Role of ascorbic acid in dopamine beta-hydroxylation. The endogenous enzyme cofactor and putative electron donor for cofactor regeneration

Deep Eutectic Solvents Comprising Organic Acids and Their Application in (Bio)Medicine

Over the last years, we observed a significant increase in the number of published studies that focus on the synthesis and characterization of deep eutectic solvents (DESs). These materials are of particular interest mainly due to their physical and chemical stability, low vapor pressure, ease of synthesis, and the possibility of tailoring their properties through dilution or change of the ratio of parent substances (PS). DESs, considered as one of the greenest families of solvents, are used in many fields, such as organic synthesis, (bio)catalysis, electrochemistry, and (bio)medicine. DESs applications have already been reported in various review articles. However, these reports mainly described these components' basics and general properties without focusing on the particular, PS-wise, group of DESs. Many DESs investigated for potential (bio)medical applications comprise organic acids. However, due to the different aims of the reported studies, many of these substances have not yet been investigated thoroughly, which makes it challenging for the field to move forward. Herein, we propose distinguishing DESs comprising organic acids (OA-DESs) as a specific group derived from natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs). This review aims to highlight and compare the applications of OA-DESs as antimicrobial agents and drug delivery enhancers-two essential fields in (bio)medical studies where DESs have already been implemented and proven their potential. From the survey of the literature data, it is evident that OA-DESs represent an excellent type of DESs for specific biomedical applications, owing to their negligible cytotoxicity, fulfilling the rules of green chemistry and being generally effective as drug delivery enhancers and antimicrobial agents. The main focus is on the most intriguing examples and (where possible) application-based comparison of particular groups of OA-DESs. This should highlight the importance of OA-DESs and give valuable clues on the direction the field can take.

Carcinostatic effects of alkanoyl ascorbate plus platinum nano-colloid and stabilization of the esterolytically resultant ascorbate by hydrogen

Carcinostatic effects of combined use of ascorbic acid (Asc), 2-O-phospho- or 6-O-palmitoyl ascorbate (Asc2Phos, Asc6Palm) or diverse alkanoyl Asc, and nano-sized platinum-poly(N-vinyl-pyrrolidone) colloid (PVP-Pt; 2-nm diameter) were examined on human esophagus carcinoma-derived cells KYSE70. Cell viability was repressed by 'Asc6Palm + PVP-Pt' mixture more markedly than by Asc6Palm or PVP-Pt alone, together with cell shrinkage and fragmentation, in contrast to no additive carcinostatic effect of 'Asc + PVP-Pt' or 'Asc2Phos + PVP-Pt'. The effects might be partly due to efficiency for intracellular uptake of PVP-Pt, as previously shown by our studies that Pt atoms composed of PVP-Pt were incorporated into human tongue carcinoma cells by 9.6-fold compared to normal human tongue epitheliocytes. Asc6Palm was advantageous for intracellular uptake, in terms of the proper balance for molecular hydrophilicity-lipophilicity (BMHL), whereas 6-O-stearoyl (C₁₈) Asc or 2,6-O-dipalmitoyl (2 × C₁₆) was demonstrated to be less carcinostatic owing to a lower BMHL. Although esterolytically converted from Asc6Palm, Asc was necessitated to be retained for efficient carcinostasis, and demonstrated by HPLC-coulometric ECD analysis to be appreciably stabilized in electrolytically generated hydrogen (dissolved hydrogen: 0.575 mg/L)-water, but scarcely in hydrogen-gas-bubbled water (0.427 mg/L), Mg stick-derived hydrogen (0.044 mg/L) water, or tap water, suggesting that hydrogen-rich water suppresses oxidative decomposition of Asc. Thus, Asc6Palm plus PVP-Pt with hydrogen-rich water supplement might be applicable for carcinostatic therapy.

RNAi-mediated knock-down of the dopamine beta-hydroxylase gene changes growth of razor clams

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH) plays an essential role in the synthesis of catecholamines (CA) in neuroendocrine networks. In the razor clam, Sinonovacula constricta a novel gene for DβH (ScDβH-α) was identified that belongs to the copper type II ascorbate-dependent monooxygenase family. Expression analysis revealed ScDβH-α gene transcripts were abundant in the liver and expressed throughout development. Knock-down of ScDβH-α in adult clams using siRNA caused a reduction in the growth rate compared to control clams. Reduced growth was associated with strong down-regulation of gene transcripts for the growth-related factors, platelet derived growth factors A (PDGF-A) (P < 0.001) 24 h after ScDβH-α knock-down, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF1) (P < 0.001) and platelet derived growth factor B (PDGF-B-2) (P < 0.001) 24 h and 48 h after ScDβH-α knock-down and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β1) (P < 0.001) 48 h and 72 h after ScDβH-α knock-down. Taken together the results suggest that the novel ScDβH-α gene through its role in CA synthesis is involved in growth regulation in the razor clam and possibly other bivalves.

Activity-Based Sensing of Ascorbate by Using Copper-Mediated Oxidative Bond Cleavage

Ascorbate is an important biological reductant and enzyme cofactor. Although direct detection through ascorbate-mediated reduction is possible, this approach suffers from poor selectivity due to the wide range of cellular reducing agents. To overcome this limitation, we leverage reduction potential of ascorbate to mediate a copper-mediated oxidative bond cleavage of ether-caged fluorophores. The copper(II) complexes supported by a {bis(2-pyridylmethyl)}benzylamine or a {bis(2-pyridylmethyl)}(2-methoxybenzyl)amine ligand were identified as an ascorbate responsive unit and their reaction with ascorbate yields a copper-based oxidant that enables rapid benzylic oxidation and the release of an ether-caged dye (coumarin or fluorescein). The copper-mediated bond cleavage is specific to ascorbate and the trigger can be readily derivatized for tuning photophysical properties of the probes. The probes were successfully applied for the fluorometric detection of ascorbate in commercial food samples, human plasma, and serum, and within live cells by using confocal microscopy and flow cytometry.

Comprehensive and quantitative stability study of ascorbic acid using capillary zone electrophoresis with ultraviolet detection and high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry

Ascorbic acid is a powerful antioxidant compound involved in many biological functions, and a chronic deficiency is at the origin of scurvy disease. A simple, rapid, and cost-effective capillary electrophoresis method was developed for the separation and simultaneous quantification of ascorbic acid and the major degradation products: dehydroascorbic acid, furfural, and furoic acid. Systematic optimization of the conditions was performed that enabled baseline separation of the compounds in less than 10 min. In addition to simultaneous quantification of ascorbic acid alongside to the degradation products, stability studies demonstrated the possibility using capillary electrophoresis to separate and identify the major degradation products. Thus, high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry experiments were conducted in order to identify an unknown degradation product separated by capillary electrophoresis and significantly present in degraded samples. Comparison of mass spectrometry data and capillary electrophoresis electropherograms allowed to identify unambiguously trihydroxy-keto-valeraldehyde. Finally, capillary electrophoresis was successfully applied to evaluate the composition of different pharmaceutical preparation of ascorbic acid. Results showed the excellent performance of the capillary electrophoresis method due to the separation of excipients from the compounds of interest, which demonstrated the relevance of using an electrophoretic separation in order to perform comprehensive stability studies of ascorbic acid.

