Pharmacological agents acting at subtypes of metabotropic glutamate receptors

The influence of glutamate receptors on insulin release and diabetic neuropathy

Diabetes causes macrovascular and microvascular complications such as peripheral neuropathy. Glutamate regulates insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells, and its increased activity in the central nervous system is associated with peripheral neuropathy in animal models of diabetes. One strategy to modulate glutamatergic activity consists in the pharmacological manipulation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), which, compared to the ionotropic receptors, allow for a fine-tuning of neurotransmission that is compatible with therapeutic interventions. mGluRs are a family of eight G-protein coupled receptors classified into three groups (I-III) based on sequence homology, transduction mechanisms, and pharmacology. Activation of group II and III or inhibition of group I represents a strategy to counteract the glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with diabetic neuropathy. In this review article, we will discuss the role of glutamate receptors in the release of insulin and the development/treatment of diabetic neuropathy, with particular emphasis on their manipulation to prevent the glutamatergic hyperactivity associated with diabetic neuropathy.

mGlu4R, mGlu7R, and mGlu8R allosteric modulation for treating acute and chronic neurodegenerative disorders

Neuroprotection, defined as safeguarding neurons from damage and death by inhibiting diverse pathological mechanisms, continues to be a promising approach for managing a range of central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including acute conditions such as ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury (TBI) and chronic neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). These pathophysiological conditions involve excessive glutamatergic (Glu) transmission activity, which can lead to excitotoxicity. Inhibiting this excessive Glu transmission has been proposed as a potential therapeutic strategy for treating the CNS disorders mentioned. In particular, ligands of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including metabotropic glutamatergic receptors (mGluRs), have been recognized as promising options for inhibiting excessive Glu transmission. This review discusses the complex interactions of mGlu receptors with their subtypes, including the formation of homo- and heterodimers, which may vary in function and pharmacology depending on their protomer composition. Understanding these intricate details of mGlu receptor structure and function enhances researchers' ability to develop targeted pharmacological interventions, potentially offering new therapeutic avenues for neurological and psychiatric disorders. This review also summarizes the current knowledge of the neuroprotective potential of ligands targeting group III mGluRs in preclinical cellular (in vitro) and animal (in vivo) models of ischemic stroke, TBI, PD, AD, and MS. In recent years, experiments have shown that compounds, especially those activating mGlu4 or mGlu7 receptors, exhibit protective effects in experimental ischemia models. The discovery of allosteric ligands for specific mGluR subtypes has led to reports suggesting that group III mGluRs may be promising targets for neuroprotective therapy in PD (mGlu4R), TBI (mGlu7R), and MS (mGlu8R).

Adaptive Changes in Group 2 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Underlie the Deficit in Recognition Memory Induced by Methamphetamine in Mice

Cognitive dysfunction is associated with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Here, we used genetic and pharmacological approaches to examine the involvement of either Group 2 metabotropic glutamate (mGlu2) or mGlu3 receptors in memory deficit induced by methamphetamine in mice. Methamphetamine treatment (1 mg/kg, i.p., once a day for 5 d followed by 7 d of withdrawal) caused an impaired performance in the novel object recognition test in wild-type mice, but not in mGlu2-/- or mGlu3-/- mice. Memory deficit in wild-type mice challenged with methamphetamine was corrected by systemic treatment with selectively negative allosteric modulators of mGlu2 or mGlu3 receptors (compounds VU6001966 and VU0650786, respectively). Methamphetamine treatment in wild-type mice caused large increases in levels of mGlu2/3 receptors, the Type 3 activator of G-protein signaling (AGS3), Rab3A, and the vesicular glutamate transporter, vGlut1, in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Methamphetamine did not alter mGlu2/3-mediated inhibition of cAMP formation but abolished the ability of postsynaptic mGlu3 receptors to boost mGlu5 receptor-mediated inositol phospholipid hydrolysis in PFC slices. Remarkably, activation of presynaptic mGlu2/3 receptors did not inhibit but rather amplified depolarization-induced [3H]-D-aspartate release in synaptosomes prepared from the PFC of methamphetamine-treated mice. These findings demonstrate that exposure to methamphetamine causes changes in the expression and function of mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors, which might alter excitatory synaptic transmission in the PFC and raise the attractive possibility that selective inhibitors of mGlu2 or mGlu3 receptors (or both) may be used to improve cognitive dysfunction in individuals affected by MUD.

Heterodimers Revolutionize the Field of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

Identified 40 years ago, the metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors play key roles in modulating many synapses in the brain, and are still considered as important drug targets to treat various brain diseases. Eight genes encoding mGlu subunits have been identified. They code for complex receptors composed of a large extracellular domain where glutamate binds, connected to a G protein activating membrane domain. They are covalently linked dimers, a quaternary structure needed for their activation by glutamate. For many years they have only been considered as homodimers, then limiting the number of mGlu receptors to 8 subtypes composed of twice the same subunit. Twelve years ago, mGlu subunits were shown to also form heterodimers with specific subunits combinations, increasing the family up to 19 different potential dimeric receptors. Since then, a number of studies brought evidence for the existence of such heterodimers in the brain, through various approaches. Structural and molecular dynamic studies helped understand their peculiar activation process. The present review summarizes the approaches used to study their activation process and their pharmacological properties and to demonstrate their existence in vivo. We will highlight how the existence of mGlu heterodimers revolutionizes the mGlu receptor field, opening new possibilities for therapeutic intervention for brain diseases. As illustrated by the number of possible mGlu heterodimers, this study will highlight the need for further research to fully understand their role in physiological and pathological conditions, and to develop more specific therapeutic tools.

A review of dorsal root ganglia and primary sensory neuron plasticity mediating inflammatory and chronic neuropathic pain

Pain is a sensory state resulting from complex integration of peripheral nociceptive inputs and central processing. Pain consists of adaptive pain that is acute and beneficial for healing and maladaptive pain that is often persistent and pathological. Pain is indeed heterogeneous, and can be expressed as nociceptive, inflammatory, or neuropathic in nature. Neuropathic pain is an example of maladaptive pain that occurs after spinal cord injury (SCI), which triggers a wide range of neural plasticity. The nociceptive processing that underlies pain hypersensitivity is well-studied in the spinal cord. However, recent investigations show maladaptive plasticity that leads to pain, including neuropathic pain after SCI, also exists at peripheral sites, such as the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), which contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons. This review discusses the important role DRGs play in nociceptive processing that underlies inflammatory and neuropathic pain. Specifically, it highlights nociceptor hyperexcitability as critical to increased pain states. Furthermore, it reviews prior literature on glutamate and glutamate receptors, voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSC), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling in the DRG as important contributors to inflammatory and neuropathic pain. We previously reviewed BDNF's role as a bidirectional neuromodulator of spinal plasticity. Here, we shift focus to the periphery and discuss BDNF-TrkB expression on nociceptors, non-nociceptor sensory neurons, and non-neuronal cells in the periphery as a potential contributor to induction and persistence of pain after SCI. Overall, this review presents a comprehensive evaluation of large bodies of work that individually focus on pain, DRG, BDNF, and SCI, to understand their interaction in nociceptive processing.

