Characterisation of the effects of ATPA, a GLU(K5) receptor selective agonist, on excitatory synaptic transmission in area CA1 of rat hippocampal slices

Kainate receptor modulation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the CA2 region of the hippocampus

Kainate (KA) receptors (KARs) are important modulators of synaptic transmission. We studied here the role of KARs on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the CA2 region of the hippocampus where the actions of these receptors are unknown. We observed that KA depresses glutamatergic synaptic transmission at Schaffer collateral-CA2 synapses; an effect that was antagonized by NBQX (a KA/AMPA receptors antagonist) under condition where AMPA receptors were previously blocked. The study of paired-pulse facilitation ratio, miniature responses, and fluctuation analysis indicated a presynaptic locus of action for KAR. Additionally, we determined the action mechanism for this depression of glutamate release mediated by the activation of KARs. We found that inhibition of protein kinase A suppressed the effect of KAR activation on evoked excitatory post-synaptic current, an effect that was not suppressed by protein kinase C inhibitors. Furthermore, in the presence of Pertussis toxin, the depression of glutamate release mediated by KAR activation was not present, invoking the participation of a G_i/o protein in this modulation. Finally, the KAR-mediated depression of glutamate release was not suppressed by treatments that affect calcium entry trough voltage-dependent calcium channels or calcium release from intracellular stores. We conclude that KARs present at these synapses mediate a depression of glutamate release through a mechanism that involves the activation of G protein and protein kinase A.

Kainate receptors in the developing neuronal networks

Kainate receptors (KARs) are highly expressed in the immature brain and have unique developmentally regulated functions that may be important in linking neuronal activity to morphogenesis during activity-dependent fine-tuning of the synaptic connectivity. Altered expression of KARs in the developing neural network leads to changes in glutamatergic connectivity and network excitability, which may lead to long-lasting changes in behaviorally relevant circuitries in the brain. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on physiological and morphogenic functions described for different types of KARs at immature neural circuitries, focusing on their roles in modulating synaptic transmission and plasticity as well as circuit maturation in the rodent hippocampus and amygdala. Finally, we discuss the emerging evidence suggesting that malfunction of KARs in the immature brain may contribute to the pathophysiology underlying developmentally originating neurological disorders.

NETO1 Guides Development of Glutamatergic Connectivity in the Hippocampus by Regulating Axonal Kainate Receptors

Kainate-type glutamate receptors (KARs) are highly expressed in the developing brain, where they are tonically activated to modulate synaptic transmission, network excitability and synaptogenesis. NETO proteins are auxiliary subunits that regulate biophysical properties of KARs; however, their functions in the immature brain are not known. Here, we show that NETO1 guides the development of the rodent hippocampal CA3-CA1 circuitry via regulating axonal KARs. NETO deficiency reduced axonal targeting of most KAR subunits in hippocampal neurons in a subtype independent manner. As an interesting exception, axonal delivery of GluK1c was strongly and selectively impaired in the Neto1^−/−, but not Neto2^−/−, neurons. Correspondingly, the presynaptic GluK1 KAR activity that tonically inhibits glutamate release at immature CA3-CA1 synapses was completely lost in the absence of NETO1 but not NETO2. The deficit in axonal KARs at Neto1^−/− neurons resulted in impaired synaptogenesis and perturbed synchronization of CA3 and CA1 neuronal populations during development in vitro. Both these Neto1^−/− phenotypes were fully rescued by overexpression of GluK1c, emphasizing the role of NETO1/KAR complex in development of efferent connectivity. Together, our data uncover a novel role for NETO1 in regulation of axonal KARs and identify its physiological significance in development of the CA3-CA1 circuit.

Presynaptic facilitation of glutamate release in the basolateral amygdala: a mechanism for the anxiogenic and seizurogenic function of GluK1 receptors

Kainate receptors containing the GluK1 subunit (GluK1Rs; previously known as GluR5 kainate receptors) are concentrated in certain brain regions, where they play a prominent role in the regulation of neuronal excitability, by modulating GABAergic and/or glutamatergic synaptic transmission. In the basolateral nucleus of the amygdala (BLA), which plays a central role in anxiety as well as in seizure generation, GluK1Rs modulate GABAergic inhibition via postsynaptic and presynaptic mechanisms. However, the role of these receptors in the regulation of glutamate release, and the net effect of their activation on the excitability of the BLA network are not well understood. Here, we show that in amygdala slices from 35- to 50-day-old rats, the GluK1 agonist (RS)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-tert-butylisoxazol-4-yl) propanoic acid (ATPA) (300 nM) increased the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) and miniature EPSCs (mEPSCs) recorded from BLA principal neurons, and decreased the rate of failures of evoked EPSCs. The GluK1 antagonist (S)-1-(2-amino-2-carboxyethyl)-3-(2-carboxybenzyl) pyrimidine-2,4-dione (UBP302) (25 or 30 μM) decreased the frequency of mEPSCs, reduced evoked field potentials, and increased the "paired-pulse ratio" of the field potential amplitudes. Taken together, these results suggest that GluK1Rs in the rat BLA are present on presynaptic terminals of principal neurons, where they mediate facilitation of glutamate release. In vivo bilateral microinjections of ATPA (250 pmol) into the rat BLA increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field test, while 2 nmol ATPA induced seizures. Similar intra-BLA injections of UBP302 (20 nmol) had anxiolytic effects in the open field and the acoustic startle response tests, without affecting pre-pulse inhibition. These results suggest that although GluK1Rs in the rat BLA facilitate both GABA and glutamate release, the facilitation of glutamate release prevails, and these receptors can have an anxiogenic and seizurogenic net function. Presynaptic facilitation of glutamate release may, in part, underlie the hyperexcitability-promoting effects of GluK1R activation in the rat BLA.