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase and its role in regulating the growth and larval metamorphosis in Sinonovacula constricta

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH) plays a key role in the synthesis of catecholamines (CAs) in the neuroendocrine regulatory network. The DβH gene was identified from the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta and referred to as ScDβH. The ScDβH gene is a copper type II ascorbate-dependent monooxygenase with a DOMON domain and two Cu2_monooxygen domains. ScDβH transcript expression was abundant in liver and hemolymph. During early development, ScDβH expression significantly increased at the umbo larval stage. Furthermore, the inhibitors and siRNA of DβH were screened. After challenge with DβH inhibitor, the larval metamorphosis and survival rates, and juvenile growth were obviously decreased. Under the siRNA stress, the larval metamorphosis and survival rates were also significantly decreased. Therefore, ScDβH may play an important regulating role in larval metamorphosis and juvenile growth.

Vitamin C versus Cancer: Ascorbic Acid Radical and Impairment of Mitochondrial Respiration?

Vitamin C as a cancer therapy has a controversial history. Much of the controversy arises from the lack of predictive biomarkers for stratification of patients, as well as a clear understanding of the mechanism of action and its multiple targets underlying the anticancer effect. Our review expands the analysis of cancer vulnerabilities for high-dose vitamin C, based on several facts, illustrating the cytotoxic potential of the ascorbyl free radical (AFR) via impairment of mitochondrial respiration and the mechanisms of its elimination in mammals by the membrane-bound NADH:cytochrome b5 oxidoreductase 3 (Cyb5R3). This enzyme catalyzes rapid conversion of AFR to ascorbate, as well as reduction of other redox-active compounds, using NADH as an electron donor. We propose that vitamin C can function in “protective mode” or “destructive mode” affecting cellular homeostasis, depending on the intracellular “steady-state” concentration of AFR and differential expression/activity of Cyb5R3 in cancerous and normal cells. Thus, a specific anticancer effect can be achieved at high doses of vitamin C therapy. The review is intended for a wide audience of readers—from students to specialists in the field.

New potential biomarker for stratification of patients for pharmacological vitamin C in adjuvant settings of cancer therapy

Our graphical review expands the analysis of cancer vulnerabilities for high dose vitamin C, based on several facts, illustrating the cytotoxic potential of the ascorbate free radical (AFR) via impairment of mitochondrial respiration and the mechanisms of its elimination in mammals by the membrane-bound NADH:cytochrome b5 oxidoreductase 3 (Cyb5R3). We propose that vitamin C can function in “protective mode” or “destructive mode” affecting cellular homeostasis, depending on the intracellular “steady-state” concentration of AFR and differential expression/activity of Cyb5R3 in cancerous and normal cells. Thus, a specific anti-cancer effect can be achieved at high doses of vitamin C therapy. The review is intended for a wide audience of readers – from students to specialists in the field.

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The ascorbate radical could impair mitochondrial respiration via cytochrome c reduction.

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The ascorbate radical could mediate the imbalance of the coenzyme Q “pool” in cancer cells.

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The selective cytotoxicity of vitamin C in cancer could be mediated by Cyb5R3/VDAC1.

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Low/normal doses of vitamin C act in a “protective mode” for normal/cancer cells.

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High doses of vitamin C act in a “destructive mode” for cancer cells only.

Distinctive Neurochemistry in Alzheimer's Disease via 7 T In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

This study's objective was to increase understanding of biological mechanisms underlying clinical Alzheimer's disease (AD) by noninvasively measuring an expanded neurochemical profile and exploring how well this advanced technology distinguishes AD from cognitively normal controls. We measured concentrations of 14 neurochemicals using ultra-high field (7 T) ultra-short echo time (8 ms) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in 16 participants with mild to moderate clinical AD and 33 age- and gender-matched control participants. MRS was localized to the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), a region known to be impacted by AD, and the occipital cortex (OCC), a control region. Participants with AD were recruited from dementia specialty clinics. Concentration of the antioxidant ascorbate was higher (p < 0.0007) in both brain regions. Concentrations of the glial marker myo-inositol and the choline-containing compounds involved in membrane turnover were higher (p≤0.0004) in PCC of participants with AD. Ascorbate and myo-inositol concentrations were strongly associated, especially in the PCC. Random forests, using the 14 neurochemicals in the two regions, distinguished participants with AD from controls: same-sample sensitivity and specificity were 88% and 97%, respectively, though out-of-sample-values would be lower. Ultra-high field ultra-short echo time MRS identified the co-occurrence of elevated ascorbate and myo-inositol in the PCC as markers that distinguish participants with mild to moderate AD from controls. While elevated myo-inositol may be a surrogate marker of neuroinflammation, the unexpected elevation of the antioxidant ascorbate may reflect infiltration of ascorbate-rich leukocytes.

Dietary Vitamin C in Human Health

Vitamin C is essential to prevent scurvy in humans and is implicated in the primary prevention of common and complex diseases such as coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer. This chapter reviews the latest knowledge about dietary vitamin C in human health with an emphasis on studies of the molecular mechanisms of vitamin C maintenance as well as gene-nutrient interactions modifying these relationships. Epidemiological evidence indicates 5% prevalence for vitamin C deficiency and 13% prevalence for suboptimal status even in industrialized countries. The daily intake (dose) and the corresponding systemic concentrations (response) are related in a saturable relationship, and low systemic vitamin C concentrations in observational studies are associated with negative health outcomes. However, there is no evidence that vitamin C supplementation impacts the risks for all-cause mortality, impaired cognitive performance, reduced quality of life, the development of eye diseases, infections, cardiovascular disease, and cancers. This might be related to the fact that prevention would not be realized by supplementation in populations already adequately supplied through dietary sources. Recent genetic association studies indicate that the dietary intake might not be the sole determinant of systemic concentrations, since variations in genes participating in redox homeostasis and vitamin C transport had been associated with lowered plasma concentrations. However, impact sizes are generally low and these phenomena might only affect individual of suboptimal dietary supply.

