[Food intake, dietary habits and nutritional status of the population of Reus (X): Evolution of the diet and the contribution of macronutrients to energy intake (1983-1999) by age and sex]

Weight Status Prediction Using a Neuron Network Based on Individual and Behavioral Data

BACKGROUND

The worldwide epidemic of weight gain and obesity is increasing in response to the evolution of lifestyles. Our aim is to provide a new predictive method for current and future weight status estimation based on individual and behavioral characteristics.

METHODS

The data of 273 normal (NW), overweight (OW) and obese (OB) subjects were assigned either to the training or to the test sample. The multi-layer perceptron classifier (MLP) classified the data into one of the three weight statuses (NW, OW, OB), and the classification model accuracy was determined using the test dataset and the confusion matrix.

RESULTS

On the basis of age, height, light-intensity physical activity and the daily number of vegetable portions consumed, the multi-layer perceptron classifier achieved 75.8% accuracy with 90.3% for NW, 34.2% for OW and 66.7% for OB. The NW and OW subjects showed the highest and the lowest number of true positives, respectively. The OW subjects were very often confused with NW. The OB subjects were confused with OW or NW 16.6% of the time.

CONCLUSIONS

To increase the accuracy of the classification, a greater number of data and/or variables are needed.

Temporal trend of the dietary exposure to metals/metalloids: A case study in Tarragona County, Spain

In 2018, samples of various food groups were randomly purchased in different establishments of Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain). The levels of As, Be, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, Tl and V were determined in the analyzed foodstuffs and their dietary intakes were estimated. Manganese was the element showing the highest concentration, while Be, Cr and Tl were not detected in any of the samples. Fish and shellfish was the only food group with detectable traces of all the remaining elements. The current levels were compared with the results of two previous surveys conducted in 1998 and 2013 in the same area. Although the levels of the analyzed elements in foodstuffs increased during the period 2013-2018, their intakes decreased by an average of 60%, due to consumption patterns changes by the population. Children and adolescents exceeded the maximum recommended intake of Ni set by the EFSA, while the dietary exposure to Pb for children was also above safety values. Compared with the concentrations found in 2013, Ni was the only element showing an increase, as well as an increase of human dietary intake. Meat, vegetables and milk were identified as the main contributors to Ni exposure. This trend was also correlated with changes in the biological burden of the same elements previously reported for the population of the area, for whom an increase of Ni in lungs was reported. Based on these results, Ni should be included as a target metal by food safety authorities, being suggested its inclusion in future Total Diet Studies.

Social Inequalities in Following Official Guidelines on Healthy Diet During the Period of Economic Crisis in Spain

In Spanish society, social inequalities continue in connection with diet; however, no data examines whether these inequalities altered during the period of economic crisis. This article aims to analyze trends in inequalities related to adherence to government guidelines concerning healthy diet during the period of economic crisis based on the data obtained from the National Health Surveys conducted by the National Statistics Institute. The approach involves studying first the data from the 2006 survey, shortly before the crisis, and then comparing these with the data from the 2011-2012 survey. Applying models of logistic regression shows that certain social inequalities were accentuated by the crisis. However, the general and widespread pattern of eating habits does not disappear in times of crisis. Inequalities are more commonly seen when socioeconomic factors affect foods that the guidelines indicate should be eaten daily. However, with respect to more expensive products, socioeconomic factors did not have so much negative effect on how far a healthy diet was followed because it is recommended that consumption of these foods should be limited. The results suggest that food policy should have specific focuses during times of economic recession.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in European hake (Merluccius merluccius) muscle from the Western Mediterranean Sea

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were quantified in muscle tissue of European hake, an ecologically and commercially important species. Samples were collected from the Western Mediterranean, in seven different stations at different depths and a batch was bought in a local market. PCBs are the dominant pollutants, but the overall concentrations do not show significant differences between the different specimens analyzed from various locations, with the exception of the concentration of PCBs at a shallow station close to the River Besòs mouth. This probably suggests that generally the pollutants in hake from the Western Mediterranean derive from historical and non-point sources. The occurrence of pollutants is widespread in the samples but their concentration is below recommended legal limits for fish or other foodstuffs.

