Casein kinase I is regulated by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in native membranes

Star-PAP controlled alternative polyadenylation coupled poly(A) tail length regulates protein expression in hypertrophic heart

Alternative polyadenylation (APA)-mediated 3′-untranslated region (UTR) shortening is known to increase protein expression due to the loss of miRNA regulatory sites. Yet, mRNAs with longer 3′-UTR also show enhanced protein expression. Here, we identify a mechanism by which longer transcripts generated by the distal-most APA site leads to increased protein expression compared to the shorter transcripts and the longer transcripts are positioned to regulate heart failure (HF). A Star-PAP target gene, NQO1 has three poly(A) sites (PA-sites) at the terminal exon on the pre-mRNA. Star-PAP selects the distal-most site that results in the expression of the longest isoform. We show that the NQO1 distal-specific mRNA isoform accounts for the majority of cellular NQO1 protein. Star-PAP control of the distal-specific isoform is stimulated by oxidative stress and the toxin dioxin. The longest NQO1 transcript has increased poly(A) tail (PA-tail) length that accounts for the difference in translation potentials of the three NQO1 isoforms. This mechanism is involved in the regulation of cardiac hypertrophy (CH), an antecedent condition to HF where NQO1 downregulation stems from the loss of the distal-specific transcript. The loss of NQO1 during hypertrophy was rescued by ectopic expression of the distal- but not the proximal- or middle-specific NQO1 mRNA isoforms in the presence of Star-PAP expression, and reverses molecular events of hypertrophy in cardiomyocytes.

Casein kinase 1α: biological mechanisms and theranostic potential

Casein kinase 1α (CK1α) is a multifunctional protein belonging to the CK1 protein family that is conserved in eukaryotes from yeast to humans. It regulates signaling pathways related to membrane trafficking, cell cycle progression, chromosome segregation, apoptosis, autophagy, cell metabolism, and differentiation in development, circadian rhythm, and the immune response as well as neurodegeneration and cancer. Given its involvement in diverse cellular, physiological, and pathological processes, CK1α is a promising therapeutic target. In this review, we summarize what is known of the biological functions of CK1α, and provide an overview of existing challenges and potential opportunities for advancing theranostics.

Perturbed rhythmic activation of signaling pathways in mice deficient for Sterol Carrier Protein 2-dependent diurnal lipid transport and metabolism

Through evolution, most of the living species have acquired a time keeping system to anticipate daily changes caused by the rotation of the Earth. In all of the systems this pacemaker is based on a molecular transcriptional/translational negative feedback loop able to generate rhythmic gene expression with a period close to 24 hours. Recent evidences suggest that post-transcriptional regulations activated mostly by systemic cues play a fundamental role in the process, fine tuning the time keeping system and linking it to animal physiology. Among these signals, we consider the role of lipid transport and metabolism regulated by SCP2. Mice harboring a deletion of the Scp2 locus present a modulated diurnal accumulation of lipids in the liver and a perturbed activation of several signaling pathways including PPARα, SREBP, LRH-1, TORC1 and its upstream regulators. This defect in signaling pathways activation feedbacks upon the clock by lengthening the circadian period of animals through post-translational regulation of core clock regulators, showing that rhythmic lipid transport is a major player in the establishment of rhythmic mRNA and protein expression landscape.

Protein kinase CK1α regulates erythrocyte survival

Protein kinase CK1 (casein kinase 1) isoforms are involved in the regulation of various physiological functions including apoptosis. The specific CK1 inhibitor D4476 may either inhibit or foster apoptosis. Similar to apoptosis of nucleated cells, eryptosis, the suicidal death of erythrocytes, is paralleled by cell shrinkage and cell membrane scrambling with phosphatidylserine exposure at the cell surface. Triggers of eryptosis include increase of cytosolic Ca(2+) activity following energy depletion (removal of glucose) or oxidative stress (exposure to the oxidant tert-butyl hydroperoxide [TBOOH]). Western blotting was utilized to verify that erythrocytes express the protein kinase CK1α, and FACS analysis to determine whether the CK1 inhibitor D4476 and CK1α activator pyrvinium pamoate modify forward scatter (reflecting cell volume), annexin V binding (reflecting phosphatidylserine exposure), and Fluo3 fluorescence (reflecting cytosolic Ca(2+) activity). As a result, both, human and murine erythrocytes express CK1 isoform α. Glucose depletion (48 hours) and exposure to 0.3 mM TBOOH (30 minutes) both decreased forward scatter, increased annexin V binding and increased Fluo3 fluorescence. CK1 inhibitor D4476 (10 μM) significantly blunted the decrease in forward scatter, the increase in annexin V binding and the increase in Fluo 3 fluorescence. (R)-DRF053, another CK1 inhibitor, similarly blunted the increase in annexin V binding upon glucose depletion. The CK1α specific activator pyrvinium pamoate (10 μM) significantly enhanced the increase in annexin V binding and Fluo3 fluorescence upon glucose depletion and TBOOH exposure. In the presence of glucose, pyrvinium pamoate slightly but significantly increased Fluo3 fluorescence. In conclusion, CK1 isoform α participates in the regulation of erythrocyte programmed cell death by modulating cytosolic Ca(2+) activity.

Casein kinase activity in etiolated Cucumis sativus cotyledons

Two calcium- and light-dependent protein kinases have been reported in etiolated Cucumis sativus cotyledons (Vidal et al. 2007). In the present work, we studied casein kinase (CK) activity in etiolated cucumber cotyledons of in-gel and in vitro kinase assays, using specific CK inhibitors, and ATP and GTP as phosphate donors. Two proteins with CK activity were detected in both casein gels and autophosphorylation assays. One of them, with a molecular mass of approximately 36 kDa, showed biochemical CK1 characteristics: it was inhibited by specific CK1 inhibitors and only used ATP as phosphate donor. The second, with a molecular mass of approximately 38 kDa, had CK2 characteristics; it used both ATP and GTP as phosphate donors, was inhibited by all specific CK2 inhibitors, and was recognized by a polyclonal antibody directed against the alpha catalytic subunit of a CK2 from tobacco. The kinase activity of the CK2 detected in etiolated cucumber cotyledons showed circadian rhythmicity in both in vitro and in-gel casein phosphorylation and in autophosphorylation assays. Thus, our results suggest that the CK2 of approximately 38 kDa could be related to the circadian oscillator of C. sativus cotyledons.