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase participate in the immunoendocrine responses of hypothermal stressed white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

Dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) plays a critical role in catecholamine (CA) synthesis of neuroendocrine regulatory network, and is suggested to be involved in the immunoendocrine responses of invertebrate against bacterial challenge. DBH has been identified in white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, and further investigation on its potential function was conducted after hypothermal stress, pharmaceutical inhibition and gene silencing in the present study. Cloned DBH L. vannamei (LvDBH), belonging to the Copper type II, ascorbate-dependent monooxygenases, was characterized by a DOMON domain, a Cu2_monooxygen domain and three glycosylation sites, and its expression was abundant in thoracic ganglia and haemocytes determined by quantitative real-time PCR. The effects of hypothermal stress showed that LvDBH expression in thoracic ganglia, haemocytes and hepatopancreas as well as the DBH contents in haemocytes and dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) levels in haemolymph are obviously up-regulated. L. vannamei receiving disulfiram for 30-120 min revealed the inhibition of DBH and NE contents in haemocytes and haemolymph respectively, but high level of DA in haemolymph was noticed. Besides, a significant decrease of LvDBH expression in thoracic ganglia, haemocytes and hepatopancreas were also observed. Subsequently, LvDBH expression was successfully silenced in thoracic ganglia, haemocytes and hepatopancreas of shrimp that received LvDBH-dsRNA for 3 days, and meanwhile, a decrease of DBH contents in haemocytes accompanied by decreased levels of NE and DA in haemolymph were also observed. These results indicate that LvDBH possesses the functional domains responsible for CAs synthesis, and therefore, inhibiting DBH contents in haemocytes by disulfiram and by LvDBH-dsRNA resulted in the impaired synthesis of NE from DA in haemolymph. These also suggest that the increased release of DA and NE in haemolymph for potential modulation of physiological or immunological responses is the consequence of the upregulated LvDBH expression and DBH contents in L. vannamei exposed to hypothermal stress.

L-dehydroascorbic acid can substitute l-ascorbic acid as dietary vitamin C source in guinea pigs

Vitamin C deficiency globally affects several hundred million people and has been associated with increased morbidity and mortality in numerous studies. In this study, bioavailability of the oxidized form of vitamin C (l-dehydroascorbic acid or DHA)-commonly found in vitamin C containing food products prone to oxidation-was studied. Our aim was to compare tissue accumulation of vitamin C in guinea pigs receiving different oral doses of either ascorbate or DHA. In all tissues tested (plasma, liver, spleen, lung, adrenal glands, kidney, muscle, heart, and brain), only sporadic differences in vitamin C accumulation from ascorbate or DHA were observed except for the lowest dose of DHA (0.25mg/ml in the drinking water), where approximately half of the tissues had slightly yet significantly less vitamin C accumulation than from the ascorbate source. As these results contradicted data from rats, we continued to explore the ability to recycle DHA in blood, liver and intestine in guinea pigs, rats and mice. These investigations revealed that guinea pigs have similar recycling capacity in red blood cells as observed in humans, while rats and mice do not have near the same ability to reduce DHA in erythrocytes. In liver and intestinal homogenates, guinea pigs also showed a significantly higher ability to recycle DHA compared to rats and mice. These data demonstrate that DHA in guinea pigs-as in humans-is almost as effective as ascorbate as vitamin C source when it comes to taking up and storing vitamin C and further suggest that the guinea pig is superior to other rodents in modeling human vitamin C homeostasis.

Molecular expression and functional activity of vitamin C specific transport system (SVCT2) in human breast cancer cells

The main goal of this study is to investigate the expression of sodium dependent vitamin C transport system (SVCT2). Moreover, this investigation has been carried out to define uptake mechanism and intracellular regulation of ascorbic acid (AA) in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB231, T47D and ZR-75-1). Uptake of [(14)C] AA was studied in MDA-MB231, T47D and ZR-75-1 cells. Functional parameters of [(14)C] AA uptake were delineated in the presence of different concentrations of unlabeled AA, pH, temperature, metabolic inhibitors, substrates and structural analogs. Molecular identification of SVCT2 was carried out with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Uptake of [(14)C] AA was studied and found to be sodium, chloride, temperature, pH and energy dependent in all breast cancer cell lines. [(14)C] AA uptake was found to be saturable, with Km values of 53.85 ± 6.24, 49.69 ± 2.83 and 45.44 ± 3.16 μM and Vmax values of 18.45 ± 0.50, 32.50 ± 0.43 and 33.25 ± 0.53 pmol/min/mg protein, across MDA-MB231, T47D and ZR-75-1, respectively. The process is inhibited by structural analogs (l-AA and d-iso AA) but not by structurally unrelated substrates (glucose and PAHA). Ca(++)/calmodulin and protein kinase pathways appeared to play a crucial role in modulating AA uptake. A 626 bp band corresponding to a vitamin C transporter (SVCT2) based on the primer design was detected by RT-PCR analysis in all breast cancer cell lines. This research article describes AA uptake mechanism, kinetics, and regulation by sodium dependent vitamin C transporter (SVCT2) in MDA-MB231, T47D and ZR-75-1 cells. Also, MDA-MB231, T47D and ZR-75-1 cell lines can be utilized as a valuable in vitro model to investigate absorption and permeability of AA-conjugated chemotherapeutics.

Role of vitamin C in the function of the vascular endothelium

SIGNIFICANCE

Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, has long been known to participate in several important functions in the vascular bed in support of endothelial cells. These functions include increasing the synthesis and deposition of type IV collagen in the basement membrane, stimulating endothelial proliferation, inhibiting apoptosis, scavenging radical species, and sparing endothelial cell-derived nitric oxide to help modulate blood flow. Although ascorbate may not be able to reverse inflammatory vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, it may well play a role in preventing the endothelial dysfunction that is the earliest sign of many such diseases.

RECENT ADVANCES

Beyond simply preventing scurvy, evidence is mounting that ascorbate is required for optimal function of many dioxygenase enzymes in addition to those involved in collagen synthesis. Several of these enzymes regulate the transcription of proteins involved in endothelial function, proliferation, and survival, including hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and histone and DNA demethylases. More recently, ascorbate has been found to acutely tighten the endothelial permeability barrier and, thus, may modulate access of ascorbate and other molecules into tissues and organs.

CRITICAL ISSUES

The issue of the optimal cellular content of ascorbate remains unresolved, but it appears that low millimolar ascorbate concentrations are normal in most animal tissues, in human leukocytes, and probably in the endothelium. Although there may be little benefit of increasing near maximal cellular ascorbate concentrations in normal people, many diseases and conditions have either systemic or localized cellular ascorbate deficiency as a cause for endothelial dysfunction, including early atherosclerosis, sepsis, smoking, and diabetes.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

A key focus for future studies of ascorbate and the vascular endothelium will likely be to determine the mechanisms and clinical relevance of ascorbate effects on endothelial function, permeability, and survival in diseases that cause endothelial dysfunction.