Neuroprotection of GluK1 kainate receptor agonist ATPA against ischemic neuronal injury through inhibiting GluK2 kainate receptor-JNK3 pathway via GABA(A) receptors

It is well known that GluK2-containing kainate receptors play essential roles in seizure and cerebral ischemia-induced neuronal death, while GluK1-containing kainate receptors could increase tonic inhibition of post-synaptic pyramidal neurons. This research investigated whether GluK1 could inhibit activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3 (JNK3) signaling pathway mediated by the GluK2 in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. The results show that GluK1 activation by (RS)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-tert-butylisoxazol-4-yl) propanoic acid (ATPA) at 1nmol per rat could inhibit the assembly of GluK2·Postsynaptic density 95·mixed lineage kinase 3 signaling module, activation of JNK3 and its downstream signal molecules. However, the inhibition of ATPA could be prevented by GluK1 antagonist NS3763, GluK1 antisense, and GABA(A) receptor antagonist bicuculline. In addition, ATPA played a neuroprotective role against cerebral ischemia. In sum, the findings indicate that activation of GluK1 by ATPA at specific dosages may promote GABA release, which then suppresses post-synaptic GluK2-JNK3 signaling-mediated cerebral ischemic injury via GABA(A)R.

Role of kainate receptors in network activity during development

Distinct populations of kainate-type ionotropic glutamate receptors (KARs), located at various cell types and subcellular compartments and utilizing diverse downstream signaling mechanisms, represent an intricate system with large capacity for modulatory effects ranging from synapse-specific changes to alterations in the excitability of large neuronal ensembles. However, the way the diverse functions ascribed for KARs are utilized under different physiological and pathological conditions to regulate activity at the level of neuronal networks is still largely unclear. Here, we address the data regarding functions of KARs in the regulation of network activity in the hippocampus, with a main focus on their roles during early postnatal development. We further discuss the evidence suggesting that KAR mediated signaling during the immature type network activity is involved in the formation and maturation of glutamatergic synapses.

Kainate postconditioning restores LTP in ischemic hippocampal CA1: onset-dependent second pathophysiological stress

Postconditioning can be induced by a broad range of stimuli within minutes to days after an ischemic cerebral insult. A special form is elicited by pharmacological intervention called second pathophysiological stress. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of low-dose (5 mg/kg) kainate postconditioning with onsets 0, 24 and 48 h after the ischemic insult on the hippocampal synaptic plasticity in a 2-vessel occlusion model in rat. The hippocampal function was tested by LTP measurements of Schaffer collateral-CA1 pyramidal cell synapses in acute slices and the changes in density of Golgi-Cox-stained apical dendritic spines. Postconditioning 0 and 24 h after ischemia was not protective, whereas 48-h-onset postconditioning resulted in the reappearance of a normal spine density (>100,000 spines) 3 days after ischemia, in parallel with the long-term restoration of the damaged LTP function. Similar, but somewhat less effects were observed after 10 days. Our data clearly demonstrate the onset dependence of postconditioning elicited by a subconvulsant dose of kainate treatment in global ischemia, with restoration of the structural plasticity and hippocampal function.

Glutamatergic neurotransmission in a mouse model of Niemann-Pick type C disease

Niemann-Pick Type C Disease (NPCD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by accumulation of free cholesterol, sphingomyelin, glycosphingolipids (GSLs) and sphingosine in lysosomes, mainly due to a mutation in the NPC1 gene. One of the main symptoms in NPCD patients is hyperexcitability leading to epileptic activity, however, the pathophysiological basis of this neural disorder is not yet well understood. Here we studied the excitatory neurotransmission in the hippocampus of BALB/c NPC1NIH (NPC1-/-) mice, a well-described animal model of the disease. We report that hippocampal field potential population spike (fPS), as well as paired pulse ratio, is enhanced in NPC1-/- with respect to Wild Type (WT). To evaluate the contribution of glutamate receptor activity in the enhanced fPS observed in mutant mice, we recorded slices treated with glutamate receptor agonists alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionic acid (AMPA) and Kainate (KA). We found that a prolonged application of KA and AMPA in NPC1-/- mice do not induce the dramatic decrease of synaptic transmission observed in WT hippocampal slices suggesting a functional impairment of presynaptic KA receptors and an imbalance of AMPA receptor exo/endocytosis. In line with electrophysiological data, we also found notable differences in calcium influx during KA and AMPA bath application in NPC1-/- hippocampal culture as compared with WT. Nevertheless in synaptosomal membranes, Western Blot analysis didn't reveal any modification in protein expression levels of KA and AMPA receptor subunits. All together these data indicate that in mutant mice the hyperexcitability, that is at the basis of the insurgence of seizures, might be due to the enhanced glutamatergic neurotransmission caused by an altered KA and AMPA receptor functioning.

Metabotropic actions of kainate receptors in the control of glutamate release in the hippocampus

Kainate-type glutamate receptors (KARs) structurally present the credentials of the other ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) family members (NMDA and AMPA receptors), but functionally often purport examples of a metabotropic mode of operation. In the present chapter, we describe these metabotropic roles of KARs in the modulation of glutamate release in the hippocampus at CA3 Schaffer Collateral (SC)-CA1 Pyramidal Cell (PC) synapses and dentate gyrus granule cell Mossy Fiber (MF)-CA3 PC synapses. As autoreceptors on SC terminals, KARs inhibit the release of glutamate at SC-CA1 PC synapses through a mechanism dependent on a pertussis toxin-sensitive G(i/o) protein thought to couple via its Gβγ subunit to a decrease in Ca(2+) channel function. At MF-CA3 PC synapses, autoreceptors on MF terminals respond diametrically depending on the agonist concentration. At low KA concentrations (< 100 nM), a G-protein-independent process invokes the activation of proteins kinase A (PKA) to effect a facilitation of glutamate release. This facilitation possibly involves the Ca(2+)-dependent (rather than GPCR-dependent) activation of adenylate cyclase (AC). At high KA concentrations (<100 nM), a mechanism involving a pertussis toxin-sensitive G(i/o) protein is invoked to inhibit AC activity and thereby suppress PKA activity. Taken together with the heterosynaptic regulation of GABA release by KARs working with a metabotropic modus operandi, there is therefore compelling evidence that these ionotropic glutamate receptors are involved in a noncanonical modulation of glutamate release that does not rely on their typical ionotropic activity.