Casein kinase 1 is a novel negative regulator of E-cadherin-based cell-cell contacts

Cadherins are the most crucial membrane proteins for the formation of tight and compact cell-cell contacts. Cadherin-based cell-cell adhesions are dynamically established and/or disrupted during various physiological and pathological processes. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate cell-cell contacts are not fully understood. In this paper, we report a novel functional role of casein kinase 1 (CK1) in the regulation of cell-cell contacts. Firstly, we observed that IC261, a specific inhibitor of CK1, stabilizes cadherin-based cell-cell contacts, whereas the overexpression of CK1 disrupts them. CK1 colocalizes with E-cadherin and phosphorylates the cytoplasmic domain of E-cadherin in vitro and in a cell culture system. We show that the major CK1 phosphorylation site of E-cadherin is serine 846, a highly conserved residue between classical cadherins. Constitutively phosphorylated E-cadherin (S846D) is unable to localize at cell-cell contacts and has decreased adhesive activity. Furthermore, phosphorylated E-cadherin (S846D) has weaker interactions with beta-catenin and is internalized more efficiently than wild-type E-cadherin. These data indicate that CK1 is a novel negative regulator of cadherin-based cell-cell contacts.

The alpha isoform of protein kinase CKI is responsible for hepatitis C virus NS5A hyperphosphorylation

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been the subject of intensive studies for nearly two decades. Nevertheless, some aspects of the virus life cycle are still a mystery. The HCV nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) has been shown to be a modulator of cellular processes possibly required for the establishment of viral persistence. NS5A is heavily phosphorylated, and a switch between a basally phosphorylated form of NS5A (p56) and a hyperphosphorylated form of NS5A (p58) seems to play a pivotal role in regulating HCV replication. Using kinase inhibitors that specifically inhibit the formation of NS5A-p58 in cells, we identified the CKI kinase family as a target. NS5A-p58 increased upon overexpression of CKI-alpha, CKI-delta, and CKI-epsilon, whereas the RNA interference of only CKI-alpha reduced NS5A hyperphosphorylation. Rescue of inhibition of NS5A-p58 was achieved by CKI-alpha overexpression, and we demonstrated that the CKI-alpha isoform is targeted by NS5A hyperphosphorylation inhibitors in living cells. Finally, we showed that down-regulation of CKI-alpha attenuates HCV RNA replication.

The casein kinase 1 family: participation in multiple cellular processes in eukaryotes

Phosphorylation of serine, threonine and tyrosine residues by cellular protein kinases plays an important role in the regulation of various cellular processes. The serine/threonine specific casein kinase 1 and 2 protein kinase families--(CK1 and CK2)--were among the first protein kinases that had been described. In recent years our knowledge of the regulation and function of mammalian CK1 kinase family members has rapidly increased. Extracellular stimuli, the subcellular localization of CK1 isoforms, their interaction with various cellular structures and proteins, as well as autophosphorylation and proteolytic cleavage of their C-terminal regulatory domains influence CK1 kinase activity. Mammalian CK1 isoforms phosphorylate many different substrates among them key regulatory proteins involved in the control of cell differentiation, proliferation, chromosome segregation and circadian rhythms. Deregulation and/or the incidence of mutations in the coding sequence of CK1 isoforms have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. This review will summarize our current knowledge about the function and regulation of mammalian CK1 isoforms.

Fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus. A role for beta III spectrin and synthesis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P(2)) synthesis has been implicated in maintaining the function of the Golgi apparatus. Here we demonstrate that the inhibition of PtdIns(4,5)P(2) synthesis in vitro in response to primary alcohol treatment and the kinetics of Golgi fragmentation in vivo were very rapid and tightly coupled. Preloading Golgi membranes with short chain phosphatidic acid abrogated the alcohol-mediated inhibition of PtdIns(4,5)P(2) synthesis in vitro. We also show that fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus in response to diminished PtdIns(4,5)P(2) synthesis correlated with both the phosphorylation of a Golgi form of beta III spectrin, a PtdIns(4,5)P(2)-interacting protein, and changes in its intracellular redistribution. The data are consistent with a model suggesting that the decreased PtdIns(4,5)P(2) synthesis and the phosphorylation state of beta III spectrin modulate the structural integrity of the Golgi apparatus.

Plasma membrane localization of the Yck2p yeast casein kinase 1 isoform requires the C-terminal extension and secretory pathway function

The S. cerevisiae Yck2 protein is a plasma membrane-associated member of the casein kinase 1 protein kinase family that, with its homolog Yck1p, is required for bud morphogenesis, cytokinesis, endocytosis and other cellular processes. Membrane localization of Yckp is critical for its function, since soluble mutants do not provide sufficient biological activity to sustain normal growth. Yck2p has neither a predicted signal sequence nor obvious transmembrane domain to achieve its plasma membrane localization, but has a C-terminal -Cys-Cys sequence that is likely to be palmitoylated. We demonstrate here that Yck2p is targeted through association with vesicular intermediates of the classical secretory pathway. Yck2p lacking C-terminal Cys residues fails to associate with any membrane, whereas substitution of these residues with a farnesyl transferase signal sequence allows sec-dependent plasma membrane targeting and biological function, suggesting that modification is required for interaction with early secretory membranes but that targeting does not require a particular modification. Deletion analysis within the 185 residue C-terminus indicates that the final 28 residues are critical for membrane association, and additional sequences just upstream are required for proper plasma membrane targeting.