Human exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCBs through consumption of fish and seafood in Catalonia (Spain): Temporal trend

The concentrations of PCDD/Fs and 18 PCBs (DL- and NDL-) were analyzed in 16 fish and seafood species widely consumed in Catalonia (Spain). The exposure of these pollutants was subsequently estimated according to various groups of population. The concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PCBs showed an important decrease in relation to the baseline study (2000) and our last survey (2008). Sardine and red mullet were the species showing the highest pollutant concentrations, while canned tuna and cuttlefish presented the lowest levels. Sardine was the main contributor to the exposure of PCDD/Fs and PCBs. In contrast, swordfish was the species with the lowest contribution to the exposure of PCDD/Fs, DL-PCBs, and PCDD/Fs+DL-PCBs, while clam was the minor contributor for NDL-PCBs and total PCBs. For all groups of population, the current intakes of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were lower than the TDI (1-4 pg WHO-TEQ/kg body weight/day), being children the group with the highest exposure. However, this exposure should not mean a health risk for this group of population. The current intake of PCDD/Fs and PCBs through fish and seafood consumption was similar or even lower than most values reported in recent studies all over the world.

[Socioeconomic pattern in unhealthy diet in children and adolescents in Spain]

Objetivo

Investigar la posible asociación de patrones alimentarios relacionados con la obesidad y la posición socioeconómica en la población infantil y adolescente española.

Diseño

Estudio descriptivo transversal.

Participantes

Los datos proceden de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud de 2007, realizada a una muestra representativa española de 0 a 15 años. En este estudio se han analizado 6.143 sujetos de 5 a 15 años.

Mediciones principales

Se ha estimado la prevalencia de omisión de desayuno, la prevalencia de bajo consumo de fruta y verdura y la prevalencia de alto consumo de comida rápida, snacks y bebidas azucaradas. Los indicadores de posición socioeconómica han sido el nivel de estudios y la clase social de la persona que aportaba más ingresos económicos al hogar. En cada consumo de alimentos se han estimado las diferencias socioeconómicas mediante la razón de prevalencia, tomando como referencia la categoría socioeconómica más alta.

Resultados

Tanto en la infancia como en la adolescencia la magnitud de la razón de prevalencia muestra un gradiente socioeconómico inverso en todos los consumos de alimentos investigados: la menor y la mayor razón de prevalencia se observa en los sujetos de familias de posición socioeconómica más alta y más baja, respectivamente.

Conclusión

En la población infantil y adolescente española la alimentación no saludable relacionada con la obesidad muestra un patrón socioeconómico claro.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in foods and estimated PAH intake by the population of Catalonia, Spain: Temporal trend

The concentrations of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were determined in various foodstuffs randomly purchased in Catalonia (Spain) during November and December of 2008. Dietary intake of PAH was subsequently estimated according to age and sex for the general population of Catalonia. The current results were compared with those of previous studies performed in 2000 and 2006. The highest PAH levels corresponded to phenanthrene (18.18 microg/kg), naphthalene (13.31 microg/kg), and pyrene (8.46 microg/kg), whereas the lowest concentrations were those of dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (0.89 microg/kg), indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene (0.94 microg/kg), and benzo[k]fluoranthene (1.00 microg/kg). With respect to the contribution of total carcinogenic PAH, benzo[a]pyrene contributed 47.77% or 48.22%, depending on the TEF value used. By food groups, the current highest levels of total PAH were detected in meat and meat products (38.99 microg/kg), followed by oils and fats (18.75 microg/kg), and dairy products (7.57 microg/kg). The highest contribution to PAH dietary intake corresponded to the group of meat and meat products (4.75 microg/day). The estimated mean dietary intake for a standard male adult (70-kg body weight) was 6.72 microg/day, a lower value than those found in our 2000 (8.42 microg/day), and 2006 surveys (12.04 microg/day). With regard to the results of other recent studies, the current PAH concentrations were comparatively lower.