Ascorbic acid efficiently enhances neuronal synthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine

Ascorbic acid enhances synthesis of norepinephrine from dopamine in adrenal chromaffin cells by serving as a co-factor for chromaffin granule dopamine β-hydroxylase (DβH). However, there is controversy regarding in situ kinetics of the ascorbate effect in chromaffin cells, as well as whether they apply to neuronal cells. In this study we evaluated the stimulation of norepinephrine synthesis from dopamine in cultured SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. These cells contained neither ascorbate nor norepinephrine in culture, but when provided with dopamine, they generated intracellular norepinephrine at rates that were stimulated several-fold by intracellular ascorbate. Ascorbate-induced increases in norepinephrine synthesis in dopamine-treated cells were linear over 60 min, despite saturation of intracellular ascorbate. Norepinephrine accumulation after 60 min of incubation with 100 μM dopamine was half-maximal at intracellular ascorbate concentrations of 0.2-0.5 mM, which fits well with the literature K(m) for ascorbate of DβH using dopamine as a substrate. Moreover, these ascorbate concentrations were generated by initial extracellular ascorbate concentrations of less than 25 μM due to concentrative accumulation by the ascorbate transporter. Treatment with 100 μM dopamine acutely increased cellular superoxide generation, which was prevented by ascorbate loading, but associated with a decrease in intracellular ascorbate when the latter was present at concentrations under 1 mM. These results show that ascorbate promptly enhances norepinephrine synthesis from dopamine by neuronal cells that it does so at physiologic intracellular concentrations in accord with the kinetics of DβH, and that it both protects cells from superoxide and by providing electrons to DβH.

nemy encodes a cytochrome b561 that is required for Drosophila learning and memory

Although many genes have been shown to play essential roles in learning and memory, the precise molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying these processes remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we present the molecular and behavioral characterization of the Drosophila memory mutant nemy. We provide multiple lines of evidence to show that nemy arises from a mutation in a Drosophila homologue of cytochrome B561. nemy is predominantly expressed in neuroendocrine neurons in the larval brain, and in mushroom bodies and antennal lobes in the adult brain, where it is partially coexpressed with peptidyl alpha-hydroxylating monooxygenase (PHM), an enzyme required for peptide amidation. Cytochrome b561 was found to be a requisite cofactor for PHM activity and we found that the levels of amidated peptides were reduced in nemy mutants. Moreover, we found that knockdown of PHM gave rise to defects in memory retention. Altogether, the data are consistent with a model whereby cytochrome B561-mediated electron transport plays a role in memory formation by regulating intravesicular PHM activity and the formation of amidated neuropeptides.

Marginal vitamin C status is associated with reduced fat oxidation during submaximal exercise in young adults

BACKGROUND

Vitamin C is a cofactor in the biosynthesis of carnitine, a molecule required for the oxidation of fatty acids. A reduction in the ability to oxidize fat may contribute to the reported inverse relationship between vitamin C status and adiposity. To examine this possibility, we conducted a preliminary trial to evaluate the impact of vitamin C status on fat oxidation during submaximal exercise.

METHODS

Fat energy expenditure was determined in individuals with marginal (n = 15) or adequate (n = 7) vitamin C status during a submaximal, 60-minute treadmill test. Subsequently, eight of the subjects with marginal vitamin C status completed an 8-week double-blind, placebo-controlled, depletion-repletion trial with submaximal exercise testing.

RESULTS

Individuals with marginal vitamin C status oxidized 25% less fat per kg body weight during the treadmill test as compared to individuals with adequate vitamin C status. Fat oxidation during exercise was inversely related to fatigue (r = -0.611, p = 0.009). Vitamin C repletion of vitamin C depleted subjects (500 mg vitamin C/d) raised fat energy expenditure during exercise 4-fold as compared to depleted control subjects (p = 0.011).

CONCLUSION

These preliminary results show that low vitamin C status is associated with reduced fat oxidation during submaximal exercise. Low vitamin C status may partially explain the inverse relationship between vitamin C status and adiposity and why some individuals are unsuccessful in their weight loss attempts.

Dietary fat type affects vitamins C and E and biomarkers of oxidative status in peripheral and brain tissues of golden Syrian hamsters

Oxidative stress is an important trigger in the complex chain of events leading to neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, dietary fatty acids play an essential role in brain function. The objectives of this study were to assess the effect of dietary fat type on vitamin C and vitamin E (alpha-and gamma-tocopherol) concentrations in peripheral and brain tissues and its effect on 8-epiPGF(2)alpha (F(2)-isoprostanes). Male Golden Syrian hamsters (n = 120, 8 wk old) were fed diets enriched in butter, hydrogenated fat (margarine), and canola and soybean oils. After 12 wk, hamsters were deprived of food, anesthetized with isoflurane, and killed via terminal exsanguination. Analyses of vitamins C, E, and 8-epiPGF(2)alpha were performed in peripheral tissues and brain. Hamsters consuming the margarine-enriched diet had lower (P < 0.05) vitamin C and alpha-tocopherol concentrations in liver, plasma, and brain, and higher (P < 0.02) plasma 8-epiPGF(2)alpha than groups fed the butter, and the canola and soybean oil diets. Liver and plasma gamma-tocopherol concentration was higher (P < 0.001) among the groups fed the soybean- and margarine-enriched diets compared with the other groups. alpha-Tocopherol was higher (P < 0.05) and 8-epiPGF(2)alpha lower (P < 0.01) among the groups fed the canola and soybean oil diets compared with the other groups. Across the groups, an inverse correlation between plasma levels of vitamin C and 8-epiPGF(2)alpha (r = -0.37, P = 0.03) and a positive correlation between plasma levels of vitamin C and alpha-tocopherol were observed (r = 0.341, P = 0.003). Hamsters fed the butter-enriched diet had a higher (P < 0.03) plasma uric acid concentration than the other groups. The results of this study provide new evidence concerning the effect of dietary fat on antioxidant status, which is important for the maintenance of good health.

Localization of an ascorbate-reducible cytochrome b561 in the plant tonoplast

As a free radical scavenger, and cofactor, ascorbate (ASC) is a key player in the regulation of cellular redox processes. It is involved in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses and in the control of enzyme activities and metabolic reactions. Cytochromes (Cyts) b561 catalyze ASC-driven trans-membrane electron transport and contribute to ASC-mediated redox reactions in subcellular compartments. Putative Cyts b561 have been identified in Arabidopsis (ecotype Columbia) on the basis of sequence similarity to their mammalian counterparts. However, little is known about the function or subcellular localization of this unique class of membrane proteins. We have expressed one of the putative Arabidopsis Cyt b561 genes (CYBASC1) in yeast and we demonstrate that this protein encodes an ASC-reducible b-type Cyt with absorbance characteristics similar to that of other members of this family. Several lines of independent evidence demonstrate that CYBASC1 is localized at the plant tonoplast (TO). Isoform-specific antibodies against CYBASC1 indicate that this protein cosediments with the TO marker on sucrose gradients. Moreover, CYBASC1 is strongly enriched in TO-enriched membrane fractions, and TO fractions contain an ASC-reducible b-type Cyt with alpha-band absorbance maximum near 561 nm. The TO ASC-reducible Cyt has a high specific activity, suggesting that it is a major constituent of this membrane. These results provide evidence for the presence of trans-membrane redox components in this membrane type, and they suggest the coupling of cytoplasmic and vacuolar metabolic reactions through ASC-mediated redox activity.