Structural and functional characterization of protein 4.1R-phosphatidylserine interaction: potential role in 4.1R sorting within cells

Erythrocyte protein 4.1R is a multifunctional protein that binds to various membrane proteins and to phosphatidylserine. In the present study, we report two important observations concerning 4.1R-phosphatidylserine interaction. Biochemically, a major finding of the present study is that 4.1R binding to phosphatidylserine appears to be a two-step process in which 4.1R first interacts with serine head group of phosphatidylserine through the positively charged amino acids YKRS and subsequently forms a tight hydrophobic interaction with fatty acid moieties. 4.1R failed to dissociate from phosphatidylserine liposomes under high ionic strength but could be released specifically by phospholipase A(2) but not by phospholipase C or D. Biochemical analyses showed that acyl chains were associated with 4.1R released by phospholipase A(2). Importantly, the association of acyl chains with 4.1R impaired its ability to interact with calmodulin, band 3, and glycophorin C. Removal of acyl chains restored 4.1R binding. These data indicate that acyl chains of phosphatidylserine play an important role in its interaction with 4.1R and on 4.1R function. In terms of biological significance, we have obtained evidence that 4.1R-phosphatidylserine interaction may play an important role in cellular sorting of 4.1R.

The casein kinase Ialpha isoform is both physically positioned and functionally competent to regulate multiple events of mRNA metabolism

Casein kinase I is a highly conserved family of serine/threonine protein kinases present in every organism tested from yeast to humans. To date, little is known about the function of the higher eukaryotic isoforms in this family. The CKI isoforms in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, however, have been genetically linked to the regulation of DNA repair, cell cycle progression and cytokinesis. It has also been established that the nuclear localization of two of these isoforms is essential for their function. The work presented here demonstrates that the higher eukaryotic CKIalpha isoform is also present within nuclei of certain established cell lines and associated with discrete nuclear structures. The nature of its nuclear localization was characterized. In this regard, CKIalpha was shown to colocalize with factors involved in pre-mRNA splicing at nuclear speckles and that its association with these structures exhibited several biochemical properties in common with known splicing factors. The kinase was also shown to be associated with a complex that contained certain splicing factors. Finally, in vitro, CKIalpha was shown to be capable of phosphorylating particular splicing factors within a region rich in serine/arginine dipeptide repeat motifs suggesting that it has both the opportunity and the capacity to regulate one or more steps of mRNA metabolism.

The Yck2 yeast casein kinase 1 isoform shows cell cycle-specific localization to sites of polarized growth and is required for proper septin organization

Casein kinase 1 protein kinases are ubiquitous and abundant Ser/Thr-specific protein kinases with activity on acidic substrates. In yeast, the products of the redundant YCK1 and YCK2 genes are together essential for cell viability. Mutants deficient for these proteins display defects in cellular morphogenesis, cytokinesis, and endocytosis. Yck1p and Yck2p are peripheral plasma membrane proteins, and we report here that the localization of Yck2p within the membrane is dynamic through the cell cycle. Using a functional green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion, we have observed that Yck2p is concentrated at sites of polarized growth during bud morphogenesis. At cytokinesis, GFP-Yck2p becomes associated with a ring at the bud neck and then appears as a patch of fluorescence, apparently coincident with the dividing membranes. The bud neck association of Yck2p at cytokinesis does not require an intact septin ring, and septin assembly is altered in a Yck-deficient mutant. The sites of GFP-Yck2p concentration and the defects observed for Yck-deficient cells together suggest that Yck plays distinct roles in morphogenesis and cytokinesis that are effected by differential localization.

Phosphoinositide signaling pathways in nuclei are associated with nuclear speckles containing pre-mRNA processing factors

Phosphoinositide signal transduction pathways in nuclei use enzymes that are indistinguishable from their cytosolic analogues. We demonstrate that distinct phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinases (PIPKs), the type I and type II isoforms, are concentrated in nuclei of mammalian cells. The cytosolic and nuclear PIPKs display comparable activities toward the substrates phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate. Indirect immunofluorescence revealed that these kinases were associated with distinct subnuclear domains, identified as "nuclear speckles," which also contained pre-mRNA processing factors. A pool of nuclear phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2), the product of these kinases, was also detected at these same sites by monoclonal antibody staining. The localization of PIPKs and PIP2 to speckles is dynamic in that both PIPKs and PIP2 reorganize along with other speckle components upon inhibition of mRNA transcription. Because PIPKs have roles in the production of most phosphatidylinositol second messengers, these findings demonstrate that phosphatidylinositol signaling pathways are localized at nuclear speckles. Surprisingly, the PIPKs and PIP2 are not associated with invaginations of the nuclear envelope or any nuclear membrane structure. The putative absence of membranes at these sites suggests novel mechanisms for the generation of phosphoinositides within these structures.

Casein kinase I: spatial organization and positioning of a multifunctional protein kinase family

The casein kinase I family of serine/threonine protein kinases is highly conserved from yeast to humans. Until only recently, both the function and regulation of these enzymes remained poorly uncharacterised in that they appeared to be constitutively active and were capable of phosphorylating an untold number of other proteins. While relatively little was known regarding the exact function of the higher eukaryotic isoforms, the casein kinase I (CKI) isoforms from yeast have been genetically linked to vesicular trafficking, DNA repair, cell cycle progression and cytokinesis. All five S. cerevisiae isoforms are known to be associated with discrete cellular compartments and this localization has been shown to be absolutely essential for their respective functions. New evidence now suggests that the CKI isoforms in more complex systems also exhibit non-homogeneous subcellular distributions that may prove vital to defining the function and regulation of these enzymes. In particular, CKIalpha, the most-characterized vertebrate isoform, is associated with cytosolic vesicles, the mitotic spindle and structures within the nucleus. Functions associated with these localizations coincide with those previously reported in yeast, suggesting a conservation of function. Other reports have indicated that each of the remaining CKI isoforms have the capacity to make associations with components of several signal transduction pathways, thereby channeling CKI function toward specific regulatory events. This review will examine what is now known about the higher eukaryotic CKI family members from the perspective localization as a means of gaining a better understanding of the function and regulation of these kinases.