Differential regulation of kainate receptor trafficking by phosphorylation of distinct sites on GluR6

Kainate receptors are widely expressed in the brain, and are present at pre- and postsynaptic sites where they play a prominent role in synaptic plasticity and the regulation of network activity. Within individual neurons, kainate receptors of different subunit compositions are targeted to various locations where they serve distinct functional roles. Despite this complex targeting, relatively little is known about the molecular mechanisms regulating kainate receptor subunit trafficking. Here we investigate the role of phosphorylation in the trafficking of the GluR6 kainate receptor subunit. We identify two specific residues on the GluR6 C terminus, Ser(846) and Ser(868), which are phosphorylated by protein kinase C (PKC) and dramatically regulate GluR6 surface expression. By using GluR6 containing phosphomimetic and nonphosphorylatable mutations for these sites expressed in heterologous cells or in neurons lacking endogenous GluR6, we show that phosphorylation of Ser(846) or Ser(868) regulates receptor trafficking through the biosynthetic pathway. Additionally, Ser(846) phosphorylation dynamically regulates endocytosis of GluR6 at the plasma membrane. Our findings thus demonstrate that phosphorylation of PKC sites on GluR6 regulates surface expression of GluR6 at distinct intracellular trafficking pathways, providing potential molecular mechanisms for the PKC-dependent regulation of synaptic kainate receptor function observed during various forms of synaptic plasticity.

Age-dependent enhancement of inhibitory synaptic transmission in CA1 pyramidal neurons via GluR5 kainate receptors

Changes in hippocampal synaptic networks during aging may contribute to age-dependent compromise of cognitive functions such as learning and memory. Previous studies have demonstrated that GABAergic synaptic transmission exhibits age-dependent changes. To better understand such age-dependent changes of GABAergic synaptic inhibition, we performed whole-cell recordings from pyramidal cells in the CA1 area of acute hippocampal slices on aged (24-26 months old) and young (2-4 months old) Brown-Norway rats. We found that the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic current (IPSCs) were significantly increased in aged rats, but the frequency and amplitude of mIPSCs were decreased. Furthermore, the regulation of GABAergic synaptic transmission by GluR5 containing kainate receptors was enhanced in aged rats, which was revealed by using LY382884 (a GluR5 kainate receptor antagonist) and ATPA (a GluR5 kainate receptor agonist). Moreover, we demonstrated that vesicular glutamate transporters are involved in the kainate receptor dependent regulation of sIPSCs. Taken together, these results suggest that GABAergic synaptic transmission is potentiated in aged rats, and GluR5 containing kainate receptors regulate the inhibitory synaptic transmission through endogenous glutamate. These alterations of GABAergic input with aging could contribute to age-dependent cognitive decline.

Contrary roles of kainate receptors in transmitter release at corticothalamic synapses onto thalamic relay and reticular neurons

Corticothalamic fibres, which originate from layer VI pyramidal neurons in the cerebral cortex, provide excitatory synaptic inputs to both thalamic relay neurons and reticular neurons; reticular neurons in turn supply inhibitory inputs to thalamic relay neurons. Pyramidal cells in layer VI in the mouse somatosensory cortex highly express mRNA encoding kainate receptors, which facilitate or depress transmitter release at several synapses in the central nervous system. We report here that contrary modulation of transmitter release from corticothalamic fibres onto thalamic relay and reticular neurons is mediated by activation of kainate receptors in mouse thalamic ventrobasal complex and thalamic reticular nucleus. Exogenous kainate presynaptically depresses the synaptic transmission at corticothalamic synapses onto thalamic relay neurons, but facilitates it at corticothalamic synapses onto reticular neurons. Meanwhile, the lemniscal synaptic transmission, which sends primary somatosensory inputs to relay neurons, is not affected by kainate. In addition, GluR5-containing kainate receptors are involved in the depression of corticothalamic synaptic transmission onto relay neurons, but not onto reticular neurons. Furthermore, synaptically activated kainate receptors mimic these effects; high-frequency stimulation of corticothalamic fibres depresses synaptic transmission onto relay neurons, but facilitates it onto reticular neurons. Our results suggest that the opposite sensitivity of kainate receptors at the two corticothalamic synapses is governed by cortical activity and regulates the balance of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to thalamic relay neurons and therefore their excitability.

ACET is a highly potent and specific kainate receptor antagonist: characterisation and effects on hippocampal mossy fibre function

Kainate receptors (KARs) are involved in both NMDA receptor-independent long-term potentiation (LTP) and synaptic facilitation at mossy fibre synapses in the CA3 region of the hippocampus. However, the identity of the KAR subtypes involved remains controversial. Here we used a highly potent and selective GluK1 (formerly GluR5) antagonist (ACET) to elucidate roles of GluK1-containing KARs in these synaptic processes. We confirmed that ACET is an extremely potent GluK1 antagonist, with a Kb value of 1.4+/-0.2 nM. In contrast, ACET was ineffective at GluK2 (formerly GluR6) receptors at all concentrations tested (up to 100 microM) and had no effect at GluK3 (formerly GluR7) when tested at 1 microM. The X-ray crystal structure of ACET bound to the ligand binding core of GluK1 was similar to the UBP310-GluK1 complex. In the CA1 region of hippocampal slices, ACET was effective at blocking the depression of both fEPSPs and monosynaptically evoked GABAergic transmission induced by ATPA, a GluK1 selective agonist. In the CA3 region of the hippocampus, ACET blocked the induction of NMDA receptor-independent mossy fibre LTP. To directly investigate the role of pre-synaptic GluK1-containing KARs we combined patch-clamp electrophysiology and 2-photon microscopy to image Ca2+ dynamics in individual giant mossy fibre boutons. ACET consistently reduced short-term facilitation of pre-synaptic calcium transients induced by 5 action potentials evoked at 20-25Hz. Taken together our data provide further evidence for a physiological role of GluK1-containing KARs in synaptic facilitation and LTP induction at mossy fibre-CA3 synapses.