Human dietary exposure to hexachlorobenzene in Catalonia, Spain

The concentrations of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were measured in samples of foodstuffs widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. Food samples were randomly acquired in 12 cities of Catalonia between March and June of 2006. HCB levels were determined by high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. The dietary intake of HCB was subsequently estimated for the population of Catalonia, and the results were compared with those of a survey performed in 2000. The highest HCB concentrations were found in oils and fats, fish and seafood, and dairy products, with mean levels of 0.481, 0.330, and 0.284 ng/g of fresh weight, respectively. HCB intake was estimated for four population groups: children, adolescents, adults, and seniors (aged >65 years). The highest and lowest HCB intake corresponded to children and seniors, respectively. Similar results were found in our 2000 survey. For a standard male adult of 70-kg body weight, in the 2000 study, total dietary intake of HCB was 166.2 ng/day (2.4 ng/kg of body weight per day), whereas in the current survey the intake was 71.6 ng/day (1.0 ng/kg of body weight per day). On a body-weight basis, it means a decrease of 57%, which was mainly due to the important reductions in the contribution of dairy products (mainly cheese), as well as those of meat and meat products and fish and seafood. All the intakes are considerably lower than the World Health Organization tolerable daily intake, which is 0.17 microg/kg/day for noncancer effects and 0.16 microg/kg/day for neoplastic effects in humans.

Intake of chemical contaminants through fish and seafood consumption by children of Catalonia, Spain: health risks

The intake of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated diphenylethers (PCDEs), hexachlorobenzene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through fish and seafood consumption by children of Catalonia, Spain, was assessed. In 2005, samples of the 14 most consumed marine species in Catalonia were randomly acquired in various cities of the country. Analysis of the above chemical contaminants were determined according to the appropriate analytical techniques and the daily intakes were estimated. For most pollutants, intake was higher in boys than in girls. Average exposure of children to contaminants through fish and seafood consumption did not exceed the respective tolerable daily intake of those pollutants for which it has been already established (metals, PCDD/Fs plus dioxin-like PCBs, HCB, and PAHs). In relation to body weight, intake by children of most contaminants was higher than that found for other age groups of the general population of Catalonia.

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in milk of women from Catalonia, Spain

In this study, the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in milk from women living in the vicinity of a new hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) in Catalonia, Spain, were determined. The study was performed after 4 years of regular operations in the facility and the present PCB levels were compared with baseline concentrations obtained in a pre-operational program. PCBs and PBDEs levels were determined by HRGC/HRMS in 15 samples. In the present study planar PCBs ranged from 1.3 to 6.3 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat with a mean value of 3.8 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat. After adding dioxin-like mono-ortho-PCBs the total PCB-TEQ concentrations ranged from 3.8 to 13.3 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat (mean value: 8.7 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat). A comparison of the current data with those obtained in the baseline study showed significant decreases for both planar and total WHO-TEQ of PCBs: 47.9% and 44.6%, respectively. PCB concentrations in milk of women living in urban zones were higher than those living near industrial areas (10.1 and 7.4 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat, respectively). Mean PBDE concentrations were 2.2 and 2.5 ng/g fat for women living in urban and industrial zones, respectively. Dietary intake of PCBs and PBDEs for a standard adult woman samples were 898 and 843 ng/day for PCBs, and 72 and 63 ng/day for PBDEs, for residents in urban and industrials areas, respectively. This study suggests that dietary intake is more relevant for human exposure to PCBs and PBDEs than living near the HWI.

Human exposure to polychlorinated naphthalenes through the consumption of edible marine species

The concentrations of polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs) were determined in samples of 14 edible marine species (sardine, tuna, anchovy, mackerel, swordfish, salmon, hake, red mullet, sole, cuttlefish, squid, clam, mussel and shrimp), which are widely consumed by the population of Catalonia, Spain. The daily intake of PCNs associated with this consumption was also determined. A total of 42 composite samples were analyzed by HRGC/HRMS. The highest PCN levels (ng/kg of fresh weight) were found in salmon (227) followed by mackerel (95) and red mullet (68), while the lowest levels of total PCNs corresponded to shrimp (4.9) and cuttlefish (2.7). With the exception of cephalopods and shellfish species, in which tetra-CN was the predominant homologue, penta-CN (60%) was the predominant contributor to total PCNs. For a standard male adult, PCN intake through the consumption of edible marine species was 1.53 ng/day. The highest contributions to this intake (ng/day) corresponded to salmon (0.41), sole (0.28) and tuna (0.24). Concerning health risks, species-specific TEFs such as those reported by WHO and NATO for PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs are not currently available for PCN congeners. Although in general terms the results of the present study do not seem to suggest specific risks derived from exposure to PCNs through fish and seafood consumption, to establish the contribution of individual PCN congeners to total TEQ is clearly necessary for the assessment of human health risks.