G protein-coupled receptor kinases

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) constitute a family of six mammalian serine/threonine protein kinases that phosphorylate agonist-bound, or activated, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) as their primary substrates. GRK-mediated receptor phosphorylation rapidly initiates profound impairment of receptor signaling, or desensitization. This review focuses on the regulation of GRK activity by a variety of allosteric and other factors: agonist-stimulated GPCRs, beta gamma subunits of heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins, phospholipid cofactors, the calcium-binding proteins calmodulin and recoverin, posttranslational isoprenylation and palmitoylation, autophosphorylation, and protein kinase C-mediated GRK phosphorylation. Studies employing recombinant, purified proteins, cell culture, and transgenic animal models attest to the general importance of GRKs in regulating a vast array of GPCRs both in vitro and in vivo.

14-3-3 is phosphorylated by casein kinase I on residue 233. Phosphorylation at this site in vivo regulates Raf/14-3-3 interaction

14-3-3 proteins mediate interactions between proteins involved in signal transduction and cell cycle regulation. Phosphorylation of target proteins as well as 14-3-3 are important for protein-protein interactions. Here, we describe the purification of a protein kinase from porcine brain that phosphorylates 14-3-3 zeta on Thr-233. This protein kinase has been identified as casein kinase Ialpha (CKIalpha) by peptide mapping analysis and sequencing. Among mammalian 14-3-3, only 14-3-3 tau possesses a phosphorylatable residue at the same position (Ser-233), and we show that this residue is also phosphorylated by CKI. In addition, we show that 14-3-3 zeta is exclusively phosphorylated on Thr-233 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells. The residue 233 is located within a region shown to be important for the association of 14-3-3 to target proteins. We showed previously that, in 293 cells, only the unphosphorylated form of 14-3-3 zeta associates with the regulatory domain of c-Raf. We have now shown that in vivo phosphorylation of 14-3-3 zeta at the CKIalpha site (Thr-233) negatively regulates its binding to c-Raf, and may be important in Raf-mediated signal transduction.

Stimulus-dependent phosphorylation of G-protein-coupled receptors by casein kinase 1alpha

We have previously demonstrated that the phospholipase C-coupled m3-muscarinic receptor is phosphorylated in an agonist-sensitive manner by a protein kinase of approximately 40 kDa purified from porcine cerebellum (Tobin, A. B., Keys, B., and Nahorski, S. R. (1996) J. Biol Chem. 271, 3907-3916). This kinase, called muscarinic receptor kinase (MRK), is distinct from second messenger-regulated protein kinases and from beta-adrenergic receptor kinase and other members of the G-protein-coupled receptor kinase family. In the present study we propose that MRK is casein kinase 1alpha (CK1alpha) based on the following evidence: 1) the amino acid sequence from two proteolytic peptide fragments derived from purified MRK corresponded exactly to sequences within CK1alpha. 2) Casein kinase activity co-eluted with MRK activity from the final two chromatography steps in the purification of porcine brain MRK. 3) Recombinant CK1alpha expressed in Sf9 cells is able to phosphorylate both casein and the bacterial fusion protein, Ex-m3, that contains a portion of the third intracellular loop of the m3-muscarinic receptor downstream of glutathione S-transferase. 4) Partially purified CK1alpha increased the level of muscarinic receptor phosphorylation in an agonist-sensitive manner when reconstituted with membranes from Chinese hamster ovary-m3 cells expressing the human recombinant m3-muscarinic receptor. 5) Partially-purified CK1alpha phosphorylated rhodopsin, contained in urea-treated bovine rod outer segment membranes, and the extent of phosphorylation was increased in the presence of light. These data demonstrate that the kinase previously called MRK is CK1alpha, and that CK1alpha offers an alternative protein kinase pathway from that of the G-protein-coupled receptor kinase family for the stimulus-dependent phosphorylation of the m3-muscarinic receptor, rhodopsin, and possibly other G-protein-coupled receptors.

Gene cloning and characterization of CDP-diacylglycerol synthase from rat brain

A cDNA encoded a 462-amino acid protein, which showed CDP-diacylglycerol synthase (CDS) activity was cloned for the first time as the vertebrate enzyme molecule from rat brain cDNA library. The deduced molecular mass of this rat CDS was 53 kDa, and putative primary structure included several possible membrane- spanning regions. At the amino acid sequence level, rat CDS shared 55.5%, 31. 7%, and 20.9% identity with already known Drosophila, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Escherichia coli CDS, respectively. This rat CDS preferred 1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl phosphatidic acid as a substrate, and its activity was strongly inhibited by phosphatidylglycerol 4, 5-bisphosphate. By immunoblotting analysis of COS cells overexpressed with the epitope-tagged for rat CDS, a 60-kDa band was detected. By epitope-tag immunocytochemistry, the CDS protein was mainly localized in close association with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum of the transfected cells. The intense mRNA expression of CDS was localized in the cerebellar Purkinje cells, the pineal body, and the inner segment of photoreceptor cells. Additionally, very intense expression was detected in postmitotic spermatocytes and spermatids.

Growth factor-dependent phosphoinositide signalling

A wide variety of messages, in the form of diffusible growth factors, hormones and cytokines, are carried throughout multicellular organisms to coordinate important physiological properties of target cells, such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis and metabolism. Most messengers bind to cognate receptors on target cells, which initiate a characteristic cascade of reactions within the cell, ultimately leading to the desired response. The cellular response is defined by the combination of signalling components whose individual activity depends upon the number and type of surface receptors. Consequently the responses of different cell types to one or more stimuli can be quite disparate. A molecular understanding of the signalling pathways employed by each type of receptor therefore underlies the ability to rationalize many cellular functions and to correct disfunctions. As a well studied example of the primary signalling events that take place on the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane following receptor activation, we will discuss how the widely expressed receptor for epidermal growth factor (EGF) causes the phosphorylation and hydrolysis of a signalling precursor, the membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol. This paradigm will be used to illustrate certain general principles of signalling, including formation of multienzyme complexes, compartmentation of second messengers and intermediates, and cross-talk between different signalling pathways.

