmental conditions to ensure they survive to adulthood. However, we know little about how behavior and physiology are integrated with development to achieve this outcome. Neuropeptides are prime candidates for achieving this due to their well-known signaling functions in controlling many aspects of behavior, physiology, and development in response to environmental cues. In the growing Drosophila larva, while several neuropeptides have been shown to regulate feeding behavior, and a handful to regulate growth, it is unclear if any of these play a global role in coordinating feeding behavior with developmental programs. Here, we demonstrate that Neuropeptide F Receptor (NPFR), best studied as a conserved regulator of feeding behavior from insects to mammals, also regulates development in Drosophila Knocking down NPFR in the prothoracic gland, which produces the steroid hormone ecdysone, generates developmental delay and an extended feeding period, resulting in increased body size. We show that these effects are due to decreased ecdysone production, as these animals have reduced expression of ecdysone biosynthesis genes and lower ecdysone titers. Moreover, these phenotypes can be rescued by feeding larvae food supplemented with ecdysone. Further, we show that NPFR negatively regulates the insulin signaling pathway in the prothoracic gland to achieve these effects. Taken together, our data demonstrate that NPFR signaling plays a key role in regulating animal development, and may, thus, play a global role in integrating feeding behavior and development in Drosophila.

A Stochastic Model for Predicting Age and Mass at Maturity of Insects

Variation in age and mass at maturity is commonly observed in populations, even among individuals with the same genetic and environmental backgrounds. Accounting for such individual variation with a stochastic model is important for estimating optimal evolutionary strategies and for understanding potential trade-offs among life-history traits. However, most studies employ stochastic models that are either phenomenological or account for variation in only one life-history trait. We propose a model based on the developmental biology of the moth Manduca sexta that accounts for stochasticity in two key life-history traits, age and mass at maturity. The model is mechanistic, describing feeding behavior and common insect developmental processes, including the degradation of juvenile hormone prior to molting. We derive a joint probability density function for the model and explore how the distribution of age and mass at maturity is affected by different parameter values. We find that the joint distribution is generally nonnormal and highly sensitive to parameter values. In addition, our model predicts previously observed effects of temperature change and nutritional quality on the expected values of insect age and mass. Our results highlight the importance of integrating multiple sources of stochasticity into life-history models.

Muscle-derived Myoglianin regulates Drosophila imaginal disc growth

Organ growth and size are finely tuned by intrinsic and extrinsic signaling molecules. In Drosophila, the BMP family member Dpp is produced in a limited set of imaginal disc cells and functions as a classic morphogen to regulate pattern and growth by diffusing throughout imaginal discs. However, the role of TGFβ/Activin-like ligands in disc growth control remains ill-defined. Here, we demonstrate that Myoglianin (Myo), an Activin family member, and a close homolog of mammalian Myostatin (Mstn), is a muscle-derived extrinsic factor that uses canonical dSmad2-mediated signaling to regulate wing size. We propose that Myo is a myokine that helps mediate an allometric relationship between muscles and their associated appendages.

How many scales on the wings? A case study based on Colias crocea (Geoffroy, 1785) (Hexapoda: Lepidoptera, Pieridae)

The covering by scales of the wings of Lepidoptera contributes to multiple functions that are critical for their survival and reproduction. In order to gain a better understanding about their distribution, we have exhaustively studied 4 specimens of Colias crocea (Geoffroy, 1785). We have quantified the sources of variability affecting scale density. The results indicate that the scale covering of butterfly wings may be remarkably heterogeneous, and that the importance of the sources of variability differs between forewings and hindwings. Thus, in forewing the greatest variability occurs between sectors, while in the hindwings it occurs between sides, with a higher density of scales on the underside, considerably higher (almost 19%) than on the upperside. It seems likely that this difference has an adaptive value, as the hindwing underside is more exposed (in resting position) to predators. These results are in contrast with the generally accepted notion that scale covering is uniform and homogeneous. Moreover, the cover scale density is independent of the size of the specimen and therefore an average density of scales can be attributed to this species. According to our measurements C. crocea has 312 scales/mm² and the total number of scales per individual is about 520,000 on average.