Long-term study of environmental levels of dioxins and furans in the vicinity of a municipal solid waste incinerator

From 1975 to 2004, a municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) was operating in Montcada (Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain). Because of the potential health risks derived from emission of pollutants by the facility, especially polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs), a long-term monitoring program focused on measuring the environmental levels of PCDD/Fs near the facility, and to assess the health risks for the population living in the neighborhood, was established between 1996 and 2002. A total number of 111 soil and 121 herbage samples were analyzed for PCDD/Fs during this period. Human health risks for the individuals living near the MSWI (500 and 1,000 m) were also assessed before (1998) and after modernization (2000) of the facility. It included PCDD/F inhalation, dermal contact, soil and dust ingestion, and food intake. All these data are here summarized. The environmental levels of PCDD/Fs showed that the MSWI was not the main responsible of the atmospheric pollution by these compounds. In turn, human health risks for the population living in the vicinity of the facility after introduction of a modern technology were negligible in comparison with the dietary PCDD/F exposure.

[Do we really follow the Mediterranean diet?]

OBJECTIVE

To discover people's nutritional habits and their distance from the Mediterranean diet.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional, descriptive study.

SETTING

Gavà 2 Health District, Barcelona, Spain.

PARTICIPANTS

614 obtained at random from patients attending the centre. Stratified in 3 age groups (15-35, 36-64, and over 64).

MAIN MEASUREMENTS

Validated questionnaire of the consumption by groups of food over the previous week. Then figures were compared with the standard values of the Mediterranean diet.

RESULTS

Outstanding results were: 60% insufficiency in consumption of carbohydrates; 70.7% insufficiency in green vegetables, fruit and root vegetables; 75% of optimum consumption of pulses; 64% deficient consumption of milk products; 66% optimum consumption of fish; 73.8% optimum consumption of eggs; 71.2% proper intake of white meat; 64.2% excessive consumption of red meat and processed meats, which reached 86.6% among 15-35 year olds. There was a BMI over 25 in 59% of women and 63% of men, with obesity being most common among women and people over 64 years old.

CONCLUSIONS

The population studied consumed an excessive amount of food with high contents of saturated fat, especially young people. There is a deficit in the intake of slowly absorbed carbohydrates and a less than ideal consumption of fruit, green vegetables and root vegetables, which was more marked among the young. The consumption of milk products was below the recommended amount. Pulses, fish and white meat were close to the right levels. This pattern is far from ideal and leads to higher risk of prevalent chronic illnesses.

Health risks of dietary intake of environmental pollutants by elite sportsmen and sportswomen

The dietary intake of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) by elite sportsmen and sportswomen of Catalonia, Spain, was assessed. In 2000, food samples were randomly acquired in various cities of Catalonia. Analysis of the above pollutants were determined according to the appropriate analytical techniques (ICP-MS, HRGC/HRMS, HPLC). In general terms, elite sportsmen and sportswomen showed a higher intake of Cd, Hg, Pb, HCB, PCNs, PCDD/Fs and PAHs than the general population, while it was lower for PCDEs (both sexes), and PCBs and PBDEs (women). According to the FAO/WHO provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) for metals, the WHO tolerable daily intake (TDI) for HCB, and the US EPA's reference dose (RfD) for PAHs, the dietary intakes of environmental pollutants should not mean a potential toxic hazard. However, the WHO-TDI for PCDD/Fs and "dioxin-like" PCBs is exceeded in sportsmen. The current results indicate that the consumption of those food groups showing the highest contribution to the intake of these pollutants should be diminished. In relation to this, the reduction of the consumption of dairy products and cereals would be important.