Calcium-permeable presynaptic kainate receptors involved in excitatory short-term facilitation onto somatostatin interneurons during natural stimulus patterns

Schaffer collateral synapses in hippocampus show target-cell specific short-term plasticity. Using GFP-expressing Inhibitory Neuron (GIN) transgenic mice that express enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in a subset of somatostatin-containing interneurons (SOM interneurons), we previously showed that Schaffer collateral synapses onto SOM interneurons in stratum (S.) radiatum have unusually large (up to 6-fold) paired-pulse facilitation. This results from a low initial release probability and the enhancement of facilitation by synaptic activation of presynaptic kainate receptors. Here we further investigate the properties of these kainate receptors and examine their effects on short-term facilitation during physiologically derived stimulation patterns, using excitatory postsynaptic currents recorded in S. radiatum interneurons during Schaffer collateral stimulation in acute slices from juvenile GIN mice. We find that GluR5 and GluR6 antagonists decrease short-term facilitation at Schaffer collateral synapses onto SOM interneurons with no additive effects, suggesting that the presynaptic kainate receptors are heteromers containing both GluR5 and GluR6 subunits. The calcium-permeable receptor antagonist 1-napthyl acetyl spermine (NASPM) both mimics and occludes the effect of the kainate receptor antagonists, indicating that the presynaptic kainate receptors are calcium permeable. Furthermore, Schaffer collateral synapses onto SOM interneurons show up to 11-fold short-term facilitation during physiologically derived stimulus patterns, in contrast to other interneurons that have less than 1.5-fold facilitation. Blocking the kainate receptors reduces facilitation in SOM interneurons by approximately 50% during the physiologically derived patterns and reduces the dynamic range. Activation of calcium-permeable kainate receptors containing GluR5/GluR6 causes a dramatic increase in short-term facilitation during physiologically derived stimulus patterns, a mechanism likely to be important in regulating the strength of Schaffer collateral synapses onto SOM interneurons in vivo.

The role of GLU K5-containing kainate receptors in entorhinal cortex gamma frequency oscillations

Using in vitro brain slices of hippocampus and cortex, neuronal oscillations in the frequency range of 30-80 Hz (gamma frequency oscillations) can be induced by a number of pharmacological manipulations. The most routinely used is the bath application of the broad-spectrum glutamate receptor agonist, kainic acid. In the hippocampus, work using transgenic kainate receptor knockout mice have revealed information about the specific subunit composition of the kainate receptor implicated in the generation and maintenance of the gamma frequency oscillation. However, there is a paucity of such detail regarding gamma frequency oscillation in the cortex. Using specific pharmacological agonists and antagonists for the kainate receptor, we have set out to examine the contribution of kainate receptor subtypes to gamma frequency oscillation in the entorhinal cortex. The findings presented demonstrate that in contrast to the hippocampus, kainate receptors containing the GLU(K5) subunit are critically important for the generation and maintenance of gamma frequency oscillation in the entorhinal cortex. Future work will concentrate on determining the exact nature of the cellular expression of kainate receptors in the entorhinal cortex.

Activation of kainate GLU(K5) transmission rescues kindling-induced impairment of LTP in the rat lateral amygdala

The amygdala is a component of the limbic system that plays a central role in emotional behavior and certain psychiatric diseases. Pathophysiological alterations of neuronal excitability in the amygdala are characteristic features of temporal lobe epilepsy and certain (epilepsy accompanying) psychiatric illnesses such as anxiety and depressive disorders. The role of kainate receptors in the activity of synaptic networks, in brain function, and diseases is still poorly understood. Various kainate receptor subtypes have been shown to contribute to synaptic transmission and modulate presynaptic release of glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Several lines of evidence point to the importance of GLU(K5) kainate receptors in epilepsy. In this study we investigated the role of specific GLU(K5) kainate receptor in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA). The cellular mechanisms for emotional learning in the amygdala are believed to be the result of changes in synaptic transmission efficacy, similar to long-term potentiation (LTP). Here, we used both field potential and intracellular recordings in horizontal rat amygdala slices, and showed that LTP in the LA, induced by high-frequency stimulation of afferents running within LA, is impaired 48 h after the last induced seizure. This kindling-induced impairment was reversed by the specific kainate GLU(K5) agonist ATPA. Partial blockade of GABAergic transmission with the specific GABA(A) receptor antagonist SR95531 also significantly facilitated the induction of early LA-LTP, but only partially abolished the kindling-induced impairment of LA-LTP. This study shows that the stimulation of the GLU(K5) kainate receptor subtype rescues the kindling-induced impairment of LA-LTP at least within 48 h after the last seizure. Therefore, GLU(K5) kainate receptor subunits are involved in kindling-induced plasticity changes in the amygdala.

Metabotropic actions of kainate receptors in the CNS

Kainate receptors (KARs), together with NMDA and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate receptors (AMPA), are typically described as ionotropic glutamate receptors. Although ionotropic functions for KARs are beginning to be characterized in multiple brain regions, both, in the pre- and post-synaptic compartments of the synapse, there is accumulating evidence that KARs mediate some of their effects without invoking ion-fluxes. Thus, since 1998, when the first metabotropic action of KARs was described in the modulation of GABA release in hippocampal interneurons, there have been increasing reports that some of the functions of KARs involve the participation of intracellular signalling cascades and depend on G protein activation. These surprising observations, attesting metabotropic actions of KARs, akin to those usually attributed to seven transmembrane region G protein-coupled receptors, make the physiological classification and description of glutamate receptors more complex. In the present review, we describe the metabotropic roles of KARs in the CNS and discuss the intriguing properties of this receptor which, structurally shows all the facets of a typical ionotropic receptor, but appears to express a metabotropic remit at some key synapses.