Contrasting Responses of Wing Morphology of Three Blowfly (Diptera: Calliphoridae) Species to Competition

Competition influences the expression of morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits and also regulates ecological and evolutionary dynamics. This study aims to identify and characterize changes in wing morphology in response to intra- and interspecific competition in three necrophagous blowfly species. Using geometric morphometry, we analyzed 3,238 wings from Lucilia sericata (Meigen, 1826), Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, and C. vomitoria (Linnaeus, 1758) raised under cloistered and pairwise conditions. The three species reacted similarly to intraspecific competition-reducing wing size with increased competition-but displayed contrasting patterns of response to interspecific competition. Lucilia sericata displayed a directional change in wing shape in response to an interspecific competitor, while C. vicina increased the scattering of individuals across the morphospace, and C. vomitoria displayed no significant change in response to the same stimulus. Our results show that the same stimulus yields distinctive responses; thus, different competition-related strategies are expected to occur in the three species.

The AMPK-PP2A axis in insect fat body is activated by 20-hydroxyecdysone to antagonize insulin/IGF signaling and restrict growth rate

In insects, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) limits the growth period by triggering developmental transitions; 20E also modulates the growth rate by antagonizing insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling (IIS). Previous work has shown that 20E cross-talks with IIS, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. Here we found that, in both the silkworm Bombyx mori and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, 20E antagonized IIS through the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) axis in the fat body and suppressed the growth rate. During Bombyx larval molt or Drosophila pupariation, high levels of 20E activate AMPK, a molecular sensor that maintains energy homeostasis in the insect fat body. In turn, AMPK activates PP2A, which further dephosphorylates insulin receptor and protein kinase B (AKT), thus inhibiting IIS. Activation of the AMPK-PP2A axis and inhibition of IIS in the Drosophila fat body reduced food consumption, resulting in the restriction of growth rate and body weight. Overall, our study revealed an important mechanism by which 20E antagonizes IIS in the insect fat body to restrict the larval growth rate, thereby expanding our understanding of the comprehensive regulatory mechanisms of final body size in animals.

Modeling the Growth of Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): An Approach to Evaluate Diet Quality

The black soldier fly (BSF, Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus), Diptera: Stratiomyidae) is an edible insect widely reared by using various types of organic wastes as its diet. Developing tools to evaluate the growth performance of BSF is crucial for improving its production. In this study, we monitored the daily growth of BSF larvae reared with 10 diets with diverse nutritional quality and compared 7 growth models for quantifying growth performance. We found that BSF generally exhibited an S-shaped growth curve and that the Richards model was the best-fitting growth model. We estimated asymptotic growth limit (W∞) and constructed a time-series curve of absolute growth rate (AGR) by using the Richards model. We used Gaussian functions to estimate AGR parameters (maximum AGR, m; timing of maximum AGR, T; the deviation of AGR, d) to evaluate whether these parameters adequately quantify the growth performance of BSF. Correlation analysis showed that the AGR parameters were mostly independent of W∞ but were correlated with the duration of the larval stage, indicating that W∞ and the AGR parameters respond to different dietary factors. The results of pairwise comparisons showed that the diets rich in carbohydrates and protein had high W∞, m, and d, and early T. The diets with low levels of carbohydrates had low W∞, and the diets with low levels of protein had low m and d and delayed T. We conclude that the parameters estimated by the Richards model could be effective indices for evaluating the growth performance of BSF and their diet quality.