Casein kinase I alpha and alpha L: alternative splicing-generated kinases exhibit different catalytic properties

Casein kinase I (CKI) is a family of serine/threonine protein kinases found in all eukaryotes examined to date. Here, the rat CKI isoforms alpha and alpha L were cloned and expressed in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic systems. Characterization of the genomic DNA flanking the exon unique to CKI alpha L demonstrated that CKI alpha and CKI alpha L arise by the alternative splicing of a common pre-mRNA molecule. To the best of our knowledge, the alpha L isoform is the only known active serine/threonine kinase to contain an insert within its catalytic domain. Tissue distribution of each splicing isoform was examined by RT-PCR, immunoprecipitation, and Western blotting. Both isoforms were expressed in all tissues tested but at different levels. Bacterially expressed CKI alpha isoforms were active and therefore biochemically characterized. CKI alpha and CKI alpha L proteins were demonstrated to have casein kinase I catalytic properties. More importantly, the recombinant isoform proteins exhibited differences in binding and activity toward common CKI substrates. These observations demonstrate that the alpha L insert within the kinase domain modulates substrate kinetics. These kinetic differences suggest that CKI alpha and CKI alpha L may perform different biological roles.

Phosphorylation of yeast plasma membrane H+-ATPase by casein kinase I

The plasma membrane H+-ATPase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is subject to phosphorylation by a casein kinase I activity in vitro. We show this casein kinase I activity to result from the combined function of YCK1 and YCK2, two highly similar and plasma membrane-associated casein kinase I homologues. First, H+-ATPase phosphorylation is severely impaired in the plasma membrane of YCK-deficient yeast strains. Furthermore, the wild-type level of the phosphoprotein is restored by the addition of purified mammalian casein kinase I to the mutant membranes. We used the H+-ATPase as well as a synthetic peptide substrate that contains a phosphorylation site for casein kinase I to compare kinase activity in membranes prepared from yeast cells grown in the presence or absence of glucose. The addition of glucose results in increased H+-ATPase activity which is associated with a decline in the phosphorylation level of the enzyme. Mutations in both YCK1 and YCK2 affect this regulation, suggesting that H+-ATPase activity is modulated by glucose via a combination of a "down-regulating" casein kinase I activity and another, yet uncharacterized, "up-regulating" kinase activity. Biochemical mapping of phosphorylated H+-ATPase identifies a major phosphopeptide that contains a consensus phosphorylation site (Ser-507) for casein kinase I. Site-directed mutagenesis of this consensus sequence indicates that Glu-504 is important for glucose-induced decrease in the apparent Km for ATP.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2)-enhanced G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) activity. Location, structure, and regulation of the PIP2 binding site distinguishes the GRK subfamilies

The G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) phosphorylate agonist occupied G protein-coupled receptors and play an important role in mediating receptor desensitization. The localization of these enzymes to their membrane incorporated substrates is required for their efficient function and appears to be a highly regulated process. In this study we demonstrate that phosphatidylinositol 4, 5-bisphosphate (PIP2) enhances GRK5-mediated beta-adrenergic receptor (betaAR) phosphorylation by directly interacting with this enzyme and facilitating its membrane association. GRK5-mediated phosphorylation of a soluble peptide substrate is unaffected by PIP2, suggesting that the PIP2-enhanced receptor kinase activity arises as a consequence of this membrane localization. The lipid binding site of GRK5 exhibits a high degree of specificity and appears to reside in the amino terminus of this enzyme. Mutation of six basic residues at positions 22, 23, 24, 26, 28, and 29 of GRK5 ablates the ability of this kinase to bind PIP2. This region of the GRK5, which has a similar distribution of basic amino acids to the PIP2 binding site of gelsolin, is highly conserved between members of the GRK4 subfamily (GRK4, GRK5, and GRK6). Indeed, all the members of the GRK4 subfamily exhibit PIP2-dependent receptor kinase activity. We have shown previously that the membrane association of betaARK (beta-adrenergic receptor kinase) (GRK2) is mediated, in vitro, by the simultaneous binding of PIP2 and the betagamma subunits of heterotrimeric G proteins to the carboxyl-terminal pleckstrin homology domain of this enzyme (Pitcher, J. A., Touhara, K., Payne, E. S., and Lefkowitz, R. J. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 11707-11710). Thus, five members of the GRK family bind PIP2, betaARK (GRK2), betaARK2 (GRK3), GRK4, GRK5, and GRK6. However, the structure, location, and regulation of the PIP2 binding site distinguishes the betaARK (GRK2 and GRK3) and GRK4 (GRK4, GRK5, and GRK6) subfamilies.

G protein-coupled receptor kinase GRK2 is a phospholipid-dependent enzyme that can be conditionally activated by G protein betagamma subunits

G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) mediate agonist-dependent phosphorylation of G protein-coupled receptors (GPRs) and initiate homologous receptor desensitization. Previously, we reported that charged phospholipids directly interacted with the two GRK isoforms, GRK2 and GKR3, via a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain to regulate GRK activity (DebBurman, S. K., Ptasienski, J., Boetticher, E., Lomasney, J. W., Benovic, J. L., and Hosey, M. M. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270: 5742-5747). Here, evidence is provided to support the hypothesis that charged phospholipids are required for agonist-dependent phosphorylation of receptors by GRK2. In the absence of charged phospholipids, the purified human m2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (hm2mAChR) reconstituted in pure phosphatidylcholine vesicles or in a noninhibitory detergent was not a substrate for GRK2. However, these receptor preparations were stoichiometrically phosphorylated in an agonist-dependent manner upon addition of charged phospholipids. The known ability of G protein betagamma subunits to stimulate mAChR phosphorylation also was found to be absolutely dependent on the presence of charged phospholipids, including phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). Phospholipids also regulated GRK-mediated phosphorylation of casein, a nonreceptor-soluble substrate. Among lipids tested, lipid inositol phosphates, PIP2 and phosphatidylinositol 4-monophosphate, were found to be the most potent activators of GRK2 and were the only lipids that regulated GRK2 in a complex biphasic manner. At low micro concentrations, PIP2 activated GRK2 via an interaction with the GRK pleckstrin homology domain; however, at high micro concentrations, PIP2 inhibited GRK2, apparently via another mechanism. PIP2-mediated inhibition could be partly relieved by increasing ATP. The results support the hypothesis that GRK2 is a lipid-dependent protein kinase that requires charged phospholipids for enzyme activation, for regulation by Gbetagamma subunits, and potentially for membrane association.