Activation of kainate receptors controls the number of functional glutamatergic synapses in the area CA1 of rat hippocampus

The expression and functions of kainate-type glutamate receptors (KARs) in the hippocampus are developmentally regulated. In particular, presynaptic KARs depressing glutamate release are tonically activated during early postnatal development, and this activity is down-regulated in parallel with maturation of the synaptic circuitry. In order to understand the physiological relevance of the tonic KAR-mediated signalling, we have here studied the effect of long-term pharmacological activation of KARs on glutamatergic synaptic connectivity in hippocampal slice cultures where presynaptic KARs are expressed but not endogenously activated. Prolonged (16-20 h) activation of the GluR5 subunit-containing KARs using the agonist ATPA (1 microM) caused a specific and enduring increase in the number of glutamatergic synapses in area CA1, evidenced as an increase in the frequency of action potential-independent spontaneous EPSCs (mEPSCs) and in immunostaining against synaptic marker proteins. The long-term ATPA treatment had no detectable effect on GABAergic transmission or on glutamate release probability. Further, the effect of ATPA on synaptic density was independent of action potential firing and dependent on protein kinase C. A critical role of endogenous KAR activity in synaptic development was revealed by chronic treatment of the cultures with the selective GluR5 antagonist LY382884, which caused a significant impairment of glutamatergic transmission to CA1 pyramidal neurons. Together, these data suggest a role for the GluR5 subunit-containing KARs in the formation and/or stabilization of functional glutamatergic synapses in area CA1.

Expression and function of kainate receptors in the rat olfactory bulb

Although recent results suggest roles for NMDA and AMPA receptors in odor encoding, little is known about kainate receptors (KARs) in the olfactory bulb (OB). Molecular, immunological, and electrophysiological techniques were used to provide a functional analysis of KARs in the OB. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction revealed that the relative level of expression of KAR subunits was GluR5 approximately GluR6 approximately KA2 > KA1 >> GluR7. In situ hybridization data imply that mitral/tufted cells express mostly GluR5 and KA2, whereas interneurons express mostly GluR6 and KA2. Immunohistochemical double-labeling experiments (GluR5/6/7 or GluR5 + synapsin) suggest that KARs are expressed at both synaptic and extrasynaptic loci. This heterogeneous expression of KAR subunits suggests that KARs may play a multitude of roles in odor processing, each tailored to the function of specific OB circuits. A functional analysis, using whole-cell electrophysiology, suggests that one such role is to increase the frequency of glutamate transmission while attenuating the amplitude of individual events, likely via a presynaptic depolarizing mechanism. Such effects would be important to odor processing particularly by OB glomeruli. In these highly compartmentalized structures, an increase in the frequency of glutamate release and the high density of extrasynaptic KARs, activated by spillover, could enhance glomerular synchronization and thus the transfer of more specific sensory information to cortical structures.

Effects of the kainate receptor agonist ATPA on glutamatergic synaptic transmission and plasticity during early postnatal development

Kainate type of glutamate receptors (KARs) modulate synaptic transmission in a developmentally regulated manner at several synapses in the brain. Previous studies have shown that KARs depress glutamatergic transmission at CA3-CA1 synapses in the hippocampus and these receptors are tonically active during early postnatal development. Here we use the GluR5 subunit specific agonist ATPA to further characterize the role of KARs in the modulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity in area CA1 during the first two weeks of life. We find that the depressant effect of ATPA on evoked fEPSPs/EPSCs is smaller in the neonate (P3-P6) than in the juvenile (P14-P18) rat CA1, due to endogenous activity of KAR in the neonate. Further, in the neonate but not juvenile CA1, ATPA downregulates action-potential independent transmission (mEPSCs) and its effects are dependent on protein kinase C activity. ATPA-induced depression of fEPSPs in the neonate occludes the presynaptic component of long-term depression (LTD). In contrast, at P14-P18, ATPA prevents LTD indirectly via GABAergic mechanisms. These data show that GluR5 signaling mechanisms are developmentally regulated and suggest distinct functional role for KARs in the modulation of synaptic transmission and plasticity at different stages of development.

Pre- and postsynaptic effects of kainate on layer II/III pyramidal cells in rat neocortex

Kainate receptors mediate both direct excitatory and indirect modulatory actions in the CNS. We report here that kainate has both pre- and postsynaptic actions in layer II/III pyramidal neurons of rat prefrontal cortex. Application of low concentration of kainate (50-500 nM) increased the amplitude of evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) whereas higher concentrations (3 microM) caused a decrease. The frequency of spontaneous and miniature (action potential-independent) EPSCs was increased by low concentrations of kainate without affecting their amplitudes, suggesting a presynaptic mechanism of action. The facilitatory and inhibitory effects of kainate were mimicked by the GluR5 subunit selective agonist ATPA. In addition to decreasing EPSC amplitudes, high concentrations of kainate and ATPA induced an inward current which was not blocked by AMPA- or NMDA-receptor antagonists GYKI52466 and D-APV, respectively. The inward currents were blocked by the AMPA/KA receptor antagonist CNQX, indicating the presence of postsynaptic kainate receptors. Single shock stimulation in the presence of GYKI52466 and D-APV evoked an EPSC which was blocked by CNQX. The GluR5 antagonist LY382884 changed paired-pulse facilitation to paired pulse depression, indicating that synaptically released glutamate can activate presynaptic kainate receptors. These results suggest that kainate receptors containing GluR5 subunits play a major role in glutamatergic transmission in rat neocortex, having both presynaptic modulatory and direct postsynaptic excitatory actions.

Inhibition of kainate receptors reduces the frequency of hippocampal theta oscillations

We investigated the role of kainate receptors in the generation of theta oscillations using (S)-1-(2-amino-2-carboxyethyl)-3-(2-carboxythiophene-3-yl-methyl)pyrimidine-2,4-dione (UBP304), a novel, potent and highly selective antagonist of GLU(K5)-containing kainate receptors. EEG and single-unit recordings were made from the dorsal hippocampus of awake, freely moving rats trained to forage for food. Bilateral intracerebroventricular injections of UBP304 (2.0 microl, two times; 2.08 mM) caused a clear (approximately 25%) reduction in theta frequency that was dissociable from behavioral effects of the drug. The locations of firing fields of principal cells in the hippocampal formation were generally preserved, but both field firing rates and the precision of field organization decreased. UBP304 lowered the frequency of the theta modulation of hippocampal interneuron discharge, accurately matching the reduced frequency of the theta field oscillation. UBP308 [(R)-1-(2-amino-2-carboxyethyl)-3-(2-carboxythiophene-3-yl-methyl)pyrimidine-2,4-dione], the inactive enantiomer of UBP304, caused none of these effects. Our results suggest that GLU(K5) receptors have an important role in modulating theta activity. In addition, the effects on cellular responses provide both insight into the mechanisms of theta pacing, and useful information for models of temporal coding.