Stromal cell-derived receptor 2 and cytochrome b561 are functional ferric reductases

Iron has a variety of functions in cellular organisms ranging from electron transport and DNA synthesis to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and neurotransmitter synthesis. Failure to regulate the homeostasis of iron can lead to cognition and demyelination disorders when iron levels are deficient, and to neurodegenerative disorders when iron is in excess. In this study we show that three members of the b561 family of predicted ferric reductases, namely mouse cytochrome b561 and mouse and fly stromal cell-derived receptor 2 (SDR2), have ferric reductase activity. Given that a fourth member, duodenal cytochrome b (Dcytb), has previously been shown to be a ferric reductase, it is likely that all remaining members of this family also exhibit this activity. Furthermore, we show that the rat sdr2 message is predominantly expressed in the liver and kidney, with low expression in the duodenum. In hypotransferrinaemic (hpx) mice, sdr2 expression in the liver and kidney is reduced, suggesting that it may be regulated by iron. Moreover, we demonstrate the presence of mouse sdr2 in the choroid plexus and in the ependymal cells lining the four ventricles, through in situ hybridization analysis.

Effect of orange juice intake on vitamin C concentrations and biomarkers of antioxidant status in humans

BACKGROUND

Consumption of fruit and vegetables is associated with improved health and a decreased prevalence of chronic degenerative processes.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were to assess the bioavailability of vitamin C from orange juice and its influence on plasma vitamin C and 8-epi-prostaglandin F(2 alpha) (8-epi-PGF(2 alpha)) concentrations in a healthy human population.

DESIGN

Six men and 6 women consumed 500 mL commercial fresh-squeezed orange juice/d for 14 d, corresponding to an intake of 250 mg ascorbic acid/d. On the first day of the study, the subjects drank the juice in one dose (dose-response study), and on days 2-14 they consumed 250 mL in the morning and 250 mL in the afternoon. Blood was collected every hour for 6 h on the first day and again on days 7 and 14.

RESULTS

Baseline plasma vitamin C concentrations were significantly higher (P = 0.03) among the women than among the men (56.4 +/- 4.4 compared with 44.3 +/- 3.5 micromol/L). In the dose-response study, the maximum increase in plasma vitamin C occurred 3 h postdose in both the men and the women. Vitamin C concentrations remained significantly higher on days 7 and 14 than at baseline. Baseline concentrations of 8-epi-PGF(2 alpha) were significantly higher (P = 0.03) among the men than among the women (249.6 +/- 25.4 compared with 177.7 +/- 6.2 pg/mL) but decreased significantly (P = 0.04) by day 14 of the intervention. A significant inverse correlation was observed between vitamin C and 8-epi-PGF(2 alpha) (r = -0.791, P = 0.0022). Among smokers, baseline vitamin C was lower and 8-epi-PGF(2 alpha) higher than among nonsmokers.

CONCLUSIONS

Drinking orange juice (500 mL/d) increases plasma concentrations of vitamin C and reduces concentrations of 8-epi-PGF(2 alpha) in humans. These effects were significantly more pronounced in smokers.

High-pressurized orange juice consumption affects plasma vitamin C, antioxidative status and inflammatory markers in healthy humans

We examined the bioavailability of vitamin C in orange juice processed using high pressure (HP) and its effects on plasma levels of vitamin C, uric acid (UA), F2-isoprostanes (8-epiPGF(2alpha)), C-reactive protein (CRP) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) in a healthy human population. Subjects (6 men, 6 women) enrolled in the study consumed 500 mL/d of HP orange juice for 14 d, corresponding to an intake of 250 mg of vitamin C. On d 1 of the study, subjects drank the juice in one dose; on d 2 until the end of the study, d 14, they drank 250 mL in the morning and 250 mL in the afternoon. Blood was collected every h for 6 h, on d 1, and then on d 7 and 14 of the study. Baseline plasma vitamin C concentration was higher (P = 0.014) in women (55.8 +/- 3.8 micro mol/L) than in men (42.8 +/- 2.1 micro mol/L). The maximum plasma vitamin C increase occurred 3 h after drinking the juice, and it remained elevated on d 7 and 14. Plasma 8-epiPGF(2alpha) concentration did not differ between men and women at baseline. However, it was lower at the end of the study in both men (P = 0.044) and women (P = 0.034). Plasma levels of vitamin C and 8-epiPGF(2alpha) were inversely correlated (r = -0.615, P = 0.001). Plasma CRP concentrations tended to be lower on d 14 than at baseline in men (P = 0.317) and women (P = 0.235). Plasma PGE(2) was lower at the end of the study in both men and women (P <or= 0.037). Drinking orange juice increases plasma vitamin C, and decreases 8-epiPGF(2alpha) and PGE(2) levels in humans, which may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

pH-induced alteration and oxidative destruction of heme in purified chromaffin granule cytochrome b(561): implications for the oxidative stress in catecholaminergic neurons

The transmembrane hemoprotein, cytochrome b(561) (b(561)), in the neuroendocrine secretory vesicles is shown to shuttle electrons from the cytosolic ascorbate (Asc) to the intravesicular matrix to provide reducing equivalents for the dopamine beta-monooxygenase (DbetaM) reaction. Intravesicular Asc may also play a role in relieving catecholamine-induced oxidative stress in catecholaminergic neurons. In the present study, we have examined the alteration of purified oxidized b(561) (b(561,ox)) under mild alkaline conditions to probe the structural and functional characteristics of the protein, using UV-vis and EPR spectroscopic and kinetic techniques. Our results show that low spin heme in oxidized b(561) (b(561,ox)) readily transforms to an altered high spin form and then slowly to an Asc nonreducible form, in a pH-, temperature-, and time-dependent manner, which can be described by single-exponential rate equations, A(t) = A(o)(1- e (-kt)) and A(t) = A(o)e(-kt), respectively. More than half of the Asc nonreducible altered b(561) could be converted back to the native b(561) by pH adjustment followed by dithionite reduction, suggesting the reversibility of the process. The heme center of the transformed Asc nonreducible protein is completely bleached instantaneously by dithionite in the presence of atmospheric oxygen, which appears to be mediated by molecular oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide. These results demonstrate that the heme centers of the protein are susceptible to the pH-induced alteration and oxidative destruction, raising some questions regarding the proposed one alkaline labile, two-heme model of b(561) [Tsubaki, M.; Nakayama, M.; Okuyama, E.; Ichikawa, Y. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 23206-23210]. The pH-induced alteration and the destruction of heme under oxidative conditions may play a significant role in the amplification of oxidative stress in catecholaminergic neurons.