Dietary intake of hexachlorobenzene in Catalonia, Spain

To assess the dietary intake of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) by the population of Catalonia, Spain, a total-diet study was carried out. Concentrations of HCB were determined in food samples randomly acquired in seven cities of Catalonia between June and August 2000. A total of 11 food groups were included in the study. HCB levels were determined by HRGC/HRMS. Estimates of average daily food consumption were obtained from recent studies. HCB intake was estimated for five population groups: children (aged 4 to 9 years), adolescents (aged 10 to 19 years), male and female adults (aged 20 to 65 years), and seniors (aged >65 years). In general, HCB residues in foods were rather low excepting dairy products with a mean concentration of 0.869 ng/g wet weight. Total dietary intakes of HCB (microgram per kilogram body weight/day) were the following: children (0.0064), adolescents (0.0031), female adults (0.0025), male adults (0.0024) and seniors (0.0019). All these values are considerably lower than the WHO tolerable daily intake (TDI), which is 0.17 microg kg(-1) day(-1) for non-cancer effects and 0.16 microg kg(-1) day(-1) for neoplastic effects in humans.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in foods: human exposure through the diet in Catalonia, Spain

The dietary intake of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) (naphthalene, acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, anthracene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benz[a]anthracene, chrysene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a]pyrene, dibenz[a,h]anthracene, benzo[g,h,i]perylene, and indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene) by the general population of Catalonia, Spain, was calculated. Concentrations of PAHs in food samples randomly acquired in seven cities of Catalonia from June to August 2000 were measured. Eleven food groups were included in the study. High-performance liquid chromatography was used to analyze PAHs. The dietary intakes of total and carcinogenic PAHs was calculated for five population groups: children, adolescents, male adults, female adults, and seniors. Among the analyzed PAHs, there was a predominance of phenanthrene (16.7 microg/kg) and pyrene (10.7 microg/kg). By food group, the highest levels of total PAHs were detected in cereals (14.5 microg/kg) and in meat and meat products (13.4 microg/kg). The mean estimated dietary intake of the sum of the 16 PAHs was as follows: male adults, 8.4 microg/day; adolescents, 8.2 microg/day; children, 7.4 microg/day; seniors, 6.3 microg/day; female adults, 6.3 microg/day. The calculated daily intake of PAHs would be associated with a 5/106 increase in the risk for the development of cancer in a male adult with a body weight of 70 kg.

Yoghurt in the Spanish diet: nutritional implications and socio-cultural aspects of its consumption

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to analyse the differences, with regard to socio-cultural characteristics and dietary habits, between low and high consumers of yoghurt and other fermented dairy product desserts, and the nutritional significance of these differences.

METHODS

We analysed the diet of a healthy population (4-65 years), using the 24-hour recall method, on three non-consecutive days. The participants were grouped by age and sex and were also divided into tertiles on the basis of yoghurt consumption. We compared energy and nutrient intakes, educational level and socio-economic status in the low consumption (LC) group and the high consumption (HC) group.

RESULTS

In general there were no significant differences in energy intake or nutritional profile between LC and HC groups. The only significant difference was in the percentage of energy provided by lipids, which was significantly lower in HC women, possibly due to the high number of women in this group who consumed low-fat yoghurt. There were significant differences in the distribution of HC and LC subjects according to the three educational levels but not according to socio-economic status.

CONCLUSION

The fact of being a high consumer of fermented dairy products took place in the framework of other dietary changes that compensated for this high consumption, resulting in the absence of significant differences in energy intake and nutritional profile between HC and LC subjects. The only exception was found in women who consumed low-fat dairy products. There was a relationship between high consumption of fermented dairy products and educational level.

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in foodstuffs: human exposure through the diet

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are used as flame retardants in a variety of materials, including synthetic polymers and textiles. Although these chemicals have been detected in environmental samples and human tissues, there is little information about human exposure to PBDEs through the diet. In the present study, we determined the concentrations of PBDEs in a number of food samples acquired in Catalonia (Spain) during 2000. The dietary intake of PBDEs was estimated for the general population living in this Spanish region. The highest PBDE concentrations were found in oils and fats, fish and shellfish, meat and meat products, and eggs, while the lowest levels corresponded to fruits, vegetables, and tubers. The dietary intake of PBDEs for an adult male was 97.3 ng/day (assuming not detected (ND) = (1)/(2) limit of detection (LOD)) or 81.9 ng/day (assuming ND = 0) The greatest contribution to these values corresponded to fish and shellfish, with approximately one-third of the total intake. TetraBDEs and pentaBDEs were the homologues showing the highest percentages of contribution to the sum of total PBDEs. The comparison of the current dietary intake with the suggested lowest observed adverse effect level value of 1 mg/kg/day for the most sensitive endpoints for toxic effects of PBDEs results in a safety factor over 5 orders of magnitude in relation to PBDE exposure from food.