Relationship between type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase activity and protein tyrosine phosphorylation in membranes from normal and sickle red cells

To assess the origin of the previously reported higher type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PtdIns 4-kinase) activity of sickle-red-cell membranes [Rhoda-Hardy-Dessources, M.D., de Neef, R.S., Mérault, G.& Giraud, F. (1993) Biochim. Biophs. Acta 1181, 90-96], we have investigated the possible involvement of protein kinase C and tyrosine kinases in the regulation of the lipid kinase activity. Both protein kinase activities were found to be markedly higher in membranes from the pathological cells. When isolated normal-red-cell or sickle-red-cell membranes were assayed, phosphatidylinositol phosphorylation activity was not significantly modified after phorbol ester modulation of protein kinase C. In contrast, stimulation (with sodium orthovanadate) or inhibiton (by tyrphostin) of tyrosine phosphorylation led respectively, to increased or decreased PtdIns 4-kinase activity in membranes from both cell types. Moreover, immunoprecipitations of membrane extracts from normal and sickle red cells types with anti-PtdIns 4-kinase antibody 4C5G, followed by immunoblotting with an anti-phosphotyrosine Ig, revealed a 56-kDa band migrating with PtdIns 4-kinase activity. Taken together, these findings indicate that PtdIns 4-Kinase in red blood cells is a phosphotyrosine-containing protein and could be regulated by a mechanism involving tyrosine phosphorylation, and the increase in PtdIns 4-Kinase activity of sickle-red-cell membranes is at least in part mediated by their intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity.

Arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol kinase. Specific in vitro inhibition by polyphosphoinositides suggests a mechanism for regulation of phosphatidylinositol biosynthesis

We previously described the purification of a membrane-bound diacylglycerol kinase highly selective for sn-1-acyl-2-arachidonoyl diacylglycerols (Walsh, J. P., Suen, R., Lemaitre, R. N., and Glomset, J. A. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 21155-21164). This enzyme appears to be responsible for the rapid clearance of the arachidonate-rich pool of diacylglycerols generated during stimulus-induced phosphoinositide turnover. We have now shown phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate to be a potent and specific inhibitor of arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol kinase. Kinetic analyses indicated a Ki for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate of 0.04 mol %. Phosphatidic acid also was an inhibitor with a Ki of 0.7 mol %. Other phospholipids had only small effects at these concentrations. A series of multiply phosphorylated lipid analogs also inhibited the enzyme, indicating that the head group phosphomonoesters are the primary determinants of the polyphosphoinositide effect. However, these compounds were not as potent as phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, indicating some specificity for the polyphosphoinositide additional to its total charge. Five other diacylglycerol kinases were activated to varying degrees by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and phosphatidic acid, suggesting that inhibition by acidic lipids may be specific for the arachidonoyl-DAG kinase isoform. Given the presumed role of arachidonoyl-diacylglycerol kinase in the phosphoinositide cycle, this inhibition may represent a mechanism for polyphosphoinositides to regulate their own synthesis.

Role of COOH-terminal phosphorylation in the regulation of casein kinase I delta

Casein kinase I delta is a member of the casein kinase I (CKI) family, a group of second messenger independent protein kinases. We present evidence that the COOH-terminal domain of CKI delta has regulatory properties. CKI delta expressed in Escherichia coli was activated by heparin, as found previously, and by treatment with the catalytic subunit of type-1 protein phosphatase (CS1). Concomitant with activation by CS1, there was a reduction in the apparent molecular weight of CKI delta from 55,000 to 49,000 as judged by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate. Truncation of CKI delta by removal of the COOH-terminal 110 amino acids eliminated the ability of CS1 to activate or to increase electrophoretic mobility. Casein kinase I alpha, a 37-kDa isoform that lacks an extended COOH-terminal domain, was not activated by CS1 or the presence of heparin. However, a chimeric enzyme consisting of CKI alpha fused to the COOH-terminal domain of CKI delta was activated by both heparin and CS1. Analysis of the effects of CS1 on a series of CKI delta COOH-terminal truncation mutants identified an inhibitory region between His317 and Pro342, which contained six potential phosphorylation sites. From analysis of the specific activites of these truncation mutants, removal of the same region resulted in enzyme with a specific activity nearly 10-fold greater than wild-type. Thus, CKI delta activity can be regulated by phosphorylation of its COOH terminus, which may serve to create an autoinhibitory domain. This mechanism of regulation could have important consequences in vivo.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase: inhibition of intrinsic protein-serine kinase activity by phosphoinositides, and of lipid kinase activity by Mn2+

Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase is composed of 110 kDa catalytic and 85 kDa regulatory subunits. The 110 kDa subunit has two intrinsic kinase activities, i.e., Mn(2+)-dependent protein-serine kinase and Mg(2+)-dependent lipid kinase activities. These intrinsic kinases have been reported to be interdependent: protein-serine kinase phosphorylates the 85 kDa subunit of PI 3-kinase, which upon phosphorylation inhibits the lipid kinase activity of PI 3-kinase. We report here that phosphoinositides can selectively inhibit the protein-serine kinase activity of PI 3-kinase without affecting lipid kinase activity. This inhibition depends on the phosphorylation status of the phosphoinositides, i.e., PI 4,5-bisphosphate > PI 4-phosphate >> PI. Mn2+ (2 mM) protected protein kinase activity from phosphoinositides-mediated inhibition if added prior to interaction of PI 3-kinase with phosphoinositides. On the other hand, Mn2+ (2 mM) inhibited lipid kinase activity independent of its effect on the protein kinase activity of PI 3-kinase. The present study suggests that the protein-serine kinase and the lipid kinase activities of PI 3-kinase can be selectively inhibited by phosphoinositides and Mn2+ respectively.