Mechanism of ascorbic acid oxidation by cytochrome b(561)

The 1 equiv reaction between ascorbic acid and cytochrome b(561) is a good model for redox reactions between metalloproteins (electron carriers) and specific organic substrates (hydrogen-atom carriers). Diethyl pyrocarbonate inhibits the reaction of cytochrome b(561) with ascorbate by modifying a histidine residue in the ascorbate-binding site. Ferri/ferrocyanide can mediate reduction of DEPC-treated cytochrome b(561) by ascorbic acid, indicating that DEPC-inhibited cytochrome b(561) cannot accept electrons from a hydrogen-atom donor like ascorbate but can still accept electrons from an electron donor like ferrocyanide. Ascorbic acid reduces cytochrome b(561) with a K(m) of 1.0 +/- 0.2 mM and a V(max) of 4.1 +/- 0.8 s(-1) at pH 7.0. V(max)/K(m) decreases at low pH but is approximately constant at pH >7. The rate constant for oxidation of cytochrome b(561) by semidehydroascorbate decreases at high pH but is approximately constant at pH <7. This suggests that the active site must be unprotonated to react with ascorbate and protonated to react with semidehydroascorbate. Molecular modeling calculations show that hydrogen bonding between the 2-hydroxyl of ascorbate and imidazole stabilizes the ascorbate radical relative to the monoanion. These results are consistent with the following mechanism for ascorbate oxidation. (1) The ascorbate monoanion binds to an unprotonated site (histidine) on cytochrome b(561). (2) This complex donates an electron to reduce the heme. (3) The semidehydroascorbate anion dissociates from the cytochrome, leaving a proton associated with the binding site. (4) The binding site is deprotonated to complete the cycle. In this mechanism, an essential role of the cytochrome is to bind the ascorbate monoanion, which does not react by outer-sphere electron transfer in solution, and complex it in such a way that the complex acts as an electron donor. Thermodynamic considerations show that no steps in this process involve large changes in free energy, so the mechanism is reversible and capable of fulfilling the cytochrome's function of equilibrating ascorbate and semidehydroascorbate.

Mouse cytochrome b561: cDNA cloning and expression in rat brain, mouse embryos, and human glioma cell lines

A cDNA encoding cytochrome b561 has been isolated from a mouse brain cDNA library, which predicts a protein of 250 amino acids with a deduced Mr of 27,770. Northern blot analysis of different mouse and rat tissues revealed one major mRNA of 3300 bp, which is abundantly distributed in a number of neuroendocrine tissues. In addition, cytochrome mRNA levels in rat brain sections showed the highest distribution of cytochrome b561 in the hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and striatum, with a moderate level in the cerebral cortex, and the lowest levels in the olfactory bulb and cerebellum. Because non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system contained peptidyl alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), to which cytochrome b561 donates its electrons, we used RT-PCR to document the coexpression of cytochrome b561 with PAM and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) in glioblastoma cells. Cytochrome b561 expression was detectable in the 11-day-old mouse embryo, and the level of its mRNA increased tenfold by 15 and 17 days of gestation.

Structural basis for the electron transfer across the chromaffin vesicle membranes catalyzed by cytochrome b561: analyses of cDNA nucleotide sequences and visible absorption spectra

We isolated cDNA clones for cytochromes b561 from sheep and porcine adrenal medullae using the RT-PCR technique. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences of various species showed that there are two fully-conserved regions in this cytochrome. In addition, one methionyl and six histidyl residues (potential heme ligands) are fully-conserved. Based on a plausible structural model in which a polypeptide spans the vesicle membranes six times and holds two heme B molecules, the first conserved sequence (69ALLVYRVFR77) is located on the extravesicular side of an alpha-helical segment and the second one (120SLHSW124) is located in an intravesicular loop connecting two alpha-helical segments, respectively. Consideration of the relative locations of the fully-conserved sequences, and the methionyl and histidyl residues in the model led to a proposal that the first and second conserved sequences are likely to form the binding sites for extravesicular ascorbic acid and intravesicular semidehydroascorbic acid, respectively. A mild alkaline-treatment of purified bovine cytochrome b561 in oxidized state led to a specific loss of an electron-accepting ability from ascorbic acid for a half of the heme center, suggesting a distinct role for each of the two hemes.

Xenopus cytochrome b561: molecular confirmation of a general five transmembrane structure and developmental regulation at the gastrula stage

Cytochrome b561 transports electrons by a novel transmembrane vectoral pathway. Using the human cytochrome b561 cDNA probe, the Xenopus cytochrome b561 cDNA has been isolated and sequenced. A specific ATG was unambiguously identified because the Xenopus sequence has a stop codon 7 amino acids upstream from the initiation site ATG. The 741-bp open reading frame encodes a 247-amino-acid protein. The position of the initiating ATG site in Xenopus cytochrome b561 is consistent with the first ATG site in human and mouse proteins, and with the second of two ATG sites in the bovine protein. This result indicates that a five transmembrane domain model best represents the conformation of cytochrome b561 in membranes. Cytochrome b561 plays a fundamental role in the physiology of all neuroendocrine tissues, and the results presented here show that Xenopus cytochrome b561 mRNA is specific to neuroendocrine tissues and is developmentally regulated at the gastrula stage.

The reduction of membrane-bound dopamine beta-monooxygenase in resealed chromaffin granule ghosts. Is intragranular ascorbic acid a mediator for extragranular reducing equivalents?

The role of internal and external reductants in the dopamine beta-monooxygenase (D beta M)-catalyzed conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine has been investigated in resealed chromaffin granule ghosts. The rate of norepinephrine production was not affected by the exclusion of internal ascorbate. The omission of ascorbate from the external medium drastically reduced the norepinephrine production without affecting the net rate of dopamine uptake. In the presence of the external reductant, the internal ascorbate levels were constant throughout the incubation period. The rate of norepinephrine production was not affected when ghosts were resealed to contain the D beta M reduction site inhibitor, imino-D-glucoascorbate. Ghosts incubated with external imino-D-glucoascorbate reduced the norepinephrine production. The weak D beta M reductant, 6-amino-L-ascorbic acid, was found to be a good external reductant for granule ghosts. The outcome of the above experiments was not altered when dopamine was replaced with the reductively inactive D beta M substrate, tyramine. These results and the known topology of membrane-bound D beta M disfavor the direct reduction of the enzyme by the external reductant. Our observations are consistent with the hypothesis that external ascorbate is the sole source of reducing equivalents for D beta M monooxygenation and that internal soluble ascorbate (or dopamine) may not directly reduce or mediate the reduction of membrane-bound D beta M in resealed granule ghosts.