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls in foods from Catalonia, Spain: estimated dietary intake

From June to August 2000, food samples were randomly acquired in seven cities in Catalonia, Spain. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations were determined for 108 samples of vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, fish and shellfish, meats and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products, and oils and fats. Levels of 11 PCB congeners (IUPAC 28, 52, 77, 101, 105, 118, 126, 138, 153, 169, and 180) were determined by high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. For toxic equivalent (TEQ) calculations, World Health Organization (WHO) toxicity equivalent factors (WHO-TEFs) were used. The highest levels of most congeners were found in fish and shellfish (11,864.18 ng/kg [wet weight]), and the next highest levels, which were substantially lower, were found in milk and dairy products (674.50 ng/kg [wet weight]). For the general population of Catalonia, the total dietary intake of PCBs was found to be 150.13 pg WHO-TEQ/day. The largest contribution to this intake came from fish and shellfish (82.87 pg WHO-TEQ/day) and dairy products (29.38 pg WHO-TEQ per day). A relatively large contribution was also noted for cereals (11.36 pg WHO-TEQ/day). Among the PCB congeners determined in this study, PCB 126 showed the largest contribution to total TEQ intake (50.56%). The data obtained in this study should be useful in risk assessment with regard to human PCB exposure through food in Catalonia.

Human exposure to dioxins through the diet in Catalonia, Spain: carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk

The main objectives of this study were to estimate the dietary intake of dioxins by the population of Catalonia, Spain, to determine which food groups showed the greatest contribution to this intake, and to assess the health risks potentially associated with the dietary dioxin intake. From June to August 2000, food samples were randomly acquired in seven cities of Catalonia. Dioxin concentrations were determined in 108 samples belonging to the following groups: vegetables, fruits, pulses, cereals, fish and shellfish, meats and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products, and oils and fats. Estimates of average daily food consumption were obtained from recent studies. Total dietary intake of dioxins for the general population of Catalonia was estimated to be 95.4 pg WHO-TEQ/day (78.4 pg I-TEQ/day), with fish and shellfish (31%), diary products (25%), cereals (14%) and meat (13%) showing the greatest percentages of contribution to dioxin intake. The contribution of all the rest of food groups to the total dietary intake was under 20%. The non-carcinogenic risk index of dioxin intake through the diet was in the range 0.34-1.36, while the carcinogenic risk level was 1,360 excess cancer over a lifetime of 70 years. Our results corroborate the decreasing tendency in dietary intake of dioxins found in recent studies (2000-2001) from various countries.

[Dietary variety and diversity of Spanish children: Four Provinces Study]

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Diet variety is claimed for ensuring a healthy eating. Our objective was to analyze the relationship between the variety and diversity of the diet and its nutritional quality among Spanish children.

SUBJECTS AND METHOD

Cross-sectional study where information on food and nutrition was obtained through a food frequency questionnaire. The sample included 1,112 children aged 6-7 years from 4 cities. Children were selected by random cluster-sampling in schools and stratified by sex and socioeconomic level. We calculated a diet variety index (DVI)--count of food items--and a diet diversity index (DDI)--count of food groups. To measure the overall diet quality, the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-f) was used.

RESULTS

The percentage of children eating less than one daily food serving varied between 0% for the grain and 11.3% for the fruit groups. Diet variety and diversity were positively associated with the intake of fiber, vitamines B6 and E and folic acid, and the percentage of caloric intake resulting from polyinsaturated fatty acids and carbohydrates. In contrast, intakes of lipis and saturated fatty acids, vitamine C, sodium and calcium were all negatively associated with diet variety and diversity. Although both DVI and DDI were possitively associated with the HEI-f, the results from a regression model showed that it was only DDI that contributed significantly to the model fitting (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the goodness of a varied diet that includes ingredients from different food groups and, at the same time, maintains the energy energy within recomended levels.