Effects of temperature on larval development, alkaloid production and microsporidiosis in the two-spotted lady beetle, Adalia bipunctata L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Nosema adaliae, a microsporidian pathogen described from the two-spotted lady beetle, Adalia bipunctata L., delays larval development when A. bipunctata is reared under laboratory conditions at 25 °C. In nature, lady beetles often experience a wide range of environmental temperatures, but little is known regarding the effects of microsporidian pathogens on lady beetles when they are reared at higher and lower temperatures. In this study, the effects of elevated rearing temperatures and microsporidiosis were observed on larval development time and mortality, sex ratios, alkaloid content (adaline and adalinine), and adult morphometrics. Uninfected larvae (24 h-old) were provided either an uninfected or N. adaliae-infected conspecific egg and subsequently reared at three temperatures (25 °C, 27.5 °C or 30 °C). After the egg was eaten, larvae were provided a diet of green peach aphids and their development was recorded daily. Following eclosion, a subsample of adults were photographed for microscopic measurements and reflex-fluid was collected for alkaloid analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Afterwards, all individuals were examined to determine the number that had become infected, and the same subsample was used to assess the severity of infection. Development time was delayed significantly for larvae that consumed a N. adaliae-infected egg, and infected larvae took significantly longer to develop at 25 °C than at 27.5 °C or 30 °C. No differences were observed for larval mortality or sex ratios. The relative proportion of adaline increased when larvae were reared at 30 °C, but adaline concentration was not affected by the pathogen, N. adaliae. Adults reared at 25 °C had larger body measurements when compared to those reared at 27.5 °C and 30 °C. Overall, adults that had eaten a N. adaliae-infected A. bipunctata egg as larvae had similar body measurements to those that ate an uninfected egg. When comparing male and female measurements, a significant interaction between infection status, temperature and sex was observed for elytra length and head capsule width only. These measurements were similar for uninfected and N. adaliae-infected females across all temperatures. However, when reared at 25 °C, uninfected males had significantly smaller elytra and head capsules than did infected males; but when reared at 30 °C, no significant difference was observed for these measurements. Both percent infection and average spore count decreased at 27.5 °C and 30 °C. These results suggest that temperatures above 25 °C have a mitigating effect against N. adaliae in A. bipunctata.

Addition of Olive Pomace to Feeding Substrate Affects Growth Performance and Nutritional Value of Mealworm (Tenebrio Molitor L.) Larvae

The well-recognized efficiency of Tenebrio molitor larvae to convert low quality organic matter into a nutritionally valuable biomass was exploited to manage solid wastes coming from the olive oil industry, which represent a severe environmental challenge in the Mediterranean area. Three organic pomace-enriched substrates (mixtures middlings/pomace 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3) were assessed, together with 100% organic wheat flour and 100% organic middlings as control feeds. A feeding substrate made up of 25% olive pomace and 75% wheat middlings appeared to be the best compromise between growth performance (larval and pupal weights, survival rate, development time) and nutritional properties of mealworm larvae. In fact, larvae fed the 3:1 feed showed the highest dry matter (DM) yield (38.05%), protein content (47.58% DM), and essential/non-essential amino acids ratio (1.16). Fat content (32.14% DM) and fatty acid composition were not significantly different than those of larvae fed more pomace-enriched feeds.

Shift in size of bumblebee queens over the last century

Species can respond differently when facing environmental changes, such as by shifting their geographical ranges or through plastic or adaptive modifications to new environmental conditions. Phenotypic modifications related to environmental factors have been mainly explored along latitudinal gradients, but they are relatively understudied through time despite their importance for key ecological interactions. Here we hypothesize that the average bumblebee queen body size has changed in Belgium during the last century. Based on historical and contemporary databases, we first tested if queen body sizes changed during the last century at the intraspecific level among four common bumblebee species and if it could be linked to global warming and/or habitat fragmentation as well as by the replacement by individuals from new populations. Then, we assessed body size changes at the community level, among 22 species, taking into account species population trends (i.e. increasing, stable or decreasing relative abundance). Our results show that the average queen body size of all four bumblebee species increased over the last century. This size increase was significantly correlated to global warming and habitat fragmentation, but not explained by changes in the population genetic structure (i.e. colonization). At the community level, species with stable or increasing relative abundance tend to be larger than declining species. Contrary to theoretical expectations from Bergmann's rule (i.e. increasing body size in colder climates), temperature does not seem to be the main driver of bumblebee body size during the last century as we observed the opposite body size trend. However, agricultural intensification and habitat fragmentation could be alternative mechanisms that shape body size clines. This study stresses the importance of considering alternative global change factors when assessing body size change.