Genomic structure and expression of the human gene encoding cytochrome b561, an integral protein of the chromaffin granule membrane

Cytochrome b561 is an electron transfer protein unique to neuroendocrine secretory vesicles. The Southern blot hybridization shows that it is a single copy gene highly conserved throughout phylogeny. The transcription unit spans approximately 11 kilobases, and heterologous transcription sites are located 404 bases 5' to the translation initiation codon. The sequence of the 5'-flanking region is GC-rich and lacks a typical TATA box at the usual position. However, it has a CAAT sequence at -132 and potential recognition sequences for several transcription factors including SP1, GR-PR-MMTV, AP4, gERE, JCV repeat, AP2, and NF-kappa B. Each of the five transmembrane segments are encoded by five consecutive exons. This corroborates the five-transmembrane model proposed for human, mouse, and Xenopus rather than six proposed for bovine. The cytochrome was found to be highly expressed in colon cancer cell lines, T cell lymphomas, and K-562 cell lines. However, in B-cell lymphomas such as Burkitt's and Daudi, the cytochrome b561 expression was completely shut down. The results in this report are the first to demonstrate the structural organization and regulatory sequences of the cytochrome b561 gene encoding an integral membrane protein of neuroendocrine storage vesicles of neurotransmitters and peptide hormones. Unexpected results on cytochrome b561 expression in cells of lymphocytic origin and its complex regulation in tumor cells provide new insights into cytochrome b561 gene regulation.

Ascorbate protects guinea pig tissues against lipid peroxidation

In recent years we and others have shown that ascorbic acid (AH2) is a potential scavenger of superoxide (O2.-) and peroxyl (LOO.) radicals, the species involved in lipid peroxidation (LPO) in animal tissues. In this paper we have demonstrated that AH2 protects guinea pig tissues from LPO both in vivo and in vitro. The extent of LPO has been determined by estimating malonaldehyde using the thiobarbituric acid test and HPLC and also by measuring the accumulation of fluorescent pigment and occurrence of protein changes in the microsomal membranes. In AH2-deficiency, LPO occurs progressively in guinea pig tissues, despite the presence of adequate levels of antioxidants like alpha-tocopherol, GSH, protein thiols, and scavenging enzymes, namely, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase. In a model in vitro system, microsomal LPO initiated by O2.- is completely prevented by AH2 but not by alpha-tocopherol, GSH, uric acid, and catalase. AH2 is also the most effective antioxidant in preventing microsomal LPO mediated by tert-butylhydroperoxide or the chain propagating species LOO., generated from 2,2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) hydrochloride. The results obtained with guinea pigs may be applicable to humans, because humans are also dependent on dietary AH2. Our data suggest that an adequate vitamin C nutrition may prevent common cellular degenerative diseases associated with LPO.

Opioid peptides in the rabbit carotid body: identification and evidence for co-utilization and interactions with dopamine

The rabbit carotid body is a catecholaminergic organ that contains dopamine and norepinephrine in a proportion of nearly 5:1. Chronic (15 days) carotid sinus nerve denervation or superior cervical ganglionectomy did not modify the carotid body dopamine content (5-6 nmol/mg of protein, equivalent to 250 pmol per carotid body), but sympathectomy reduced by approximately 50% the norepinephrine content. The carotid body has also a very high content of opioid activity (250 equivalent pmol of Leu-enkephalin/mg of protein) as measured by a radioreceptor assay that detects preferentially delta-opioid activity. In the carotid body the degree of opioid posttranslational processing to low-molecular-weight peptides (mostly Leu- and Met-enkephalin) is nearly 80%. HPLC identification of opioid peptides revealed that the sequences of Met- and Leu-enkephalin were in a proportion of nearly 6:1, indicating that the main opioid precursor in the carotid body is proenkephalin A. Chronic denervations of the carotid body did not modify the levels or the degree of opioid precursor processing. Acute hypoxic exposure of the animals (8% O2 in N2; 3 h) resulted in a parallel decrease of dopamine and opioid activity, without any change in the degree of opioid processing. Norepinephrine levels were not affected by hypoxia. These findings suggest corelease of dopamine and opioids during natural hypoxic stimulation. In agreement with the analytical data, [D-Ala2, D-Leu5]enkephalin, but not [D-Ala2,N-Me-Phe4,Gly5-ol]-enkephalin, reduced the in vitro release of dopamine induced by low PO2, a high external K+ concentration, and dinitrophenol. Naloxone augmented the release response elicited by low PO2 stimulation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Characterization of cultured chemoreceptor cells dissociated from adult rabbit carotid body

Short-term cell cultures were obtained from enzymatically dissociated carotid bodies from adult rabbits, and morphological and functional characterization of the cultured chemoreceptor cells were carried out. Under phase contrast, freshly isolated type I cells are round, bright, and 10-14 microns in diameter and exhibit strong fluorescence when stained with the glyoxylic acid technique. The content of endogenous dopamine in the cultures increased from 80 pmol/10(5) cells 2 h after plating the cells to 200 pmol/10(5) cells on the 3rd day, and the rate of synthesis and storage of [3H]dopamine from the precursor [3H]tyrosine increased from 1.7 pmol.10(5) cells-1.h-1 in 1-day cultures to 4 pmol.10(5) cells-1.h-1 on the 3rd day; the later values represent 80-85% of the expected values for the intact carotid body. After labeling with [3H]tyrosine, cultured chemoreceptor cells release [3H]dopamine when challenged by hypoxia, high external K+, or the protonophore dinitrophenol, the pattern of response being similar to that of the intact carotid body. When studied by whole cell clamp recording, individual chemoreceptor cells exhibit a marked variability in the properties of some ionic currents; the data, however, do not support the existence of distinct subpopulations of type I cells.

Electron transfer in chromaffin-vesicle ghosts containing peroxidase

In chromaffin vesicles, the enzyme dopamine beta-monooxygenase converts dopamine to norepinephrine. It is believed that reducing equivalents for this reaction are supplied by intravesicular ascorbic acid and that the ascorbate is regenerated by importing electrons from the cytosol with cytochrome b-561 functioning as the transmembrane electron carrier. If this is true, then the ascorbate-regenerating system should be capable of providing reducing equivalents to any ascorbate-requiring enzyme, not just dopamine beta-monooxygenase. This may be tested using chromaffin-vesicle ghosts in which an exogenous enzyme, horseradish peroxidase, has been trapped. If ascorbate and peroxidase are trapped together within chromaffin-vesicle ghosts, cytochrome b-561 in the vesicle membrane is found in the reduced form. Subsequent addition of H2O2 causes the cytochrome to become partially oxidized. H2O2 does not cause this oxidation if either peroxidase or ascorbate are absent. This argues that the cytochrome is oxidized by semidehydroascorbate, the oxidation product of ascorbate, rather than by H2O2 or peroxidase directly. The semidehydroascorbate must be internal because the ascorbate from which it is formed is sequestered and inaccessible to external ascorbate oxidase. This shows that cytochrome b-561 can transfer electrons to semidehydroascorbate within the vesicles and that the semidehydroascorbate may be generated by any enzyme, not just dopamine beta-monooxygenase.