Phosphorylation of DARPP-32, a dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, by casein kinase I in vitro and in vivo

DARPP-32 (dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein, M(r) = 32,000) is a potent inhibitor of protein phosphatase-1 when it is phosphorylated on Thr-34 by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. DARPP-32 is highly enriched in some specific cell populations such as striatonigral neurons and choroid plexus epithelial cells. Here we show that recombinant rat DARPP-32 is phosphorylated by casein kinase I on seryl residues to a stoichiometry of approximately 2 mol of phosphate/mol of protein. DARPP-32 is one of the best known substrates for casein kinase I (Km = 3.4 +/- 0.3 microM), whereas the homologous phosphatase-1 inhibitor, inhibitor-1, is not. Phosphorylation of DARPP-32 by casein kinase I does not alter its ability to inhibit protein phosphatase-1. Residues phosphorylated by casein kinase I were identified as Ser-137 and Ser-189 by site-directed mutagenesis and by protein sequencing. Ser-137 and the preceding stretch of 16-18 acidic residues are conserved in DARPP-32 among all species examined, whereas Ser-189 is not. Phosphorylation of Ser-137 induces an unusual increase in DARPP-32 electrophoretic mobility in polyacrylamide gels in the presence of SDS. In striatonigral neurons, DARPP-32 is phosphorylated on Ser-137 and the stoichiometry of phosphorylation on this residue in vivo appears to be higher in the substantia nigra (axon terminals) than in the striatum (soma and dendrites). These results indicate that casein kinase I is highly active in striatonigral neurons in which it may play important roles, including in protein phosphatase-1 modulation via phosphorylation of DARPP-32.

The sequence of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase defines a novel family of lipid kinases

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) occupies an essential position in the phosphoinositide signal transduction cascades as the precursor to second messengers and is thought to regulate many cellular proteins directly. The final step in the synthesis of PtdIns(4,5)P2 is the phosphorylation of PtdIns(4)P- by PtdIns(4)P 5-kinase (PIP5K). Using peptide sequences from a purified PIP5K, a cDNA for a human placental PIP5K was isolated and sequenced. Expression of this cDNA in Escherichia coli produced an active PIP5K. Surprisingly, the sequence of this PIP5K has no homology to known PtdIns kinases or protein kinases. However, the PIP5K is homologous to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae proteins Fab1p and Mss4p.

Interaction of protein kinase C and phosphoinositides: regulation by polyamines

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) activates protein kinase C (PKC) in the presence of phosphatidylserine and calcium. Recently it has been demonstrated that direct interaction of PKC with PIP2 in the absence of divalent cation inactivates this kinase. In the present study, the interaction of natural aliphatic polyamines with phosphoinositides was investigated for its possible relevance to PKC-mediated protein phosphorylation. PKC/phosphoinositide interaction was studied by monitoring the changes in (a) intrinsic fluorescence of the enzyme, and (b) PKC activity (protamine sulphate or histone III-S as substrate). All the phosphoinositides: PIP2, phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PIP) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) inactivated PKC with an IC50 of 0.4 microM for PIP2, 5 microM for PIP and 10 microM for PI. Hydrogenated PIP2 behaved similarly to that of natural PIP2. Time-dependent studies showed very rapid inactivation of PKC by PIP2. The polyamines spermine and spermidine at physiological concentrations protected PKC from phosphoinositides-mediated inactivation when added prior to PKC interaction with phosphoinositides. Putrescine was least effective. Addition of spermine or spermidine to PKC/phosphoinositides incubation mixture did not reverse PKC activity indicating that the inactivation of PKC by phosphoinositides is irreversible. Fluorescence quenching experiments showed that phosphoinositides inactivate PKC by inducing conformational changes of the enzyme that are prevented by spermine. We propose that polyamines protect PKC and possibly other protein kinase from phosphoinositides-mediated inactivation, and that inactivation of protein kinases by phosphoinositides may not have physiological relevance.

T-antigen kinase inhibits simian virus 40 DNA replication by phosphorylation of intact T antigen on serines 120 and 123

Simian virus 40 (SV40) DNA replication begins after two large T-antigen hexamers assemble on the viral minimal origin of replication and locally unwind the template DNA. The activity of T antigen in this reaction is regulated by its phosphorylation state. A form of casein kinase I purified from HeLa nuclear extracts (T-antigen kinase) phosphorylates T antigen on physiologic sites and inhibits its activity in the unwinding reaction (A. Cegielska and D. M. Virshup, Mol. Cell. Biol. 13:1202-1211, 1993). Using a series of mutant T antigens expressed by recombinant baculoviruses in Sf9 cells, we find that the origin unwinding activities of both TS677-->A and TS677,679-->A are inhibited by the T-antigen kinase, as is wild-type T antigen. In contrast, mutants TS120-->A and TS123,679-->A are resistant to inhibition by the kinase. Thus, phosphorylation of serines 120 and 123 is necessary for inhibition of T-antigen activity. Previous studies of casein kinase I substrate specificity have suggested that acidic residues or a phosphorylated amino acid amino terminal to the target residue are required to create a casein kinase I recognition site. However, we find that the T-antigen kinase can add more than 3 mol of Pi per mol to full-length bacterially produced T antigen and that it inhibits the unwinding activity of p34cdc2-activated bacterially produced T antigen. Since no prior phosphorylation is present in this bacterially produced T antigen, and no acidic residues are present immediately amino terminal to serines 120 and 123, other structural elements of T antigen must contribute to the recognition signals for T-antigen kinase. In support of this conclusion, we find that while T-antigen kinase phosphorylates amino-terminal residues in bacterially produced full-length T antigen, it cannot phosphorylate bacterially produced truncated T antigen containing amino acids 1 to 259, a 17-kDa amino-terminal tryptic fragment of T antigen, nor can it phosphorylate denatured T antigen. These findings strongly suggest that the carboxy-terminal domain of T antigen is an important modifier of the recognition signals for phosphorylation of the critical amino-terminal sites by the T-antigen kinase. This conclusion is consistent with previous studies suggesting close apposition of amino- and carboxy-terminal domains of T antigen in the native protein. The three-dimensional conformation of the substrate appears to make a significant contribution to T-antigen kinase substrate specificity.