Group I and group II metabotropic glutamate receptors are upregulated in the synapses of infant rats prenatally exposed to valproic acid

RATIONALE

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction and restricted/stereotyped behavior. Prenatal exposure to valproic acid (VPA) is associated with an increased risk of developing ASD in humans and autistic-like behaviors in rodents. Increasing evidence indicates that dysfunctions of glutamate receptors at synapses are associated with ASD. In the VPA rat model, an involvement of glutamate receptors in autism-like phenotypes has been suggested; however, few studies were carried out on metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors.

OBJECTIVES

We examined the protein expression levels of group I (mGlu1 and mGlu5) and group II (mGlu2/3) mGlu receptors in rats prenatally exposed to VPA and evaluated the effect of mGlu receptor modulation on an early autism-like phenotype in these animals.

METHODS

We used western blotting analysis on synaptosomes obtained from forebrain of control and VPA rats at different ages (postnatal day P13, 35, 90) and carried out ultrasonic vocalization (USV) emission test in infant control and VPA rats.

RESULTS

The expression levels of all these receptors were significantly increased in infant VPA rats. No changes were detected in adolescent and adult rats. An acute treatment with the preferential mGlu2/3 antagonist, LY341495, attenuated the impairment in the USV emission in VPA rats. No effect was observed after a treatment with the mGlu5 selective antagonist, MTEP.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that the expression of group I and group II mGlu receptors is upregulated at synapses of infant VPA rats and suggest that mGlu2/3 receptor modulation may have a therapeutic potential in ASD.

Targeting mGluR group III for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, is essential for neuronal function, and it acts on ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). A disturbance in glutamatergic signaling is a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases. Developing disease-modifying treatments for neurodegenerative diseases targeting glutamate receptors is a promising avenue. The understudied group III mGluR 4, 6-8 are commonly found in the presynaptic membrane, and their activation inhibits glutamate release. Thus, targeted mGluRs therapies could aid in treating neurodegenerative diseases. This review describes group III mGluRs and their pharmacological ligands in the context of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and Huntington's diseases. Attempts to evaluate the efficacy of these drugs in clinical trials are also discussed. Despite a growing list of group III mGluR-specific pharmacological ligands, research on the use of these drugs in neurodegenerative diseases is limited, except for Parkinson's disease. Future efforts should focus on delineating the contribution of group III mGluR to neurodegeneration and developing novel ligands with superior efficacy and a favorable side effect profile for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Presynaptic glutamate receptors in nociception

Chronic pain is a frequent, distressing and poorly understood health problem. Plasticity of synaptic transmission in the nociceptive pathways after inflammation or injury is assumed to be an important cellular basis for chronic, pathological pain. Glutamate serves as the main excitatory neurotransmitter at key synapses in the somatosensory nociceptive pathways, in which it acts on both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Although conventionally postsynaptic, compelling anatomical and physiological evidence demonstrates the presence of presynaptic glutamate receptors in the nociceptive pathways. Presynaptic glutamate receptors play crucial roles in nociceptive synaptic transmission and plasticity. They modulate presynaptic neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity, which in turn regulates pain sensitization. In this review, we summarize the latest understanding of the expression of presynaptic glutamate receptors in the nociceptive pathways, and how they contribute to nociceptive information processing and pain hypersensitivity associated with inflammation / injury. We uncover the cellular and molecular mechanisms of presynaptic glutamate receptors in shaping synaptic transmission and plasticity to mediate pain chronicity, which may provide therapeutic approaches for treatment of chronic pain.

Activation of mGlu2/3 receptors in the striatum alleviates L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia and inhibits abnormal postsynaptic molecular expression

Group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu2/3 receptors) have been regarded as promising candidates for the treatment of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia (LID); however, confirmation is still lacking. As the hub of the basal ganglia circuit, the striatum plays a critical role in action control. Supersensitive responsiveness of glutamatergic corticostriatal input may be the key mechanism for the development of LID. In this study, we first examined the potency of LY354740 (12 mg/kg, i.p.) in modulating glutamate and dopamine release in lesioned striatum of stable LID rats. Then, we injected LY354740 (20nmoL or 40nmoL in 4 μL of sterile 0.9 % saline) directly into the lesioned striatum to verify its ability to reduce or attenuate L-DOPA-induced abnormal involuntary movements. In experiment conducted in established LID rats, after continuous injection for 4 days, we found that LY354740 significantly reduced the expression of dyskinesia. In another experiment conducted in parkinsonism rat models, we found that LY354740 attenuated the development of LID with an inverted-U dose-response curve. The role of LY354740 in modulating striatal expressions of LID-related molecular changes was also assessed after these behavioral experiments. We found that LY354740 significantly inhibited abnormal expressions of p-Fyn/p-NMDA/p-ERK1/2/p-HistoneH3/ΔFosB, which is in line with its ability to alleviate abnormal involuntary movements in both LID expression and induction phase. Our study indicates that activation of striatal mGlu2/3 receptors can attenuate the development of dyskinesia in parkinsonism rats and provide some functional improvements in LID rats by inhibiting LID-related molecular changes.

EAAT5 glutamate transporter rapidly binds glutamate with micromolar affinity in mouse rods

Light responses of rod photoreceptor cells in the retina are encoded by changes in synaptic glutamate release that is in turn shaped by reuptake involving EAAT5 plasma membrane glutamate transporters. Heterologously expressed EAAT5 activates too slowly upon glutamate binding to support significant uptake. We tested EAAT5 activation in mouse rods in vivo by stimulating glutamate transporter anion currents (IA(glu)) with UV flash photolysis of MNI-glutamate, varying flash intensity to vary glutamate levels. Responses to uncaging rose rapidly with time constants of 2-3 ms, similar to IA(glu) events arising from spontaneous release. Spontaneous release events and IA(glu) evoked by weak flashes also declined with similar time constants of 40-50 ms. Stronger flashes evoked responses that decayed more slowly. Time constants were twofold faster at 35°C, suggesting that they reflect transporter kinetics, not diffusion. Selective EAAT1 and EAAT2 inhibitors had no significant effect, suggesting IA(glu) in rods arises solely from EAAT5. We calibrated glutamate levels attained during flash photolysis by expressing a fluorescent glutamate sensor iGluSnFr in cultured epithelial cells. We compared fluorescence at different glutamate concentrations to fluorescence evoked by photolytic uncaging of MNI-glutamate. The relationship between flash intensity and glutamate yielded EC50 values for EAAT5 amplitude, decay time, and rise time of ∼10 μM. Micromolar affinity and rapid activation of EAAT5 in rods show it can rapidly bind synaptic glutamate. However, we also found that EAAT5 currents are saturated by the synchronous release of only a few vesicles, suggesting limited capacity and a role for glial uptake at higher release rates.

Differential Activity of Orthosteric Agonists and Allosteric Modulators at Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 7

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGlu7) is a G protein coupled receptor that has demonstrated promise as a therapeutic target across a number of neurologic and psychiatric diseases. Compounds that modulate the activity of mGlu7, such as positive and negative allosteric modulators, may represent new therapeutic strategies to modulate receptor activity. The endogenous neurotransmitter associated with the mGlu receptor family, glutamate, exhibits low efficacy and potency in activating mGlu7, and surrogate agonists, such as the compound L-(+)-2-Amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (L-AP4), are often used for receptor activation and compound profiling. To understand the implications of the use of such agonists in the development of positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), we performed a systematic evaluation of receptor activation using a system in which mutations can be made in either protomer of the mGlu7 dimer; we employed mutations that prevent interaction with the orthosteric site as well as the G-protein coupling site of the receptor. We then measured increases in calcium levels downstream of a promiscuous G protein to assess the effects of mutations in one of the two protomers in the presence of two different agonists and three positive allosteric modulators. Our results reveal that distinct PAMs, for example N-[3-Chloro-4-[(5-chloro-2-pyridinyl)oxy]phenyl]-2-pyridinecarboxamide (VU0422288) and 3-(2,3-Difluoro-4-methoxyphenyl)-2,5-dimethyl-7-(trifluoromethyl)pyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidine (VU6005649), do exhibit different maximal levels of potentiation with L-AP4 versus glutamate, but there appear to be common stable receptor conformations that are shared among all of the compounds examined here. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This manuscript describes the systematic evaluation of the mGlu7 agonists glutamate and L-(+)-2-Amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (L-AP4) in the presence and absence of three distinct potentiators examining possible mechanistic differences. These findings demonstrate that mGlu7 potentiators display subtle variances in response to glutamate versus L-AP4.

GPCR interactions involving metabotropic glutamate receptors and their relevance to the pathophysiology and treatment of CNS disorders

Cellular responses to metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor activation are shaped by mechanisms of receptor-receptor interaction. mGlu receptor subtypes form homodimers, intra- or inter-group heterodimers, and heteromeric complexes with other G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). In addition, mGlu receptors may functionally interact with other receptors through the βγ subunits released from G proteins in response to receptor activation or other mechanisms. Here, we discuss the interactions between (i) mGlu₁ and GABA_B receptors in cerebellar Purkinje cells; (ii) mGlu₂ and 5-HT_2Aserotonergic receptors in the prefrontal cortex; (iii) mGlu₅ and A_2A receptors or mGlu₅ and D₁ dopamine receptors in medium spiny projection neurons of the indirect and direct pathways of the basal ganglia motor circuit; (iv) mGlu₅ and A_2A receptors in relation to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease; and (v) mGlu₇ and A₁ adenosine or α- or β₁ adrenergic receptors. In addition, we describe in detail a novel form of non-heterodimeric interaction between mGlu₃ and mGlu₅ receptors, which appears to be critically involved in mechanisms of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Finally, we highlight the potential implication of these interactions in the pathophysiology and treatment of cerebellar disorders, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias, stress-related disorders, and cognitive dysfunctions.

Intrauterine Smoke Exposure, microRNA Expression during Human Lung Development, and Childhood Asthma

Intrauterine smoke (IUS) exposure during early childhood has been associated with a number of negative health consequences, including reduced lung function and asthma susceptibility. The biological mechanisms underlying these associations have not been established. MicroRNAs regulate the expression of numerous genes involved in lung development. Thus, investigation of the impact of IUS on miRNA expression during human lung development may elucidate the impact of IUS on post-natal respiratory outcomes. We sought to investigate the effect of IUS exposure on miRNA expression during early lung development. We hypothesized that miRNA-mRNA networks are dysregulated by IUS during human lung development and that these miRNAs may be associated with future risk of asthma and allergy. Human fetal lung samples from a prenatal tissue retrieval program were tested for differential miRNA expression with IUS exposure (measured using placental cotinine concentration). RNA was extracted and miRNA-sequencing was performed. We performed differential expression using IUS exposure, with covariate adjustment. We also considered the above model with an additional sex-by-IUS interaction term, allowing IUS effects to differ by male and female samples. Using paired gene expression profiles, we created sex-stratified miRNA-mRNA correlation networks predictive of IUS using DIABLO. We additionally evaluated whether miRNAs were associated with asthma and allergy outcomes in a cohort of childhood asthma. We profiled pseudoglandular lung miRNA in n = 298 samples, 139 (47%) of which had evidence of IUS exposure. Of 515 miRNAs, 25 were significantly associated with intrauterine smoke exposure (q-value < 0.10). The IUS associated miRNAs were correlated with well-known asthma genes (e.g., ORM1-Like Protein 3, ORDML3) and enriched in disease-relevant pathways (oxidative stress). Eleven IUS-miRNAs were also correlated with clinical measures (e.g., Immunoglobulin E andlungfunction) in children with asthma, further supporting their likely disease relevance. Lastly, we found substantial differences in IUS effects by sex, finding 95 significant IUS-miRNAs in male samples, but only four miRNAs in female samples. The miRNA-mRNA correlation networks were predictive of IUS (AUC = 0.78 in males and 0.86 in females) and suggested that IUS-miRNAs are involved in regulation of disease-relevant genes (e.g., A disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain 19 (ADAM19), LBH regulator of WNT signaling (LBH)) and sex hormone signaling (Coactivator associated methyltransferase 1(CARM1)). Our study demonstrated differential expression of miRNAs by IUS during early prenatal human lung development, which may be modified by sex. Based on their gene targets and correlation to clinical asthma and atopy outcomes, these IUS-miRNAs may be relevant for subsequent allergy and asthma risk. Our study provides insight into the impact of IUS in human fetal lung transcriptional networks and on the developmental origins of asthma and allergic disorders.

Zebrafish and medaka T1R (taste receptor type 1) proteins mediate highly sensitive recognition of l-proline

In vertebrates, nutritional tastants, such as amino acids and sugars, are recognized by G-protein-coupled receptors of the taste receptor type 1 (T1R) family. Previous studies have shown that fish T1Rs are functionally distinct from mammalian T1Rs in certain regards. Here, we report the existence of oral receptors with high sensitivity to amino acids in zebrafish and medaka fish. We describe the construction of multiple cell lines stably expressing functional T1Rs (from medaka fish or zebrafish) with a chimeric G-protein (G16gust44) using the Flp-In system. Through functional assays with these cell lines, medaka fish and zebrafish were confirmed to possess particular T1Rs highly sensitive to l-proline, possibly reflecting the physiological importance of l-proline in teleosts, in line with previous studies.

Modulation of circuit oscillations in the rat anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in vitro by mGlu2 metabotropic glutamate receptors and alleviation of the effects of phencyclidine-induced NMDA-receptor hypofunction

Aberrant cortical oscillations in the beta and gamma range are associated with symptoms of schizophrenia and other psychiatric conditions. We have thus investigated the ability of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in vitro to generate beta and gamma oscillations, and how these are affected by Group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor activation and blockade of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Activation of Group II mGlu receptors, and mGlu2 specifically, with orthosteric agonists reduced the power of both beta and gamma oscillations in ACC without a significant effect on oscillation peak frequencies. The NMDA receptor blocker phencyclidine (PCP), known to evoke certain schizophrenia-like symptoms in humans, elevated the power of beta oscillations in ACC and caused a shift in oscillation frequency from the gamma range to the beta range. These enhanced beta oscillations were reduced by the Group II mGlu receptor agonists. These results show that Group II mGlu receptors, and specifically mGlu2, modulate network oscillations. Furthermore, attenuation of the effect of PCP suggests that mGlu2 receptors may stabilise aberrant network activity. These results underline the importance of Group II mGlu receptors, and particularly mGlu2, as targets for the treatment of neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases.

Design and Synthesis of New Quinazolin-4-one Derivatives with Negative mGlu7 Receptor Modulation Activity and Antipsychotic-Like Properties

Following the glutamatergic theory of schizophrenia and based on our previous study regarding the antipsychotic-like activity of mGlu₇ NAMs, we synthesized a new compound library containing 103 members, which were examined for NAM mGlu₇ activity in the T-REx 293 cell line expressing a recombinant human mGlu₇ receptor. Out of the twenty-two scaffolds examined, active compounds were found only within the quinazolinone chemotype. 2-(2-Chlorophenyl)-6-(2,3-dimethoxyphenyl)-3-methylquinazolin-4(3H)-one (A9-7, ALX-171, mGlu₇ IC₅₀ = 6.14 µM) was selective over other group III mGlu receptors (mGlu₄ and mGlu₈), exhibited satisfactory drug-like properties in preliminary DMPK profiling, and was further tested in animal models of antipsychotic-like activity, assessing the positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. ALX-171 reversed DOI-induced head twitches and MK-801-induced disruptions of social interactions or cognition in the novel object recognition test and spatial delayed alternation test. On the other hand, the efficacy of the compound was not observed in the MK-801-induced hyperactivity test or prepulse inhibition. In summary, the observed antipsychotic activity profile of ALX-171 justifies the further development of the group of quinazolin-4-one derivatives in the search for a new drug candidate for schizophrenia treatment.

Advances in translating mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptor selective allosteric modulators as breakthrough treatments for affective disorders and alcohol use disorder

Metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are promising targets for the treatment of affective disorders and alcohol use disorder (AUD). Nonspecific ligands for Group II (mGlu2 and mGlu3) mGlu receptors have demonstrated consistent therapeutic potential for affective disorders in preclinical models. Disentangling the specific roles of mGlu2 versus mGlu3 receptors in these effects has persisted as a major challenge, in part due to pharmacological limitations. However, the recent development of highly specific allosteric modulators for both mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors have enabled straightforward and rigorous investigations into the specific function of each receptor. Here, we review recent experiments using these compounds that have demonstrated both similar and distinct receptor functions in behavioral, molecular, and electrophysiological measures associated with basal function and preclinical models of affective disorders. Studies using these selective drugs have demonstrated that mGlu2 is the predominant receptor subclass involved in presynaptic neurotransmitter release in prefrontal cortex. By contrast, the activation of postsynaptic mGlu3 receptors induces a cascade of cellular changes that results in AMPA receptor internalization, producing long-term depression and diminishing excitatory drive. Acute stress decreases the mGlu3 receptor function and dynamically alters transcript expression for both mGlu2 (Grm2) and mGlu3 (Grm3) receptors in brain areas involved in reward and stress. Accordingly, both mGlu2 and mGlu3 negative allosteric modulators show acute antidepressant-like effects and potential prophylactic effects against acute and traumatic stressors. The wide array of effects displayed by these new allosteric modulators of mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors suggest that these drugs may act through improving endophenotypes of symptoms observed across several neuropsychiatric disorders. Therefore, recently developed allosteric modulators selective for mGlu2 or mGlu3 receptors show promise as potential therapeutics for affective disorders and AUD.

Recent Advances in the Modulation of Pain by the Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR or mGlu) are G-protein coupled receptors activated by the binding of glutamate, the main classical neurotransmitter of the nervous system. Eight different mGluR subtypes (mGluR1-8) have been cloned and are classified in three groups based on their molecular, pharmacological and signaling properties. mGluRs mediate several physiological functions such as neuronal excitability and synaptic plasticity, but they have also been implicated in numerous pathological conditions including pain. The availability of new and more selective allosteric modulators together with the canonical orthosteric ligands and transgenic technologies has led to significant advances in our knowledge about the role of the specific mGluR subtypes in the pathophysiological mechanisms of various diseases. Although development of successful compounds acting on mGluRs for clinical use has been scarce, the subtype-specific-pharmacological manipulation might be a compelling approach for the treatment of several disorders in humans, including pain; this review aims to summarize and update on preclinical evidence for the roles of different mGluRs in the pain system and discusses knowledge gaps regarding mGluR-related sex differences and neuroimmune signaling in pain.

Subsynaptic mobility of presynaptic mGluR types is differentially regulated by intra- and extracellular interactions

Presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are essential for the control of synaptic transmission. However, how the subsynaptic dynamics of these receptors is controlled and contributes to synaptic signaling remain poorly understood quantitatively. Particularly, since the affinity of individual mGluR subtypes for glutamate differs considerably, the activation of mGluR subtypes critically depends on their precise subsynaptic distribution. Here, using superresolution microscopy and single-molecule tracking, we unravel novel molecular mechanisms that control the nanoscale distribution and mobility of presynaptic mGluRs in hippocampal neurons. We demonstrate that the high-affinity group II receptor mGluR2 localizes diffusely along the axon, and is highly mobile, while the low-affinity group III receptor mGluR7 is stably anchored at the active zone. We demonstrate that intracellular interactions modulate surface diffusion of mGluR2, while immobilization of mGluR7 at the active zone relies on its extracellular domain. Receptor activation or increases in synaptic activity do not alter the surface mobility of presynaptic mGluRs. Finally, computational modeling of presynaptic mGluR activity revealed that this particular nanoscale arrangement directly impacts their ability to modulate neurotransmitter release. Altogether, this study demonstrates that distinct mechanisms control surface mobility of presynaptic mGluRs to contribute differentially to glutamatergic synaptic transmission.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor orthosteric ligands and their binding sites

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) have been discovered almost four decades ago. Since then, their pharmacology has been largely developed as well as their structural organization. Indeed mGluRs are attractive therapeutic targets for numerous psychiatric and neurological disorders because of their modulating role of synaptic transmission. The more recent drug discovery programs have mostly concentrated on allosteric modulators. However, orthosteric agonists and antagonists have remained unavoidable pharmacological tools as, although not expected, many of them can reach the brain, or can be modified to reach the brain. This review focuses on the most common orthosteric ligands as well as on the few allosteric modulators interacting with the glutamate binding domain. The 3D-structures of these ligands at their binding sites are reported. For most of them, X-Ray structures or docked homology models are available. Because of the high conservation of the binding site, subtype selective agonists were not easy to find. Yet, some were discovered when extending their chemical structures in order to reach selective sites of the receptors.

Membrane trafficking and positioning of mGluRs at presynaptic and postsynaptic sites of excitatory synapses

The plethora of functions of glutamate in the brain are mediated by the complementary actions of ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The ionotropic glutamate receptors carry most of the fast excitatory transmission, while mGluRs modulate transmission on longer timescales by triggering multiple intracellular signaling pathways. As such, mGluRs mediate critical aspects of synaptic transmission and plasticity. Interestingly, at synapses, mGluRs operate at both sides of the cleft, and thus bidirectionally exert the effects of glutamate. At postsynaptic sites, group I mGluRs act to modulate excitability and plasticity. At presynaptic sites, group II and III mGluRs act as auto-receptors, modulating release properties in an activity-dependent manner. Thus, synaptic mGluRs are essential signal integrators that functionally couple presynaptic and postsynaptic mechanisms of transmission and plasticity. Understanding how these receptors reach the membrane and are positioned relative to the presynaptic glutamate release site are therefore important aspects of synapse biology. In this review, we will discuss the currently known mechanisms underlying the trafficking and positioning of mGluRs at and around synapses, and how these mechanisms contribute to synaptic functioning. We will highlight outstanding questions and present an outlook on how recent technological developments will move this exciting research field forward.

G-protein coupled receptors and synaptic plasticity in sleep deprivation

Insufficient sleep has been correlated to many physiological and psychoneurological disorders. Over the years, our understanding of the state of sleep has transcended from an inactive period of rest to a more active state involving important cellular and molecular processes. In addition, during sleep, electrophysiological changes also occur in pathways in specific regions of the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Activity mediated synaptic plasticity in the CNS can lead to long-term and sometimes permanent strengthening and/or weakening synaptic strength affecting neuronal network behaviour. Memory consolidation and learning that take place during sleep cycles, can be affected by changes in synaptic plasticity during sleep disturbances. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), with their versatile structural and functional attributes, can regulate synaptic plasticity in CNS and hence, may be potentially affected in sleep deprived conditions. In this review, we aim to discuss important functional changes that can take place in the CNS during sleep and sleep deprivation and how changes in GPCRs can lead to potential problems with therapeutics with pharmacological interventions.

New pyrido[3′,2′:4,5]thieno[3,2-d]pyrimidin-4(3H)-one hybrids linked to arene units: synthesis of potential MRSA, VRE, and COX-2 inhibitors

In the current study, we reported the tandem synthesis of two series of arene-linked pyrimidinone hybrids with related fused thieno[2,3-b]pyridine moiety. The target hybrids were prepared, in moderate to excellent yields, by the reaction of a ternary mixture of the appropriate of 3-aminothieno[2,3-b]pyridine-2-carboxylate, DMF-DMA, and a series of aryl amines in dioxane at 110 °C for 8 h. The antibacterial activity of the new hybrids was estimated against six susceptible ATCC strains. Hybrids 5g and 7g, linked to a sulfonamide unit, showed the best efficacy against S. aureus and E. faecalis strains with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 1.7–1.8 μM, which exceed ciprofloxacin. Furthermore, some of new hybrids were examined as potential inhibitors of four different MRSA and VRE strains. Hybrids 5g and 7g demonstrated more potent efficacy than linezolid against MRSA strains with MIC values of 3.6/3.4 and 1.8/1.7 μM against ATCC:33591 and ATCC:43300 strains, respectively. The prior hybrids displayed a comparable efficacy with linezolid against VRE strains with MIC values of 7.3/6.9 and 3.6/3.4 μM against ATCC:51299 and ATCC:51575 strains, respectively. Additionally, some of the new hybrids were examined as potential COX-2 inhibitors using the reference celecoxib (IC50 of 0.117 µM). Hybrid 7g revealed more potent inhibitory efficacy than celecoxib with IC50 of 0.112 µM, whereas hybrid 5g showed almost inhibitory activity equivalent to celecoxib with IC50 of 0.121 µM. Molecular docking was performed to predict the possible binding interactions between hybrids 5g and 7g with the target COX-2 enzyme.

Sensitivity, specificity and limitation of in vitro hippocampal slice and neuron-based assays for assessment of drug-induced seizure liability

An effective in vitro screening assay to detect seizure liability in preclinical development can contribute to better lead molecule optimization prior to candidate selection, providing higher throughput and overcoming potential brain exposure limitations in animal studies. This study explored effects of 26 positive and 14 negative reference pharmacological agents acting through different mechanisms, including 18 reference agents acting on glutamate signaling pathways, in a brain slice assay (BSA) of adult rat to define the assay's sensitivity, specificity, and limitations. Evoked population spikes (PS) were recorded from CA1 pyramidal neurons of hippocampus (HPC) in the BSA. Endpoints for analysis were PS area and PS number. Most positive references (24/26) elicited a concentration-dependent increase in PS area and/or PS number. The negative references (14/14) had little effect on the PS. Moreover, we studied the effects of 15 reference agents testing positive in the BSA on spontaneous activity in E18 rat HPC neurons monitored with microelectrode arrays (MEA), and compared these effects to the BSA results. From these in vitro studies we conclude that the BSA provides 93% sensitivity and 100% specificity in prediction of drug-induced seizure liability, including detecting seizurogenicity by 3 groups of metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) ligands. The MEA results seemed more variable, both quantitatively and directionally, particularly for endpoints capturing synchronized electrical activity. We discuss these results from the two models, comparing each with published results, and provide potential explanations for differences and future directions.

Rescue of BDNF expression by the thalamic parafascicular nucleus with chronic treatment with the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 may contribute to the LY379268 rescue of enkephalinergic striatal projection neurons in R6/2 Huntington's disease mice

We have found that daily subcutaneous injection with a maximum tolerated dose of the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 (20 mg/kg) beginning at 4 weeks of age dramatically improves the motor, neuronal and neurochemical phenotype in R6/2 mice, a rapidly progressing transgenic model of Huntington's disease (HD). We also previously showed that the benefit of daily LY379268 in R6/2 mice was associated with increases in corticostriatal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and in particular was associated with a reduction in enkephalinergic striatal projection neuron loss. In the present study, we show that daily LY379268 also rescues expression of BDNF by neurons of the thalamic parafascicular nucleus in R6/2 mice, which projects prominently to the striatum, and this increase too is linked to the rescue of enkephalinergic striatal neurons. Thus, LY379268 may protect enkephalinergic striatal projection neurons from loss by boosting BDNF production and delivery via both the corticostriatal and thalamostriatal projection systems. These results suggest that chronic treatment with mGluR2/3 agonists may represent an approach for slowing enkephalinergic neuron loss in HD, and perhaps progression in general.

Activating mGlu3 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Rescues Schizophrenia-like Cognitive Deficits Through Metaplastic Adaptations Within the Hippocampus

BACKGROUND

Polymorphisms in GRM3, the gene encoding the mGlu₃ metabotropic glutamate receptor, are associated with impaired cognition and neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Limited availability of selective genetic and molecular tools has hindered progress in developing a clear understanding of the mechanisms through which mGlu₃ receptors regulate synaptic plasticity and cognition.

METHODS

We examined associative learning in mice with trace fear conditioning, a hippocampal-dependent learning task disrupted in patients with schizophrenia. Underlying cellular mechanisms were assessed using ex vivo hippocampal slice preparations with selective pharmacological tools and selective genetic deletion of mGlu₃ receptor expression in specific neuronal subpopulations.

RESULTS

mGlu₃ receptor activation enhanced trace fear conditioning and reversed deficits induced by subchronic phencyclidine. Mechanistic studies revealed that mGlu₃ receptor activation induced metaplastic changes, biasing afferent stimulation to induce long-term potentiation through an mGlu₅ receptor-dependent, endocannabinoid-mediated, disinhibitory mechanism. Selective genetic deletion of either mGlu₃ or mGlu₅ from hippocampal pyramidal cells eliminated effects of mGlu₃ activation, revealing a novel mechanism by which mGlu₃ and mGlu₅ interact to enhance cognitive function.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrate that activation of mGlu₃ receptors in hippocampal pyramidal cells enhances hippocampal-dependent cognition in control and impaired mice by inducing a novel form of metaplasticity to regulate circuit function, providing a clear mechanism through which genetic variation in GRM3 can contribute to cognitive deficits. Developing approaches to positively modulate mGlu₃ receptor function represents an encouraging new avenue for treating cognitive disruption in schizophrenia and other psychiatric diseases.

Synaptic plasticity in Alzheimer's disease and healthy aging

The strength and efficiency of synaptic connections are affected by the environment or the experience of the individual. This property, called synaptic plasticity, is directly related to memory and learning processes and has been modeled at the cellular level. These types of cellular memory and learning models include specific stimulation protocols that generate a long-term strengthening of the synapses, called long-term potentiation, or a weakening of the said long-term synapses, called long-term depression. Although, for decades, researchers have believed that the main cause of the cognitive deficit that characterizes Alzheimer's disease (AD) and aging was the loss of neurons, the hypothesis of an imbalance in the cellular and molecular mechanisms of synaptic plasticity underlying this deficit is currently widely accepted. An understanding of the molecular and cellular changes underlying the process of synaptic plasticity during the development of AD and aging will direct future studies to specific targets, resulting in the development of much more efficient and specific therapeutic strategies. In this review, we classify, discuss, and describe the main findings related to changes in the neurophysiological mechanisms of synaptic plasticity in excitatory synapses underlying AD and aging. In addition, we suggest possible mechanisms in which aging can become a high-risk factor for the development of AD and how its development could be prevented or slowed.

The G Protein-Coupled Glutamate Receptors as Novel Molecular Targets in Schizophrenia Treatment-A Narrative Review

Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disease with an unknown etiology. The research into the neurobiology of this disease led to several models aimed at explaining the link between perturbations in brain function and the manifestation of psychotic symptoms. The glutamatergic hypothesis postulates that disrupted glutamate neurotransmission may mediate cognitive and psychosocial impairments by affecting the connections between the cortex and the thalamus. In this regard, the greatest attention has been given to ionotropic NMDA receptor hypofunction. However, converging data indicates metabotropic glutamate receptors as crucial for cognitive and psychomotor function. The distribution of these receptors in the brain regions related to schizophrenia and their regulatory role in glutamate release make them promising molecular targets for novel antipsychotics. This article reviews the progress in the research on the role of metabotropic glutamate receptors in schizophrenia etiopathology.

N-Acetylcysteine causes analgesia in a mouse model of painful diabetic neuropathy

N-Acetylcysteine, one of the most prescribed antioxidant drugs, enhances pain threshold in rodents and humans by activating mGlu2 metabotropic glutamate receptors. Here, we assessed the analgesic activity of N-acetylcysteine in the streptozotocin model of painful diabetic neuropathy and examined the effect of N-acetylcysteine on proteins that are involved in mechanisms of nociceptive sensitization. Mice with blood glucose levels ≥250 mg/dl in response to a single intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of streptozotocin (200 mg/kg) were used for the assessment of mechanical pain thresholds. Systemic treatment with N-acetylcysteine (100 mg/kg, i.p., either single injection or daily injections for seven days) caused analgesia in diabetic mice. N-acetylcysteine-induced analgesia was abrogated by the Sxc− inhibitors, sulfasalazine (8 mg/kg, i.p.), erastin (30 mg/kg, i.p.), and sorafenib (10 mg/kg, i.p.), or by the mGlu2/3 receptor antagonist, LY341495 (1 mg/kg, i.p.). Repeated administrations of N-acetylcysteine in diabetic mice reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the dorsal region of the lumbar spinal cord. The analgesic activity of N-acetylcysteine was occluded by the MEK inhibitor, PD0325901 (25 mg/kg, i.p.), the TRPV1 channel blocker, capsazepine (40 mg/kg, i.p.), or by a cocktail of NMDA and mGlu5 metabotropic glutamate receptor antagonists (memantine, 25 mg/kg, plus MTEP, 5 mg/kg, both i.p.). These findings offer the first demonstration that N-acetylcysteine relieves pain associated with diabetic neuropathy and holds promise for the use of N-acetylcysteine as an add-on drug in diabetic patients.

Administration of N-acetylcysteine Plus Acetylsalicylic Acid Markedly Inhibits Nicotine Reinstatement Following Chronic Oral Nicotine Intake in Female Rats

Background

Nicotine is the major addictive component of cigarette smoke and the prime culprit of the failure to quit smoking. Common elements perpetuating the use of addictive drugs are (i) cues associated with the setting in which drug was used and (ii) relapse/reinstatement mediated by an increased glutamatergic tone (iii) associated with drug-induced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress.

Aims

The present study assessed the effect of the coadministration of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) plus the anti-inflammatory acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) on oral nicotine reinstatement intake following a post-deprivation re-access in female rats that had chronically and voluntarily consumed a nicotine solution orally. The nicotine-induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus and its effects on the glutamate transporters GLT-1 and XCT mRNA levels in prefrontal cortex were also analyzed.

Results

The oral coadministration of NAC (40 mg/kg/day) and ASA (15 mg/kg/day) inhibited by 85% of the oral nicotine reinstatement intake compared to control (vehicle), showing an additive effect of both drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid and N-acetylcysteine normalized hippocampal oxidative stress and blunted the hippocampal neuroinflammation observed upon oral nicotine reinstatement. Nicotine downregulated GLT-1 and xCT gene expression in the prefrontal cortex, an effect reversed by N-acetylcysteine, while acetylsalicylic acid reversed the nicotine-induced downregulation of GLT-1 gene expression. The inhibitory effect of N-acetylcysteine on chronic nicotine intake was blocked by the administration of sulfasalazine, an inhibitor of the xCT transporter.

Conclusion

Nicotine reinstatement, following post-deprivation of chronic oral nicotine intake, downregulates the mRNA levels of GLT-1 and xCT transporters, an effect reversed by the coadministration of N-acetylcysteine and acetylsalicylic acid, leading to a marked inhibition of nicotine intake. The combination of these drugs may constitute a valuable adjunct in the treatment of nicotine-dependent behaviors.

Allosteric Molecular Switches in Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu) are class C G protein-coupled receptors of eight subtypes that are omnipresently expressed in the central nervous system. mGlus have relevance in several psychiatric and neurological disorders, therefore they raise considerable interest as drug targets. Allosteric modulators of mGlus offer advantages over orthosteric ligands owing to their increased potential to achieve subtype selectivity, and this has prompted discovery programs that have produced a large number of reported allosteric mGlu ligands. However, the optimization of allosteric ligands into drug candidates has proved to be challenging owing to induced-fit effects, flat or steep structure-activity relationships and unexpected changes in theirpharmacology. Subtle structural changes identified as molecular switches might modulate the functional activity of allosteric ligands. Here we review these switches discovered in the metabotropic glutamate receptor family..

Selective activation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 blocks paclitaxel-induced acute neuropathic pain and suppresses spinal glial reactivity in rats

RATIONALE

Paclitaxel-induced acute pain syndrome (P-APS), characterized by deep muscle aches and arthralgia, occurs in more than 70% of patients who receive paclitaxel. P-APS can be debilitating for patients and lead to reductions and discontinuation of potentially curable therapy. Despite being relatively common in clinical practice, no clear treatment exists for P-APS and the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. Regulation of glutamatergic transmission by metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) has received growing attention with respect to its role in neuropathic pain. To our knowledge, no study has been conducted on alterations and functions of group III mGluR7 signaling in P-APS.

OBJECTIVES

In the present study, we determined whether a single administration of paclitaxel induces glutamatergic alterations and whether mGluR7 activation blocks paclitaxel-induced neuropathic pain by suppressing glial reactivity in the spinal cord.

RESULTS

A single paclitaxel injection dose-dependently induced acute mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity, and was associated with increased glutamate level accompanied by reduction in mGluR7 expression in the spinal cord. Selective activation of mGluR7 by its positive allosteric modulator, AMN082, blocked the development of paclitaxel-induced acute mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity, without affecting the normal pain behavior of control rats. Moreover, activation of mGluR7 by AMN082 inhibited glial reactivity and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine release during P-APS. Abortion of spinal glial reaction to paclitaxel alleviated paclitaxel-induced acute mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity.

CONCLUSIONS

There results support the hypothesis that spinal mGluR7 signaling plays an important role in P-APS; Selective activation of mGluR7 by its positive allosteric modulator, AMN082, blocks P-APS in part by reducing spinal glial reactivity and neuroinflammatory process.

Regulation of Glutamatergic Activity via Bidirectional Activation of Two Select Receptors as a Novel Approach in Antipsychotic Drug Discovery

Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that affects approximately 1-2% of the population and develops in early adulthood. The disease is characterized by positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. A large percentage of patients with schizophrenia have a treatment-resistant disease, and the risk of developing adverse effects is high. Many researchers have attempted to introduce new antipsychotic drugs to the clinic, but most of these treatments failed, and the diversity of schizophrenic symptoms is one of the causes of disappointing results. The present review summarizes the results of our latest papers, showing that the simultaneous activation of two receptors with sub-effective doses of their ligands induces similar effects as the highest dose of each compound alone. The treatments were focused on inhibiting the increased glutamate release responsible for schizophrenia arousal, without interacting with dopamine (D₂) receptors. Ligands activating metabotropic receptors for glutamate, GABA_B or muscarinic receptors were used, and the compounds were administered in several different combinations. Some combinations reversed all schizophrenia-related deficits in animal models, but others were active only in select models of schizophrenia symptoms (i.e., cognitive or negative symptoms).

The Cold Case of Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 6: Unjust Detention in the Retina?

It is a common opinion that metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 6 (mGluR6) is expressed exclusively in the retina, and in particular in the dendrites of ON-bipolar cells. Glutamate released in darkness from photoreceptors activates mGluR6, which is negatively associated with a membrane non-selective cation channel, the transient receptor potential melanoma-related 1, TRPM1, resulting in cell hyperpolarization. The evidence that mGluR6 is expressed not only in the retina but also in other tissues and cell populations has accumulated over time. The expression of mGluR6 has been identified in microglia, bone marrow stromal and prostate cancer cells, B lymphocytes, melanocytes and keratinocytes and non-neural tissues such as testis, kidney, cornea, conjunctiva, and eyelid. The receptor also appears to be expressed in brain areas, such as the hypothalamus, cortex, hippocampus, nucleus of tractus solitarius, superior colliculus, axons of the corpus callosum and accessory olfactory bulb. The pharmacological activation of mGluR6 in the hippocampus produced an anxiolytic-like effect and in the periaqueductal gray analgesic potential. This review aims to collect all the evidence on the expression and functioning of mGluR6 outside the retina that has been accumulated over the years for a broader view of the potential of the receptor whose retinal confinement appears understimated.

N-Acetylcysteine and Acetylsalicylic Acid Inhibit Alcohol Consumption by Different Mechanisms: Combined Protection

Chronic ethanol intake results in brain oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, which have been postulated to perpetuate alcohol intake and to induce alcohol relapse. The present study assessed the mechanisms involved in the inhibition of: (i) oxidative stress; (ii) neuroinflammation; and (iii) ethanol intake that follow the administration of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and the anti-inflammatory acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) to animals that had consumed ethanol chronically. At doses used clinically, NAC [40 mg/kg per day orally (p.o.)] and ASA (15 mg/kg per day p.o.) significantly inhibited chronic alcohol intake and relapse intake in alcohol-preferring rats. The coadministration of both drugs reduced ethanol intake by 65% to 70%. N-acetylcysteine administration: (a) induced the Nrf2-ARE system, lowering the hippocampal oxidative stress assessed as the ratio of oxidized glutathione (GSSG)/reduced glutathione (GSH); (b) reduced the neuroinflammation assessed by astrocyte and microglial activation by immunofluorescence; and (c) inhibited chronic and relapse ethanol intake. These effects were blocked by sulfasalazine, an inhibitor of the xCT transporter, which incorporates cystine (precursor of GSH) and extrudes extracellular glutamate, an agonist of the inhibitory mGlu2/3 receptor, which lowers the synaptic glutamatergic tone. The inhibitor of mGlu2/3 receptor (LY341495) blocked the NAC-induced inhibition of both relapse ethanol intake and neuroinflammation without affecting the GSSG/GSH ratio. Unlike N-acetylcysteine, ASA inhibited chronic alcohol intake and relapse via lipoxin A4, a strong anti-inflammatory metabolite of arachidonic acid generated following the ASA acetylation of cyclooxygenases. Accordingly, the lipoxin A4 receptor inhibitor, WRW4, blocked the ASA-induced reduction of ethanol intake. Overall, via different mechanisms, NAC and ASA administered in clinically relevant doses combine their effects inhibiting ethanol intake.

Ketogenic therapy in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders: From mice to men

Ketogenic diet is a low carbohydrate and high fat diet that has been used for over 100 years in the management of childhood refractory epilepsy. More recently, ketogenic diet has been investigated for a number of metabolic, neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. In this comprehensive review, we critically examine the potential therapeutic benefits of ketogenic diet and ketogenic agents on neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders in humans and translationally valid animal models. The preclinical literature provides strong support for the efficacy of ketogenic diet in a variety of diverse animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, the evidence from clinical studies, while encouraging, particularly in Alzheimer's disease, psychotic and autism spectrum disorders, is limited to case studies and small pilot trials. Firm conclusion on the efficacy of ketogenic diet in psychiatric disorders cannot be drawn due to the lack of randomised, controlled clinical trials. The potential mechanisms of action of ketogenic therapy in these disorders with diverse pathophysiology may include energy metabolism, oxidative stress and immune/inflammatory processes. In conclusion, while ketogenic diet and ketogenic substances hold promise pre-clinically in a variety of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders, further studies, particularly randomised controlled clinical trials, are warranted to better understand their clinical efficacy and potential side effects.

The GABAB Receptor-Structure, Ligand Binding and Drug Development

The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type B receptor (GABA_B-R) belongs to class C of the G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Together with the GABA_A receptor, the receptor mediates the neurotransmission of GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS). In recent decades, the receptor has been extensively studied with the intention being to understand pathophysiological roles, structural mechanisms and develop drugs. The dysfunction of the receptor is linked to a broad variety of disorders, including anxiety, depression, alcohol addiction, memory and cancer. Despite extensive efforts, few compounds are known to target the receptor, and only the agonist baclofen is approved for clinical use. The receptor is a mandatory heterodimer of the GABA_B1 and GABA_B2 subunits, and each subunit is composed of an extracellular Venus Flytrap domain (VFT) and a transmembrane domain of seven α-helices (7TM domain). In this review, we briefly present the existing knowledge about the receptor structure, activation and compounds targeting the receptor, emphasizing the role of the receptor in previous and future drug design and discovery efforts.

Calbindin Deficits May Underlie Dissociable Effects of 5-HT6 and mGlu7 Antagonists on Glutamate and Cognition in a Dual-Hit Neurodevelopmental Model for Schizophrenia

Despite several compounds entering clinical trials for the negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, few have progressed beyond phase III. This is partly attributed to a need for improved preclinical models, to understand disease and enable predictive evaluation of novel therapeutics. To this end, one recent approach incorporates "dual-hit" neurodevelopmental insults like neonatal phencyclidine plus isolation rearing (PCP-Iso). Glutamatergic dysfunction contributes to schizophrenia pathophysiology and may represent a treatment target, so we used enzyme-based microsensors to evaluate basal- and drug-evoked glutamate release in hippocampal slices from rats that received neonatal PCP and/or isolation rearing. 5-HT₆ antagonist-evoked glutamate release (thought to be mediated indirectly via GABAergic disinhibition) was reduced in PCP-Iso, as were cognitive effects of a 5-HT₆ antagonist in a hippocampal glutamate-dependent novel object discrimination task. Yet mGlu₇ antagonist-evoked glutamatergic and cognitive responses were spared. Immunohistochemical analyses suggest these findings (which mirror the apparent lack of clinical response to 5-HT₆ antagonists in schizophrenia) are not due to reduced hippocampal 5-HT input in PCP-Iso, but may be explained by reduced calbindin expression. This calcium-binding protein is present in a subset of GABAergic interneurons receiving preferential 5-HT innervation and expressing 5-HT₆ receptors. Its loss (in schizophrenia and PCP-Iso) would be expected to reduce interneuron firing and potentially prevent further 5-HT₆ antagonist-mediated disinhibition, without impacting on responses of VIP-expressing interneurons to mGlu₇ antagonism. This research highlights the importance of improved understanding for selection of appropriate preclinical models, especially where disease neurobiology impacts on cells mediating the effects of potential therapeutics.

Structure-based discovery and development of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 negative allosteric modulators

The metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are a family of eight class C G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) which modulate cell signaling and synaptic transmission to the major excitatory neurotransmitter l-glutamate (l-glutamic acid). Due to their role in modulating glutamate response, their widespread distribution in the central nervous system (CNS) and some evidence of dysregulation in disease, the mGlu receptors have become attractive pharmacological targets. As the orthosteric (glutamate) binding site is highly conserved across the eight mGlu receptors, it is difficult not only to generate ligands with subtype selectivity but, due to the nature of the binding site, with suitable drug-like properties to allow oral bioavailability and CNS penetration. Selective pharmacological targeting of a single receptor subtype can be achieved by targeting alternative (allosteric) binding sites. The nature of the allosteric binding pockets allows ligands to be developed that have good physical chemical properties as evidenced by several allosteric modulators of mGlu receptors entering clinical trials. The first negative allosteric modulators of the metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu₅) receptor were discovered from high throughput screening activities. An alternative approach to drug discovery is to use structural knowledge to enable structure-based drug design (SBDD), which allows the design of molecules in a more rational, rather than empirical, fashion. Here we will describe the process of SBDD in the discovery of the mGlu₅ negative allosteric modulator HTL0014242 and describe how knowledge of receptor structure can also be used to gain insights into the receptor activation mechanisms.

Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors gate long-term potentiation and synaptic tagging/capture in rat hippocampal area CA2

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) play an important role in synaptic plasticity and memory and are largely classified based on amino acid sequence homology and pharmacological properties. Among group III metabotropic glutamate receptors, mGluR7 and mGluR4 show high relative expression in the rat hippocampal area CA2. Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors are known to down-regulate cAMP-dependent signaling pathways via the activation of Gi/o proteins. Here, we provide evidence that inhibition of group III mGluRs by specific antagonists permits an NMDA receptor- and protein synthesis-dependent long-lasting synaptic potentiation in the apparently long-term potentiation (LTP)-resistant Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA2 synapses. Moreover, long-lasting potentiation of these synapses transforms a transient synaptic potentiation of the entorhinal cortical (EC)-CA2 synapses into a stable long-lasting LTP, in accordance with the synaptic tagging/capture hypothesis (STC). Furthermore, this study also sheds light on the role of ERK/MAPK protein signaling and the downregulation of STEP protein in the group III mGluR inhibition-mediated plasticity in the hippocampal CA2 region, identifying them as critical molecular players. Thus, the regulation of group III mGluRs provides a conducive environment for the SC-CA2 synapses to respond to events that could lead to activity-dependent synaptic plasticity.