Secretion of catecholamines from individual adrenal medullary chromaffin cells

Catecholamine secretion has been measured with electrochemical techniques from isolated, single adrenal medullary chromaffin cells with carbon-fiber microelectrodes. The electrode tip, which is of similar dimensions to the cell, is placed adjacent to the cell to enable the measurement of local secretion. Secretion is caused by exposing the cell to nanoliter volumes of solution containing nicotinic receptor agonists or depolarizing agents. The identification of secreted substances is made with cyclic voltammetry at both bare electrodes and electrodes coated with a perfluorinated cation-exchange polymer. Catecholamine secretion is induced by nicotine (10-500 microM), carbamylcholine (1 mM), and K+ (60 mM). All agents that induce secretion lead to a broad envelope of secreted catecholamines on which sharp concentration spikes are superimposed. The concentration spikes can be monitored with a time resolution of tens of milliseconds when the electrodes are used in the amperometric mode. Release induced by nicotine and K+ is inhibited by Cd2+ (0.5 mM), and hexamethonium selectively blocks the nicotine-induced secretion. The actions of nicotine are found to continue for a longer period of time than those of the other secretagogues tested.

Reflex splanchnic nerve stimulation increases levels of carboxypeptidase E mRNA and enzymatic activity in the rat adrenal medulla

Carboxypeptidase E (CPE; EC 3.4.17.10) is a carboxypeptidase B-like enzyme involved with the biosynthesis of numerous peptide hormones and neurotransmitters, including the enkephalins. Reflex splanchnic stimulation of the rat adrenal medulla, which has previously been found to substantially increase enkephalin mRNA and enkephalin peptide levels, was examined for an influence on CPE mRNA and enzymatic activity. Several hours after insulin-induced reflex splanchnic stimulation, the levels of CPE activity in rat adrenal medulla are reduced to 40-60% of control. CPE activity returns to the control level 2 days after the treatment and then continues to increase, reaching approximately 200% of control 1 week after the treatment. The time course of the changes in CPE activity is different from those of the changes in epinephrine levels and the previously reported changes in enkephalin peptide levels. CPE mRNA is also influenced by the insulin shock, with levels increasing to 155% of the control level after 6 h and 170% after 2 days. The time course of the change in CPE mRNA levels is similar to that previously found for proenkephalin mRNA. However, the magnitude of the change is much different: Proenkephalin mRNA has been reported to increase by 1,600%. The changes in CPE mRNA and enzymatic activity are consistent with the proposal that CPE is not a rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of enkephalin.

Mechanisms of toxicity and cellular resistance to 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium in adrenomedullary chromaffin cell cultures

Bovine adrenomedullary chromaffin (BAMC) cells, cultured in a defined medium, were used to study the mechanisms of toxicity and cellular resistance to the catecholamine neuron toxicants 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). The viability of the cells was assessed biochemically [cellular catecholamine content and the catalytic activities of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)] and anatomically (by electron microscopy). When cultures of BAMC cells were exposed to MPTP or MPP+ for 3 days, a marked loss of cellular catecholamines and TH activity was observed. The addition of an inhibitor of monoamine oxidase (MAO) B (Ro 19-6327), but not MAO A (clorgyline), prevented the toxicity of MPTP but not that of MPP+. In addition, the cellular toxicity of MPP+, but not MPTP, was antagonized by desmethylimipramine, an inhibitor of cellular catecholamine uptake. The toxicity of MPP+ was time dependent, with losses of TH and the release of cellular LDH occurring after 48 h in culture. Catecholamine depletion occurred somewhat sooner, being evident after 24 h of exposure to MPP+. The cellular toxicity of MPP+ was concentration dependent and significantly enhanced by inhibitors of catecholamine vesicular uptake (reserpine, tetrabenazine, or Ro 4-1284). Electron microscopic examination of cells treated with either MPP+, tetrabenazine, or their combination revealed that MPP+ damaged BAMC cells and that this damage was markedly potentiated by the inhibition of vesicular uptake by tetrabenazine. The concentration of glucose in the culture media of untreated cells slowly decreased as a function of time. The rate of glucose consumption was markedly accelerated by MPP+ treatment and the losses in cell TH and the release of LDH into the media were preceded by a 99% depletion of glucose from the media. In cultures not treated with MPP+, lactate accumulated in the media as a function of time. Addition of MPP+ to the media increased the formation of lactate, in a concentration-dependent manner. Reserpine pretreatment further enhanced the production of lactate in response to MPP+. Culturing cells in glucose-free medium greatly potentiated the effects of MPP+ on cellular TH and catecholamines. The toxicity observed after 3 days' exposure of BAMC cells to MPP+ could be prevented when the medium was replaced with fresh medium every 24 h. The effects of glucose deprivation and reserpine were observed to be additive. The ability of MPP+ to affect mitochondrial function is determined by the capacity of the storage vesicle to sequester the pyridinium, acting as a cytosolic "buffer."(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Relationships between dietary ascorbic acid status and deficiency, weight gain and brain neurotransmitter levels in juvenile rainbow trout,Salmo gairdneri

A study was conducted to determine the interrelationships between dietary ascorbic acid (AA) concentrations, brain neurotransmitter levels and weight gain in juvenile rainbow trout. At the end of 4 weeks and until the end of 12 weeks of feeding test diets of varying AA concentrations (0-320 mg AA/kg diet), increased weight gain was noted in fish fed the AA-free diet. However, by the end of 13 weeks and until the end of the experiment this phenomenon was no longer evident; instead the fish showed the more classical deficiency signs of anorexia and decreased weight gain. After 12 and 24 weeks, there were no significant differences in brain serotonin (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), norepinephrine (NE) or dopamine (DA) between fish reared on the different test diets. However, after 12 weeks of feeding the test diets, brain 5-HT, brain AA and weight gain were significantly correlated with one another. No such relationships were found for brain NE or brain DA. After 24 weeks of feeding the diets, the relationships between brain 5-HT, brain AA and weight gain were no longer apparent. Similarly, after 24 weeks brain NE and DA were also unrelated to brain AA and weight gain. These results provide evidence that in very young rainbow trout, AA deficiency, brain 5-HT levels and weight gain were related. However in fish reared on the diets for 24 weeks these relationships were no longer evident.