Magnesium protects phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate-mediated inactivation of casein kinase I in erythrocyte membrane

Recent reports suggest that membrane-bound casein kinase I (MBCK I) activity in erythrocytes is inactivated by exogenously added phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) (Bazenet et al. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 7369-7376; Brockman and Anderson (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 2508-2512). Here we report that PIP2-mediated inhibition of MBCK I in erythrocytes is only observed if exogenous PIP2 and the kinase are allowed to interact in the absence of Mg2+. Prior incubation of PIP2 with 1 mM Mg2+ prevents the inactivation of MBCK I by PIP2. Other divalent cations (Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Cd2+, Ca2+) and trivalent metal ions (La3+, Cr3+, Al3+) did not protect MBCK I from PIP2-mediated inactivation, indicating that the protective effect is specific for Mg2+ only. We propose a role of Mg2+ in the interaction of CK I with phosphoinositides, and that PIP2-mediated inhibition of protein kinase(s) may be a non-physiological phenomenon.

Characterization of structural and functional phosphoinositide domains in human erythrocyte membranes

In the erythrocyte membrane, only a fraction (50-60%) of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) and of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PIP) is rapidly turned over by specific kinases and phosphatases and accessible to hydrolysis by the polyphosphoinositide (PPI)-specific phospholipase C (PLC). To investigate whether the metabolic segregation of PPI resulted from preferential interactions with proteins, we have measured the accessibility of PPI to bee venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2) in native erythrocyte membranes, or after treatments designed to remove peripheral proteins and cytoplasmic domains of integral proteins. In native membranes, PPI, as well as the other major phospholipids, behaved as two distinct fractions (R1 and R2) differing by their sensitivity to PLA2. Such a behavior was not observed in PIP and PIP2 containing artificial vesicles. Evidence was provided that the highly sensitive fraction of PIP and PIP2 (R1) may be identical to the PLC-sensitive and rapidly metabolized pool. Removal of peripheral proteins, followed by proteolysis of the cytoplasmic domain of integral proteins, mainly glycophorins and band 3, led to a reduction of the R1 fraction of PIP and of PIP2. It is proposed that the rapidly metabolized pool of PIP2 and PIP, involved in the regulation of major cellular functions, would be maintained in its functional state through interactions with integral proteins.

The role of inositol phospholipids in the association of band 4.1 with the human erythrocyte membrane

Band 4.1 is a major protein of the erythrocyte membrane skeleton. It promotes the binding of spectrin to F-actin and may anchor the skeletal network to the plasma membrane via its association with integral membrane proteins. Here, we have investigated the involvement of inositol phospholipids in the binding of band 4.1 to erythrocyte membranes using membrane vesicles stripped of all peripheral proteins at alkaline pH. Trypsinization of these vesicles allows the discrimination of two classes of band 4.1 binding sites: trypsin-sensitive sites (60-65% of the total), largely or exclusively on band 3, and trypsin-resistant sites (35-40% of the total), composed, at least in part, of the glycophorins. ATP depletion or activation of erythrocyte phosphoinositol phospholipase C led to a reduction in membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] content by 20-70% in different experiments. The resulting decrease of band 4.1 binding to vesicles by was variable, but averaged about 15-20%. The same treatments led to an average decrease in the band 4.1 binding capacity of trypsinized vesicles of 55%. Since this is equivalent to a 20% decrease in the binding capacity of non-trypsinized vesicles (consistent with the above result), it indicates that PtdIns(4,5)P2 regulates the binding of band 4.1 only to trypsin-resistant binding sites (and to only a subset of these) accounting for about 15-20% of total band 4.1 binding sites on membranes. We found that hydrolysis of > 95% of PtdIns(4,5)P2 with exogenous phospholipase C-delta (PLC delta) resulted in no further decrease in band 4.1 binding to vesicles than did hydrolysis of 65-70% of PtdIns(4,5)P2 which is accessible to erythrocyte phosphoinositol phospholipase C. This suggests that only 65-70% of total membrane PtdIns(4,5)P2 is involved in regulating band 4.1 binding. Significantly, the pool of PtdIns(4,5)P2 involved is the same pool which can be hydrolysed by erythrocyte phosphoinositol phospholipase C, and which has been shown to be metabolically labile in erythrocytes. The membrane binding capacity for band 4.1 found in this study (averaging 1000 micrograms/mg vesicle protein) is considerably higher than that found in previous studies. The results are consistent with the existence of a binding site for band 4.1 on each copy of the major transmembrane proteins (band 3 and the glycophorins). These results provide new insights into the involvement of membrane inositol phospholipids in cytoskeletal-membrane interactions.

Interaction of phospholipids with proteins and peptides. New advances III

1. The review deals with the recent achievements in the study of the various interactions of phospholipids with proteins and peptides. 2. The interactions are classified according to the hydrophobic, hydrophilic or mixed character of the interactive forces. 3. The effect of the interaction on the structure and biological activity of the interacting molecules is also discussed.

Tyrosine-protein kinase inhibition in human erythrocytes by polyphosphoinositides (PIP and PIP2)

In human erythrocytes Ser/Thr- and Tyr-phosphorylations of cytoplasmic domain of band 3 are catalyzed by casein kinase I and Tyr-protein kinase respectively, both distributed between cytosol and membrane structures. The results reported here show that purified cytosolic Tyr-protein kinase activity, assayed on added substrates such as poly(Glu,Tyr)4:1 and isolated chymotryptic fragments of band 3 cytoplasmic domain (cdb3), is potently inhibited by PIP and even more by PIP2. Similar inhibitory effects are displayed by these polyphosphoinositides also on the endogenous Tyr-phosphorylation of band 3, when they are added to the isolated native membranes, thus suggesting their involvement in regulating in-vivo Tyr-phosphorylation of membrane proteins.