Presynaptic kainate receptor activation is a novel mechanism for target cell-specific short-term facilitation at Schaffer collateral synapses

Target cell-specific differences in short-term plasticity have been attributed to differences in the initial release probability of synapses. Using GIN (GFP-expressing inhibitory neurons) transgenic mice that express enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in a subset of interneurons containing somatostatin, we show that Schaffer collateral synapses onto the EGFP-expressing somatostatin interneurons in CA1 have very large short-term facilitation, even larger facilitation than onto pyramidal cells, in contrast to the majority of interneurons that have little or no facilitation. Using a combination of electrophysiological recordings and mathematical modeling, we show that the large short-term facilitation is caused both by a very low initial release probability and by synaptic activation of presynaptic kainate receptors that increase release probability on subsequent stimuli. Thus, we have discovered a novel mechanism for target cell-specific short-term plasticity at Schaffer collateral synapses in which the activation of presynaptic kainate receptors by synaptically released glutamate contributes to large short-term facilitation, enabling selective enhancement of the inputs to a subset of interneurons.

Presynaptic inhibition by kainate receptors converges mechanistically with presynaptic inhibition by adenosine and GABAB receptors

Kainate receptors are widely reported to regulate the release of neurotransmitter in the CNS, but the mechanisms involved remain controversial. Previous studies have found that the kainate receptor agonist ATPA, which selectively activates Glu(K5)-containing kainate receptors, depresses glutamate release at Schaffer-collateral synapses in the hippocampus. In the present study, we provide pharmacological evidence that this depressant effect is mediated by Glu(K5)-containing heteromers, but is distinct from a similar depressant effect engaged by the kainate receptor agonist domoate. The depressant effect of ATPA is insensitive to antagonists for GABA(A), GABA(B), and adenosine receptors, and is also unaffected by lowering the release probability by reducing extracellular calcium. However, the effect of ATPA is partly occluded by prior activation of GABA(B) receptors and completely occluded by prior activation of adenosine receptors, suggesting a mechanistic convergence of heteromeric Glu(K5) kainate receptor signaling with GABA(B) receptors and adenosine receptors. The effects of domoate are partially occluded by both adenosine and GABA(B) receptor agonists, indicating at least a partial convergence of Glu(K5)-lacking kainate receptor signaling with these other pathways. The depressant effect of ATPA is not blocked by inhibition of serine/threonine protein kinases. These results suggest that ATPA and domoate inhibit glutamate release through mechanisms that converge with those of classical metabotropic receptor agonists, although they do so through different receptors.

Functional Maturation of CA1 Synapses Involves Activity-Dependent Loss of Tonic Kainate Receptor-Mediated Inhibition of Glutamate Release

Early in development, excitatory synapses transmit with low efficacy, one mechanism for which is a low probability of transmitter release (Pr). However, little is known about the developmental mechanisms that control activity-dependent maturation of the presynaptic release. Here, we show that during early development, transmission at CA3-CA1 synapses is regulated by a high-affinity, G protein-dependent kainate receptor (KAR), which is endogenously activated by ambient glutamate. By tonically depressing glutamate release, this mechanism sets the dynamic properties of neonatal inputs to favor transmission during high frequency bursts of activity, typical for developing neuronal networks. In response to induction of LTP, the tonic activation of KAR is rapidly down regulated, causing an increase in Pr and profoundly changing the dynamic properties of transmission. Early development of the glutamatergic connectivity thus involves an activity-dependent loss of presynaptic KAR function producing maturation in the mode of excitatory transmission from CA3 to CA1.

Endogenous activation of kainate receptors regulates glutamate release and network activity in the developing hippocampus

Kainate receptors (KARs) are highly expressed throughout the neonatal brain, but their function during development is unclear. Here, we show that the maturation of the hippocampus is associated with a switch in the functional role of presynaptic KARs. In a developmental period restricted to the first postnatal week, endogenous L-glutamate tonically activates KARs at CA3 glutamatergic synapses to regulate release in an action potential-independent manner. At synapses onto pyramidal cells, KARs inhibit glutamate release via a G-protein and PKC-dependent mechanism. In contrast, at glutamatergic terminals onto CA3 interneurons, presynaptic KARs can facilitate release in a G-protein-independent mechanism. In both cell types, however, KAR activation strongly upregulates inhibitory transmission. We show that, through the interplay of these novel diverse mechanisms, KARs strongly regulate the characteristic synchronous network activity observed in the neonatal hippocampus. By virtue of this, KARs are likely to play a central role in the development of hippocampal synaptic circuits.

A pharmacological investigation of the role of GLUK5-containing receptors in kainate-driven hippocampal gamma band oscillations

Low concentrations of kainate can induce gamma frequency (25-80 Hz) oscillations in hippocampal slices as well as other brain structures in vitro. Little is known, however, about the kainate receptor (KAR) subtypes that underlie this type of rhythmic neuronal network activity. In this study, the role of GLU(K5) subunit-containing KARs in kainate-induced hippocampal gamma frequency oscillations was assessed using GLU(K5)-selective pharmacological ligands. Activation of GLU(K5)-containing subunits using the selective agonists (RS)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-tert-butylisoxazol-4-yl)propanoic acid (ATPA; 0.1-1 microM) or iodowillardiine (0.1-1 microM) failed to induce gamma frequency oscillations in area CA3 of the rat hippocampal slice. Likewise, preincubation with a selective GLU(K5) antagonist, (RS)-3-(2-carboxybenzyl)willardiine (UBP296), did not prevent the appearance of gamma oscillations induced by 150 nM kainate. However, addition of UBP296 (10 microM) to hippocampal slices in which kainate-driven gamma oscillations were pre-established resulted in an approximately 50% reduction in gamma frequency power. These effects occurred in the absence of any effect on AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission. Furthermore, carbachol-induced gamma oscillations were also unaffected by application of UBP296. These results suggest that GLU(K5)-containing KARs are not alone sufficient to generate gamma frequency oscillations, but are involved in maintaining neuronal network activity induced by the actions of kainate at other KARs such as GLU(K6).

Time-dependent effect of kainate-induced seizures on glutamate receptor GluR5, GluR6, and GluR7 mRNA and Protein Expression in rat hippocampus

PURPOSE

Glutamate receptor 6 is strongly implicated in human refractory epilepsy and in kainic acid (KA)-induced status epilepticus (SE). In vitro pharmacologic studies with newer antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) are increasingly indicating the role of glutamate receptor 5 (GluR5) in epilepsy. Glutamate receptor 7 (GluR7) has been the least investigated in the context of epilepsy. We studied the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) and protein expression of GluR5, GluR6, and GluR7 in rat hippocampus 72 h, 90 days, and 180 days after KA-induced SE.

METHODS

SE was induced by injecting KA intraperitoneally (i.p.) into adult rats. The hippocampi were isolated 72 h, 90 days, and 180 days after SE. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed for mRNA expression. Western blots determined the protein expression.

RESULTS

A significant increase was noted in GluR5 expression in KA-treated animals compared with controls at 72 h and 180 days, with no significant difference at the intervening 90-day point. Protein levels for GluR5 increased at 72 h and remained elevated until 180 days. GluR7 mRNA showed a significant decrease at 90 days after seizures. Neither the mRNA expression nor the protein levels of GluR6 differed from controls at any of the times after SE.

CONCLUSIONS

KA-induced SE leads to an upregulation of GluR5 mRNA and protein and a downregulation of GluR7 mRNA in rat hippocampus, with no change in GluR6 mRNA or protein expression.

Kainate receptor trafficking: physiological roles and molecular mechanisms

Recently, there has been intense interest in the mechanisms regulating the trafficking and synaptic targeting of kainate receptors in neurons. This topic is still in its infancy when compared with studies of trafficking of other ionotropic glutamate receptors; however, it is already clear that mechanisms exist for subunit- and splice variant-specific trafficking of kainate receptors. There is also enormous diversity of kainate receptor targeting, with the best-studied neurons in this regard being hippocampal CA3 pyramidal neurons and CA1 GABAergic interneurons. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge on this topic, focusing on the molecular mechanisms of kainate receptor trafficking and the potential for these mechanisms to regulate neuronal kainate receptor function.

Comparative anticonvulsant activity of N-acetyl-1-aryl-6,7-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline derivatives in rodents

The anticonvulsant activity of competitive 2,3-dihydroxy-6-nitro-7-sulfamoyl-benzo (F)-quinoxaline (NBQX) and noncompetitive 2,3-benzodiazepines and tetrahydroisoquinolines (THIQs) AMPA/kainate receptor antagonists, was tested in different experimental seizure models and compared with diazepam, a conventional antiepileptic drug acting on GABAergic neurotransmission. In particular, the compounds were evaluated against audiogenic and maximal electroshock seizures (MES) test and pentetrazol (PTZ) seizures model, and all of them showed protective action. In addition, NBQX, 2,3-benzodiazepines and THIQs, but not diazepam, were also protective against clonic and tonic seizures and lethality induced by kainate, AMPA and ATPA, but were ineffective against NMDA-induced seizures. Only 2,3-benzodiazepines and some THIQs were able to affect 4-aminopyridine- and mercaptopropionic-acid-induced seizures. The duration of anticonvulsant action of 33 micromol/kg of some 2,3-benzodiazepines and THIQs was also investigated in DBA/2 mice, a strain genetically susceptible to audiogenic seizures, and it was observed that the derivative THIQ-10c, possessing an acetyl group at the N-2 and a chlorine atom on the C-1 phenyl ring, showed higher anticonvulsant activity and longer-lasting protective effects.

Characterisation of the effects of ATPA, a GLUK5 kainate receptor agonist, on GABAergic synaptic transmission in the CA1 region of rat hippocampal slices

Kainate receptors are implicated in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in the CNS. Previously we demonstrated that (RS)-2-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-tert-butylisoxazol-4-yl)propanoic acid (ATPA), a selective agonist for the GLU(K5) subtype of kainate receptor, depresses monosynaptically evoked inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus. In the current study, we provide a more detailed characterisation of this effect. Firstly, our data demonstrate a rank order of potency of domoate>kainate>ATPA>alpha-amino-3-(3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxalolyl)propionic acid Secondly, we confirm that the effects of ATPA are not mediated indirectly via the activation of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptors (i.e. either GABA(A) or GABA(B)). Thirdly, we show that the small increase in conductance induced by ATPA is insufficient to account for the depression of monosynaptic inhibition. Fourthly, we show that the effects of ATPA on IPSPs are antagonised by the GLU(K5)-selective antagonist (3S, 4aR, 6S, 8aR)-6-(4-carboxyphenyl)methyl-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-decahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid (LY382884). However, LY382884 is less potent as an antagonist of the effects of ATPA on IPSPs compared to its depressant effect on EPSPs.

Kainate receptor agonists and antagonists mediate tolerance to kainic acid and reduce high-affinity GTPase activity in young, but not aged, rat hippocampus

Domoic acid acts at both kainic acid (KA) and alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionate (AMPA)-sensitive glutamate receptors and induces tolerance against subsequent domoic acid insult in young but not aged rat hippocampus. To determine the receptor specificity of this effect, tolerance induction was examined in hippocampal slices from young and aged rats. Slices were preconditioned by exposure to low-dose KA to activate kainate receptors, or the AMPA-receptor selective agonist (S)-5-fluorowillardiine (FW), and following washout, tolerance induction was assessed by administration of high concentrations of KA or FW (respectively). FW preconditioning failed to induce tolerance to subsequent FW challenges, while KA-preconditioned slices were significantly resistant to the effects of high-dose KA. KA preconditioning failed to induce tolerance in aged CA1. Given the lasting nature of the tolerance effect, we examined G-protein-coupled receptor function. A number of ionotropic KA receptor agonists and antagonists significantly reduced constitutive GTPase activity in hippocampal membranes from young but not aged rats. Furthermore, in young CA1, low concentrations of the AMPA/KA blocker GYKI-52466 also induced tolerance to high-dose KA. Our findings suggest that tolerance is triggered by a selective reduction in constitutive KA-sensitive G-protein activity, and that this potential neuroprotective mechanism is lost with age.

Kainate receptors and synaptic transmission

Excitatory glutamatergic transmission involves a variety of different receptor types, each with distinct properties and functions. Physiological studies have identified both post- and presynaptic roles for kainate receptors, which are a subtype of the ionotropic glutamate receptors. Kainate receptors contribute to excitatory postsynaptic currents in many regions of the central nervous system including hippocampus, cortex, spinal cord and retina. In some cases, postsynaptic kainate receptors are co-distributed with alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, but there are also synapses where transmission is mediated exclusively by postsynaptic kainate receptors: for example, in the retina at connections made by cones onto off bipolar cells. Modulation of transmitter release by presynaptic kainate receptors can occur at both excitatory and inhibitory synapses. The depolarization of nerve terminals by current flow through ionotropic kainate receptors appears sufficient to account for most examples of presynaptic regulation; however, a number of studies have provided evidence for metabotropic effects on transmitter release that can be initiated by activation of kainate receptors. Recent analysis of knockout mice lacking one or more of the subunits that contribute to kainate receptors, as well as studies with subunit-selective agonists and antagonists, have revealed the important roles that kainate receptors play in short- and long-term synaptic plasticity. This review briefly addresses the properties of kainate receptors and considers in greater detail the physiological analysis of their contributions to synaptic transmission.

Kainate receptor (GluR5)-mediated disinhibition of responses in rat ventrobasal thalamus allows a novel sensory processing mechanism

Kainate receptors have been studied extensively in vitro, but how they might function physiologically remains unclear. We studied kainate receptor modulation of synaptic responses in the rat ventrobasal thalamus using the novel antagonist LY382884 and the agonist ATPA (selective for GluR5-containing kainate receptors) as tools. No evidence could be found for a direct contribution of kainate receptors to responses of thalamic relay cells to lemniscal (sensory) input in thalamic slices studied with the aid of intracellular and field potential recordings, using selective AMPA and NMDA receptor antagonists and LY382884. However, the GluR5 agonist ATPA reduced the IPSPs originating from the thalamic reticular nucleus. Extracellular single-neurone recordings in anaesthetised rats showed that excitatory responses evoked by physiological vibrissa afferent stimulation were reduced by LY382884 applied iontophoretically at the recording site. This action of the antagonist was occluded when GABA receptors were blocked, indicating that the reduction in excitatory sensory responses by LY382884 is due to an action on GABAergic inhibition arising from the thalamic reticular nucleus. Further experiments showed that these actions depended on whether inhibition was evoked during activation of the excitatory receptive field rather than when inhibition was evoked from a surround vibrissa. We suggest that GluR5 is located presynaptically on inhibitory GABAergic terminals of thalamic reticular nucleus neurones, and that it is normally activated by glutamate spillover from synapses between excitatory afferents and relay neurones during physiological stimulation. We propose that this GluR5-activated disinhibition has an important novel role in extracting sensory information from background noise.

A role for Ca2+ stores in kainate receptor-dependent synaptic facilitation and LTP at mossy fiber synapses in the hippocampus

Compared with NMDA receptor-dependent LTP, much less is known about the mechanism of induction of NMDA receptor-independent LTP; the most extensively studied form of which is mossy fiber LTP in the hippocampus. In the present study we show that Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release from intracellular stores is involved in the induction of mossy fiber LTP. This release also contributes to the kainate receptor-dependent component of the pronounced synaptic facilitation that occurs during high-frequency stimulation. We also present evidence that the trigger for this Ca2+ release is Ca2+ permeation through kainate receptors. However, these novel synaptic mechanisms can be bypassed when the Ca2+ concentration is raised (from 2 to 4 mM), via a compensatory involvement of L-type Ca2+ channels. These findings suggest that presynaptic kainate receptors at mossy fiber synapses can initiate a cascade involving Ca2+ release from intracellular stores that is important in both short-term and long-term plasticity.

GluR5 kainate receptors, seizures, and the amygdala

The amygdala is a critical brain region for limbic seizure activity, but the mechanisms underlying its epileptic susceptibility are obscure. Several lines of evidence implicate GluR5 (GLU(K5)) kainate receptors, a type of ionotropic glutamate receptor, in the amygdala's vulnerability to seizures and epileptogenesis. GluR5 mRNA is abundant in temporal lobe structures including the amygdala. Brain slice recordings indicate that GluR5 kainate receptors mediate a portion of the synaptic excitation of neurons in the rat basolateral amygdala. Whole-cell voltage-clamp studies demonstrate that GluR5 kainate receptor-mediated synaptic currents are inwardly rectifying and are likely to be calcium permeable. Prolonged activation of basolateral amygdala GluR5 kainate receptors results in enduring synaptic facilitation through a calcium-dependent process. The selective GluR5 kainate receptor agonist ATPA induces spontaneous epileptiform bursting that is sensitive to the GluR5 kainate receptor antagonist LY293558. Intra-amygdala infusion of ATPA in the rat induces limbic status epilepticus; in some animals, recurrent spontaneous seizures occur for months after the ATPA treatment. Together, these observations indicate that GluR5 kainate receptors have a unique role in triggering epileptiform activity in the amygdala and could participate in long-term plasticity mechanisms that underlie some forms of epileptogenesis. Accordingly, GluR5 kainate receptors represent a potential target for antiepileptic and antiepileptogenic drug treatments. Most antiepileptic drugs do not act through effects on glutamate receptors. However, topiramate at low concentrations causes slow inhibition of GluR5 kainate receptor-mediated synaptic currents in the basolateral amygdala, indicating that it may protect against seizures, at least in part, through suppression of GluR5 kainate receptor responses.