Effect of Phenotype Selection on Genome Size Variation in Two Species of Diptera

Genome size varies widely across organisms yet has not been found to be related to organismal complexity in eukaryotes. While there is no evidence for a relationship with complexity, there is evidence to suggest that other phenotypic characteristics, such as nucleus size and cell-cycle time, are associated with genome size, body size, and development rate. However, what is unknown is how the selection for divergent phenotypic traits may indirectly affect genome size. Drosophila melanogaster were selected for small and large body size for up to 220 generations, while Cochliomyia macellaria were selected for 32 generations for fast and slow development. Size in D. melanogaster significantly changed in terms of both cell-count and genome size in isolines, but only the cell-count changed in lines which were maintained at larger effective population sizes. Larger genome sizes only occurred in a subset of D. melanogaster isolines originated from flies selected for their large body size. Selection for development time did not change average genome size yet decreased the within-population variation in genome size with increasing generations of selection. This decrease in variation and convergence on a similar mean genome size was not in correspondence with phenotypic variation and suggests stabilizing selection on genome size in laboratory conditions.

Evidence for rapid downward fecundity selection in an ectoparasite (Philornis downsi) with earlier host mortality in Darwin's finches

Fecundity selection is a critical component of fitness and a major driver of adaptive evolution. Trade‐offs between parasite mortality and host resources are likely to impose a selection pressure on parasite fecundity, but this is little studied in natural systems. The ‘fecundity advantage hypothesis’ predicts female‐biased sexual size dimorphism whereby larger females produce more offspring. Parasitic insects are useful for exploring the interplay between host resource availability and parasite fecundity, because female body size is a reliable proxy for fecundity in insects. Here we explore temporal changes in body size in the myiasis‐causing parasite Philornis downsi (Diptera: Muscidae) on the Galápagos Islands under conditions of earlier in‐nest host mortality. We aim to investigate the effects of decreasing host resources on parasite body size and fecundity. Across a 12‐year period, we observed a mean of c. 17% P. downsi mortality in host nests with 55 ± 6.2% host mortality and a trend of c. 66% higher host mortality throughout the study period. Using specimens from 116 Darwin's finch nests (Passeriformes: Thraupidae) and 114 traps, we found that over time, P. downsi pupae mass decreased by c. 32%, and male (c. 6%) and female adult size (c. 11%) decreased. Notably, females had c. 26% smaller abdomens in later years, and female abdomen size was correlated with number of eggs. Our findings imply natural selection for faster P. downsi pupation and consequently smaller body size and lower parasite fecundity in this newly evolving host–parasite system.

Roles of the insulin signaling pathway in insect development and organ growth

Organismal development is a complex process as it requires coordination of many aspects to grow into fit individuals, such as the control of body size and organ growth. Therefore, the mechanisms of precise control of growth are essential for ensuring the growth of organisms at a correct body size and proper organ proportions during development. The control of the growth rate and the duration of growth (or the cessation of growth) are required in size control. The insulin signaling pathway and the elements involved are essential in the control of growth. On the other hand, the ecdysteroid molting hormone determines the duration of growth. The secretion of these hormones is controlled by environmental factors such as nutrition. Moreover, the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway is considered as a nutrient sensing pathway. Important cross-talks have been shown to exist among these pathways. In this review, we outline the control of body and organ growth by the insulin/TOR signaling pathway, and also the interaction between nutrition via insulin/TOR signaling and ecdysteroids at the coordination of organismal development and organ growth in insects, mainly focusing on the well-studied fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster.