Biochemistry of hemlock (Conium maculatum L.) alkaloids and their acute and chronic toxicity in livestock. A review

Mass Spectrometry Imaging of Coniine and Other Hemlock Alkaloids after On-Tissue Derivatization Reveals Distinct Alkaloid Distributions in the Plant

Specialized metabolites play important roles in plants and can, for example, protect plants from predators or pathogens. Alkaloids, due to their pronounced biological activity on higher animals, are one of the most intriguing groups of specialized metabolites, and many of them are known as plant defense compounds. Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum, is well-known for its high content of piperidine alkaloids, of which coniine is the most famous. The distribution, localization, and diversity of these compounds in C. maculatum tissues have not yet been studied in detail. The hemlock alkaloids are low molecular weight compounds with relatively high volatility. They are thus difficult to analyze on-tissue by MALDI mass spectrometry imaging due to delocalization, which occurs even when using an atmospheric pressure ion source. In this manuscript, we describe an on-tissue derivatization method that allows the subsequent determination of the spatial distribution of hemlock alkaloids in different plant tissues by mass spectrometry imaging. Coniferyl aldehyde was found to be a suitable reagent for derivatization of the secondary amine alkaloids. The imaging analysis revealed that even chemically closely related hemlock alkaloids are discretely distributed in different plant tissues. Additionally, we detected a yet undescribed hemlock alkaloid in Conium maculatum seeds.

Teodorico Borgognoni's Formulary for Thirteenth Century Anesthetic Preparations

Teodorico Borgognoni was born in Lucca in 1205 and was appointed bishop of Bitonto and Cervia in 1262 and 1270. Following his father, he learned the art of surgery and collected relevant recipes in his most important work, entitled Cyrurgia seu filia principis. Among the disciplines reported in this work, the most interesting and innovative is anesthesia. The recipes in this field contribute to Borbognoni's consideration as the forerunner of modern anesthesia. Such recipes have been reported in other manuscripts from the Middle Ages, like Manuscript No. 1939. In the present work, we investigate the traditional preparations handed down in this manuscript, focusing on type of preparation and botanical ingredients. The results highlight that exploited ingredients can be divided into three groups: the first comprises plants already known for their narcotic effects, the second includes ingredients acting as an adjuvant for absorption or reducing the metabolism, and the last group includes ingredients not associated with biological activity to explain their presence in anesthetic recipes. This third group is of particular interest for future biological investigations. Our goal is to rekindle attention to the work of Teodorico Borgognoni on traditional preparation for anesthetic purposes: a topic often underestimated by ethnobotanical surveys.

Plants causing poisoning outbreaks of livestock in South America: A review

This paper reviews toxic plants for livestock in South America. We included 219 plants in this review, considering only the plants that caused at least one demonstrated outbreak of poisoning. Plants reported as toxic in other regions and present in South America, but with no confirmed outbreaks of poisoning in this region, are not included. We report the main aspects of the epidemiology, clinical signs, pathology and economical importance of the poisonings. Initially, the toxic plants are described based on their toxic compounds, but because the toxic compound is unknown in 92 (42%) of the plants we also classify them according to the affected system. This review highlights the great diversity of toxic plants capable of affecting livestock in South America, and for this reason studies in this regard should be intensified.

Phytotoxicological study of selected poisonous plants from Azad Jammu & Kashmir

Poisonous plants cause tremendous economic losses to the livestock industry. These economic losses are deterioration in their health, decreased productivity, deformed offspring, and reduced longevity. The current study is the first comprehensive report on poisonous plants of Azad Jammu and Kashmir which systematically documents the phytotoxicological effect and mode of action in livestock. The information was gathered from 271 informants including 167 men and 104 women through semi-structured interviews and literature search through available databases. The data collected through interviews was analyzed with quantitative tools viz. the factor informant consensus and fidelity level. A total of 38 species of flowering plants belonging to 23 families and 38 genera were reported. Family Asteraceae (5 spp) was the most dominant, followed by Solanaceae (4 spp), Fabaceae (4 spp), Euphorbiaceae (4 spp) and Convolvulaceae (3 spp). Among all the species collected, herbs were the dominant life form (22 spp, 57.89%), trailed by shrubs (11 spp, 28.95%), and trees (5 spp, 13.16%). Whole plant toxicity was reported to be the highest (15 spp, 39.47%), followed by leaf toxicity (12 spp, 31.58%), seed toxicity (4 spp, 7.89%), fruit toxicity (3 spp, 10.53%), latex toxicity (2 spp, 5.26%), flowers toxicity (1 spp, 2.63%), and berries toxicity (1 spp, 2.63%). The most toxic route of administration was found oral (39 spp, 40.63%), followed by intraperitoneal (24 spp, 25%), and intravenous (21 spp, 21.88%). The most commonly affected organ was found liver (20.41%), followed by gastrointestinal tract (20.341%), CNS (16.33%), skin (14.29%), kidneys (12.24%), lungs (4.04%), reproductive organs (2.04%), spleen (1.75%), blood (1.75%), heart (1.75%), urinary tract (1.75%), and pancreas (1.75%). The maximum Fic value was found for dermatological disorders (0.91), followed by the endocrine system (0.90), gastrointestinal (0.82), neurology (0.77), nephrology (0.67), cardiovascular (0.67), urinary (0.67), respiratory (0.60), sexual (0.60) disorders. Senecio vulgaris, and Ageratum conyzoides were the most important plants with fidelity level (0.95) and (0.87). Nerium oleander, Lantana camara, Leucaena leucocephala, and Ricinus communis were the important poisonous plant with maximum fidelity level (100%). Ricinus communis with reported lowest LD50 (<20 mg/kg) was the top-ranked poisonous plant followed by Lantana camara and Justicia adhatoda (25-50 mg/kg), Nerium Oleander (157.37 mg/kg), and Datura innoxia (400 mg/kg). We found that knowledge about poisonous plants is less prevailing in the rural areas of Azad Kashmir compared to the knowledge about medicinal plants and poisonous nature of reported plants is due to production of toxic substances and presence of essential oils.

What Socrates drank? Comparative chemical investigation of two Greek Conium taxa exhibiting diverse chemical profiles

Conium divaricatum, even though exhibiting morphological differences in comparison to its congener of European origin Conium maculatum, is still considered a disputed taxon often referred to as a synonym of the latter. Herein, essential oils of various plant tissues from several populations of both taxa were comparatively investigated, showing distinct chemical profiles. In the case of C. divaricatum, the essential oils were dominated by hydrocarbon esters, among which the main constituents 4'-oxodecyl hexanoate, 4'-oxododecyl hexanoate and 4'-oxooctyl hexanoate were isolated and identified as undescribed natural products. In contrast, the essential oils of C. maculatum were dominated by hydrocarbon alkanes, alkenes and ketones, as well as the polyacetylene (Z)-falcarinol. Even though determination of the total alkaloids content and toxicity assessment against the crustacean Artemia salina did not reveal significant differences, the distinct chemical profiles and the morphological differences observed for both taxa, strongly support their distinction as separate species.

Crystallization-Induced Diastereomer Transformation of α-Bromo α'-Sulfinyl Ketones. Diastereodivergent Synthesis of (+)-α-Conhydrine and (-)-β-Conhydrine

Crystallization-Induced Diastereomer Transformation (CIDT) of α-bromo-α'-(R)-sulfinylketones is reported. This process provides not readily accessible enantiopure stereolabile α-bromoketones, which after diastereoselective carbonyl group reduction lead to the corresponding highly value-added anti and syn-bromohydrins with excellent diastereoselectivities. As an application, a diastereodivergent synthesis of enantiopure hemlock alkaloid (+)-α-conhydrine and its diastereomer (-)-β-conhydrine is also described.

Bacterial Skin Infections in Livestock and Plant-Based Alternatives to Their Antibiotic Treatment

Due to its large surface area, the skin is susceptible to various injuries, possibly accompanied by the entrance of infective agents into the body. Commensal organisms that constitute the skin microbiota play important roles in the orchestration of cutaneous homeostasis and immune competence. The opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is present as part of the normal biota of the skin and mucous membranes in both humans and animals, but can cause disease when it invades the body either due to trauma or because of the impaired immune response of the host. Colonization of livestock skin by S. aureus is a precursor for majority of bacterial skin infections, which range from boils to sepsis, with the best-characterized being bovine mastitis. Antibiotic treatment of these infections can contribute to the promotion of resistant bacterial strains and even to multidrug resistance. The development of antibiotic resistance to currently available antibiotics is a worldwide problem. Considering the increasing ability of bacteria to effectively resist antibacterial agents, it is important to reduce the livestock consumption of antibiotics to preserve antibiotic effectiveness in the future. Plants are recognized as sources of various bioactive substances, including antibacterial activity towards clinically important microorganisms. This review provides an overview of the current knowledge on the major groups of phytochemicals with antibacterial activity and their modes of action. It also provides a list of currently known and used plant species aimed at treating or preventing bacterial skin infections in livestock.

Mild-to-severe poisoning due to Conium maculatum as toxic herb: A case series

Conium maculatum toxicity may occur by mistakenly or intentionally eating this plant. Due to muscarinic or nicotinic symptoms associated with this plant toxicity, supportive care and treatment with atropine are urgently important.

The potential of Apiaceae species as sources of singular phytochemicals and plant-based pesticides

The Apiaceae Lindl. (=Umbelliferae Juss.), which includes several economical important vegetables, herbs, and spices, is one of the most numerous plant family. Umbelliferous crops (namely anise, fennel, carrot, coriander, parsley, etc.) are also valuable sources of botanical flavoring agents and fragrances. In addition, Apiaceae species yield a wide variety of distinctive specialized metabolites (i.e, volatile phenylpropanoids, furanocoumarins, sesquiterpene coumarins, polyacetylenes, and phthalides), some of them been described as uncommon natural phytochemicals exclusive of the family, which offers a great potential for bioprospection. Numerous studies have pointed out the outstanding biological activity of extracts and several classes of phytochemicals from Apiaceae species. Emphasis has been given to essential oils (EOs) and their constituents activities, most likely because this type of plant added value product benefits from a larger acceptance and application potential in integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated vector management (IVM) programs. Several species of the family offer a variety of unique compounds with great potential as biopesticidal and/or synergizing agents. Investigations covering their activity toward agricultural pests and phytopathogens have increased in the last years, nevertheless the interest remains strongly focus on arthropod species, predominantly those acting as vectors of human diseases. From our survey, it is patent the gap of knowledge concerning the potential molluscicidal properties of Apiaceae extracts/phytochemicals, as well as their herbicidal activities against invasive plant species. In this review, we propose to highlight the potential of Apiaceae species as suitable sources of bioactive phytochemicals with great relevance within the frame of plant-based pesticides R&D, and will discuss their applicability in real-world scenarios considering the recent developments regarding the design of stable formulations incorporating Apiaceae bioactive products. We expect that this review will encourage researchers to consider undervalued Apiaceae species as alternative sources of bioactive compounds and will give a contribute to the field by suggesting new research topics.

Characterization of Phytoconstituents from Alcoholic Extracts of Four Woody Species and Their Potential Uses for Management of Six Fusarium oxysporum Isolates Identified from Some Plant Hosts

Background: Trees are good sources of bioactive compounds as antifungal and antioxidant activities. Methods: Management of six molecularly identified Fusarium oxysporum isolates (F. oxy 1, F. oxy 2, F. oxy 3, F. oxy 4, F. oxy 5 and F. oxy 6, under the accession numbers MW854648, MW854649, MW854650, MW854651, and MW854652, respectively) was assayed using four extracts from Conium maculatum leaves, Acacia saligna bark, Schinus terebinthifolius wood and Ficus eriobotryoides leaves. All the extracts were analyzed using HPLC-VWD for phenolic and flavonoid compounds and the antioxidant activity was evaluated using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and β-carotene-linoleic acid (BCB) bleaching assays. Results: In mg/kg extract, the highest amounts of polyphenolic compounds p-hydroxy benzoic, benzoic, gallic, and rosmarinic acids, with 444.37, 342.16, 311.32 and 117.87, respectively, were observed in C. maculatum leaf extract; gallic and benzoic acids with 2551.02, 1580.32, respectively, in A. saligna bark extract; quinol, naringenin, rutin, catechol, and benzoic acid with 2530.22, 1224.904, 798.29, 732.28, and 697.73, respectively, in S. terebinthifolius wood extract; and rutin, o-coumaric acid, p-hydroxy benzoic acid, resveratrol, and rosmarinic acid with 9168.03, 2016.93, 1009.20, 1156.99, and 574.907, respectively, in F. eriobotryoides leaf extract. At the extract concentration of 1250 mg/L, the antifungal activity against the growth of F. oxysporum strains showed that A. saligna bark followed by C. maculatum leaf extracts had the highest inhibition percentage of fungal growth (IPFG%) against F. oxy 1 with 80% and 79.5%, F. oxy 2 with 86.44% and 78.9%, F. oxy 3 with 86.4% and 84.2%, F. oxy 4 with 84.2, and 82.1%, F. oxy 5 with 88.4% and 86.9%, and F. oxy 6 with 88.9, and 87.1%, respectively. For the antioxidant activity, ethanolic extract from C. maculatum leaves showed the lowest concentration that inhibited 50% of DPPH free radical (3.4 μg/mL). Additionally, the same extract observed the lowest concentration (4.5 μg/mL) that inhibited BCB bleaching. Conclusions: Extracts from A. saligna bark and C. maculatum leaves are considered potential candidates against the growth of F. oxysporum isolates—a wilt pathogen—and C. maculatum leaf as a potent antioxidant agent.

A Review and Secondary Analysis of Competition-Related Impacts of Nonindigenous Aquatic Plants in the Laurentian Great Lakes

The Laurentian Great Lakes of North America are home to thousands of native fishes, invertebrates, plants, and other species that not only provide recreational and economic value to the region but also hold an important ecological value. However, there are also 55 nonindigenous species of aquatic plants that may be competing with native species and affecting this value. Here, we use a key regional database-the Great Lakes Aquatic Nonindigenous Species Information System (GLANSIS)-to describe the introduction of nonindigenous aquatic plants in the Great Lakes region and to examine patterns relating to their capacity to compete with native plants species. Specifically, we used an existing catalog of environmental impact assessments to qualitatively evaluate the potential for each nonindigenous plant species to outcompete native plant species for available resources. Despite an invasion record spanning nearly two centuries (1837-2020), a great deal remains unknown about the impact of competition by these species. Nonetheless, our synthesis of existing documentation reveals that many of these nonindigenous species have notable impacts on the native plant communities of the region in general and on species of concern in particular. Furthermore, we provide a thorough summary of the diverse adaptations that may contribute to giving these nonindigenous plants a competitive advantage. Adaptations that have been previously found to aid successful invasions were common in 98% of the nonindigenous aquatic plant species in the database.

Biologically active indolizidine alkaloids

Indolizidine alkaloids are chemical constituents isolated from various marine and terrestrial plants and animals, including but not limited to trees, fungi, ants, and frogs, with a myriad of important biological activities. In this review, we discuss the biological activity and pharmacological effects of indolizidine alkaloids and offer new avenues toward the discovery of new and better drugs based on these naturally occurring compounds.

Diversity of Secondary Metabolites in Roots from Conium maculatum L

BACKGROUND

Conium maculatum is known as highly toxic plant, due to piperidine alkaloids present in the aerial parts. In a first attempt, in various tap root samples, however, alkaloids could not be detected. The present study describes active compounds in the tap roots from 16 populations harvested at maturity. The compounds were extracted with dichloromethane from root pieces of single plants and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Ten bioactive compounds were evaluated: five furocoumarins, two prenylated coumarins, two aliphatic C₁₇-polyacetylenes and the phenylpropanoid elemicin. A high variability could be observed, the highest concentrations were measured for falcarindiol, xanthotoxin and isopimpinellin, the lowest for elemicin. In sum C. maculatum roots contained comparable amounts of compounds that are characteristic for Apiaceae, and also occur in vegetables as carrots, parsnip, parsley or celeriac.

Characteristics of seed material and seedlings of Conium maculatum L

Introduction: Fresh herbs of poison hemlock (Conii maculati herba) are used in homeopathy. The plant is also used in pharmacological and toxicological studies. There are few articles on seed germination capability in available literature.

Objective: The aim of the research was evaluation of Conium maculatum seed germination.

Methods: Germination studies of C. maculatum L. were carried out according to methodology by ISTA.

Results: It was confirmed that the germination capability of the described species is dependent on access to light and temperature fluctuations. In the first year after harvest, the highest percentage of germinating seeds was found in the winter months (January–February).

Conclusion: The seeds stored in an unheated room still germinated in the fifth year after harvest.

A Case of Respiratory Failure Due to Poison Hemlock Poisoning Presented to an Emergency Department

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is one of the most poisonous plants in the world. Accidental ingestion of the plant could result in central nervous system depression, respiratory failure and even death. Airway and breathing management followed by fluid resuscitation is the mainstay of treatment. Poison hemlock poisoning is an important differential diagnosis for patients with impaired consciousness and respiratory failure after plant ingestion in areas of natural habitat for the plant. Early and proper diagnosis is vital for patients with poison hemlock poisoning. In this report, we present a case of life-threatening poisoning due to taking the poison hemlock mistaken for Helichrysum arenarium.

The killer of Socrates: Coniine and Related Alkaloids in the Plant Kingdom

Coniine, a polyketide-derived alkaloid, is poisonous to humans and animals. It is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist, which leads to inhibition of the nervous system, eventually causing death by suffocation in mammals. Coniine’s most famous victim is Socrates who was sentenced to death by poison chalice containing poison hemlock in 399 BC. In chemistry, coniine holds two historical records: It is the first alkaloid the chemical structure of which was established (in 1881), and that was chemically synthesized (in 1886). In plants, coniine and twelve closely related alkaloids are known from poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.), and several Sarracenia and Aloe species. Recent work confirmed its biosynthetic polyketide origin. Biosynthesis commences by carbon backbone formation from butyryl-CoA and two malonyl-CoA building blocks catalyzed by polyketide synthase. A transamination reaction incorporates nitrogen from l-alanine and non-enzymatic cyclization leads to γ-coniceine, the first hemlock alkaloid in the pathway. Ultimately, reduction of γ-coniceine to coniine is facilitated by NADPH-dependent γ-coniceine reductase. Although coniine is notorious for its toxicity, there is no consensus on its ecological roles, especially in the carnivorous pitcher plants where it occurs. Lately there has been renewed interest in coniine’s medical uses particularly for pain relief without an addictive side effect.

Intravenous Poison Hemlock Injection Resulting in Prolonged Respiratory Failure and Encephalopathy

BACKGROUND

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is a common plant with a significant toxicity. Data on this toxicity is sparse as there have been few case reports and never a documented poisoning after intravenous injection.

OBJECTIVES

We present a case of intravenous poison hemlock injection encountered in the emergency department.

CASE REPORT

We describe a 30-year-old male who presented to the emergency department after a brief cardiac arrest after injecting poison hemlock. The patient had return of spontaneous circulation in the emergency department but had prolonged muscular weakness and encephalopathy later requiring tracheostomy.

CONCLUSION

Intravenous injection of poison hemlock alkaloids can result in significant toxicity, including cardiopulmonary arrest, prolonged weakness, and encephalopathy.

Hemlock (Conium Maculatum) Poisoning In A Child

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) is a plant that is poisonous for humans and animals. Accidental ingestion of the plant may result in central nervous system depression, respiratory failure, acute rhabdomyolysis, acute renal failure and even death. The main treatment of hemlock poisoning is supportive care. The case of a 6-year-old girl who was admitted to the emergency department with complaints of burning sensation in mouth, hypersalivation, tremor in hands and ataxia after ingestion of poison hemlock is presented here with clinical and laboratory features. In this case, we aim to report that accidental ingestion of plants resembling vegetables that are consumed daily can lead to serious complications and even death.

Anticancer potential of Conium maculatum extract against cancer cells in vitro: Drug-DNA interaction and its ability to induce apoptosis through ROS generation

Objective:

Conium maculatum extract is used as a traditional medicine for cervix carcinoma including homeopathy. However, no systematic work has so far been carried out to test its anti-cancer potential against cervix cancer cells in vitro. Thus, in this study, we investigated whether ethanolic extract of conium is capable of inducing cytotoxicity in different normal and cancer cell lines including an elaborate study in HeLa cells.

Materials and Methods:

Conium's effects on cell cycle, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and apoptosis, if any, were analyzed through flow cytometry. Whether Conium could damage DNA and induce morphological changes were also determined microscopically. Expression of different proteins related to cell death and survival was critically studied by western blotting and ELISA methods. If Conium could interact directly with DNA was also determined by circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy.

Results:

Conium treatment reduced cell viability and colony formation at 48 h and inhibited cell proliferation, arresting cell cycle at sub-G stage. Conium treatment lead to increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at 24 h, increase in MMP depolarization, morphological changes and DNA damage in HeLa cells along with externalization of phosphatidyl serine at 48 hours. While cytochrome c release and caspase-3 activation led HeLa cells toward apoptosis, down-regulation of Akt and NFkB inhibited cellular proliferation, indicating the signaling pathway to be mediated via the mitochondria-mediated caspase-3-dependent pathway. CD-spectroscopy revealed that Conium interacted with DNA molecule.

Conclusion:

Overall results validate anti-cancer potential of Conium and provide support for its use in traditional systems of medicine.

Distribution of chromium species in a Cr-polluted soil: presence of Cr(III) in glomalin related protein fraction

The accumulation of Cr in soil could be highly toxic to human health; therefore Cr soil distribution was studied in rhizosphere soils from Ricinus communis and Conium maculatum and bare soil (BS) from an industrial and urban area in Argentina. Total Cr, Cr(VI) and Cr(III) concentrations were determined in 3 soil fractions: total, extractable and associated to total-glomalin-related protein (T-GRSP). BS had the highest total Cr and total Cr(VI) concentrations. Total Cr(VI) concentration from both rhizosphere soils did not differ from the allowed value for residential area in Argentina (8 μg Cr(VI) g(-1) soil), while total Cr(VI) in BS was 1.8 times higher. Total Cr concentration in all the soils was higher than the allowed value (250 μg Cr g(-1) soil). Extractable and associated to T-GRSP Cr(VI) concentrations were below the detection limit. Cr(III) bound to T-GRSP was the highest in the BS. These findings are in agreement with a long term effect of glomalin in sequestrating Cr. In both plant species, total Cr was higher in root than in shoot and both species presented arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). As far as we know, this is the first study that reports the presence of Cr in T-GRSP fraction of soil organic matter. These findings suggest that Cr mycorrhizostabilization could be a predominant mechanism used by R. communis and C. maculatum to diminish Cr soil concentration. Nevertheless, further research is needed to clarify the contribution of native AMF isolated from R. communis and C. maculatum rhizosphere to the Cr phytoremediation process.

Plant alkaloids that cause developmental defects through the disruption of cholinergic neurotransmission

The exposure of a developing embryo or fetus to alkaloids from plants, plant products, or plant extracts has the potential to cause developmental defects in humans and animals. These defects may have multiple causes, but those induced by piperidine and quinolizidine alkaloids arise from the inhibition of fetal movement and are generally referred to as multiple congenital contracture-type deformities. These skeletal deformities include arthrogyrposis, kyposis, lordosis, scoliosis, and torticollis, associated secondary defects, and cleft palate. Structure-function studies have shown that plant alkaloids with a piperidine ring and a minimum of a three-carbon side-chain α to the piperidine nitrogen are teratogenic. Further studies determined that an unsaturation in the piperidine ring, as occurs in gamma coniceine, or anabaseine, enhances the toxic and teratogenic activity, whereas the N-methyl derivatives are less potent. Enantiomers of the piperidine teratogens, coniine, ammodendrine, and anabasine, also exhibit differences in biological activity, as shown in cell culture studies, suggesting variability in the activity due to the optical rotation at the chiral center of these stereoisomers. In this article, we review the molecular mechanism at the nicotinic pharmacophore and biological activities, as it is currently understood, of a group of piperidine and quinolizidine alkaloid teratogens that impart a series of flexure-type skeletal defects and cleft palate in animals.

Piperidine alkaloids: human and food animal teratogens

Piperidine alkaloids are acutely toxic to adult livestock species and produce musculoskeletal deformities in neonatal animals. These teratogenic effects include multiple congenital contracture (MCC) deformities and cleft palate in cattle, pigs, sheep, and goats. Poisonous plants containing teratogenic piperidine alkaloids include poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), lupine (Lupinus spp.), and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) [including wild tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca)]. There is abundant epidemiological evidence in humans that link maternal tobacco use with a high incidence of oral clefting in newborns; this association may be partly attributable to the presence of piperidine alkaloids in tobacco products. In this review, we summarize the evidence for piperidine alkaloids that act as teratogens in livestock, piperidine alkaloid structure-activity relationships and their potential implications for human health.

Risk assessment of the use of PAS100 green composts in sheep and cattle production in Scotland

A generalized quantitative risk assessment for the use of source-segregated green waste (SSGW) compost use in livestock production is presented. This assessment focussed on potential risks associated with a specific product, PAS100 compost that meets the UK publicly available specification 100 and represents the majority of compost available for use in extensive Scottish livestock systems. A hazard screening approach was used to identify all potentially hazardous agents present in compost. A total of 497 potentially hazardous agents were screened, with 147 finally put forward for quantitative risk assessment. Scenarios modelled in the assessment included surface application of compost to grazing land and also incorporation into soil and subsequent uptake by fodder crops. Risk estimates were compared to those associated with six comparator materials, including various sludges, slurries and farm yard manures. Overall, five potentially hazardous agents (PCB28, PCB138, PCB153, 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD, Clopyralid) returned a hazard quotient >1 but within margins of uncertainty, indicating that further investigation may be required. Within the limitations of available information, SSGW compost was found to pose less risk to grazing livestock, or the environment, than other commonly-used soil amendments. While this assessment relates to a specific product/standard used in the UK, the methodology could easily be applied to other composts/products/situations. Therefore these results have wider applicability.

Encefalopatia hereditária em bovinos no estado do Espírito Santo

Descrevem-se os aspectos epidemiológicos e clínico-necroscópicos de uma doença neurológica hereditária observada em bovinos no município de Ecoporanga, norte do Estado do Espírito Santo. Trata-se de enfermidade do sistema nervoso central verificada exclusivamente em fêmeas, filhas de touro reprodutor de 5 anos de idade da raça Nelore, oriundo do município de Curvelo, Minas Gerais, com vacas mestiças Nelore x Quianini; bezerros machos oriundos deste cruzamento não demonstraram quaisquer sinais relacionados à enfermidade. Os sinais clínicos, presentes ao nascimento ou detectáveis nas primeiras semanas de vida, caracterizam-se por ataxia, perda do equilíbrio, instabilidade, andar em círculos, posicionamento incorreto dos membros no animal em estação ou em marcha (afastamento e/ou desvio de membros da posição normal) e desvio lateral da coluna (eixo principal do corpo em diagonal). De animal para animal, há marcada variação na intensidade das manifestações clínicas. Os bovinos mais afetados morrem devido à incapacidade de se alimentar. O exame macroscópico evidenciou, em grau variável de intensidade, áreas de depressão assimétrica setorial, sobretudo nos lobos frontal e temporal do córtex telencefálico e no córtex cerebelar. Em adição observou-se atrofia de grupos musculares de membros correspondentes às porções defeituosas no sistema nervoso central. O estudo histológico inicial revelou que as áreas deprimidas devem-se à redução setorial de populações neuronais (provavelmente abiotrofia/atrofia) principalmente nos lobos cerebrais frontal e temporal e nas camadas granular e molecular do córtex cerebelar. Estudos morfométrico, imunohistoquímico e ultraestrutural estão sendo realizados e devem trazer mais informações sobre os aspectos microscópicos e patogenéticos. Os achados epidemiológicos indicam que a enfermidade está diretamente ligada ao cromossoma X, com penetrância completa e expressividade variável.

Poison hemlock-induced respiratory failure in a toddler

The ingestion of poison hemlock, or Conium maculatum, is described in a 2-year-old boy. He had the onset of abdominal pain and weakness after being fed C. maculatum picked by his sister from the roadside 2 hours earlier. He had a rapidly progressive muscular weakness and was intubated for respiratory failure. His symptoms completely resolved within 24 hours of the ingestion. Conium maculatum is a common weed that causes toxicity by its primary toxin, coniine, which stimulates nicotinic receptors and causes a syndrome of rapidly progressive muscle weakness and paralysis. We describe the course of a benign-appearing plant ingestion resulting in respiratory failure.

Nicotinic plant poisoning

INTRODUCTION

A wide range of plants contain nicotinic and nicotinic-like alkaloids. Of this diverse group, those that have been reported to cause human poisoning appear to have similar mechanisms of toxicity and presenting patients therefore have comparable toxidromes. This review describes the taxonomy and principal alkaloids of plants that contain nicotinic and nicotinic-like alkaloids, with particular focus on those that are toxic to humans. The toxicokinetics and mechanisms of toxicity of these alkaloids are reviewed and the clinical features and management of poisoning due to these plants are described.

METHODS

This review was compiled by systematically searching OVID MEDLINE and ISI Web of Science. This identified 9,456 papers, excluding duplicates, all of which were screened. Reviewed plants and their principal alkaloids. Plants containing nicotine and nicotine-like alkaloids that have been reported to be poisonous to humans include Conium maculatum, Nicotiana glauca and Nicotiana tabacum, Laburnum anagyroides, and Caulophyllum thalictroides. They contain the toxic alkaloids nicotine, anabasine, cytisine, n-methylcytisine, coniine, n-methylconiine, and gamma-coniceine.

MECHANISMS OF TOXICITY

These alkaloids act agonistically at nicotinic-type acetylcholine (cholinergic) receptors (nAChRs). The nicotinic-type acetylcholine receptor can vary both in its subunit composition and in its distribution within the body (the central and autonomic nervous systems, the neuromuscular junctions, and the adrenal medulla). Agonistic interaction at these variable sites may explain why the alkaloids have diverse effects depending on the administered dose and duration of exposure.

TOXICOKINETICS

Nicotine and nicotine-like alkaloids are absorbed readily across all routes of exposure and are rapidly and widely distributed, readily traversing the blood-brain barrier and the placenta, and are freely distributed in breast milk. Metabolism occurs predominantly in the liver followed by rapid renal elimination.

CLINICAL FEATURES

Following acute exposure, symptoms typically follow a biphasic pattern. The early phase consists of nicotinic cholinergic stimulation resulting in symptoms such as abdominal pain, hypertension, tachycardia, and tremors. The second inhibitory phase is delayed and often heralded by hypotension, bradycardia, and dyspnea, finally leading to coma and respiratory failure.

MANAGEMENT

Supportive care is the mainstay of management with primary emphasis on cardiovascular and respiratory support to ensure recovery.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to plants containing nicotine and nicotine-like alkaloids can lead to severe poisoning but, with prompt supportive care, patients should make a full recovery.

Hemlock alkaloids from Socrates to poison aloes

Hemlock (Conium maculatum L. Umbelliferae) has long been known as a poisonous plant. Toxicity is due to a group of piperidine alkaloids of which the representative members are coniine and gamma-coniceine. The latter is the more toxic and is the first formed biosynthetically. Its levels in relation to coniine vary widely according to environmental conditions and to provenance of the plants. Surprisingly, these piperidine alkaloids have turned up in quite unrelated species in the monocotyledons as well as the dicotyledons. Aloes, for instance, important medicinal plants, are not regarded as poisonous although some species are very bitter. Nevertheless a small number of mostly local species contain the alkaloids, especially gamma-coniceine and there have been records of human poisoning. The compounds are recognized by their characteristic mousy smell. Both acute and chronic symptoms have been described. The compounds are neurotoxins and death results from respiratory failure, recalling the effects of curare. Chronic non-lethal ingestion by pregnant livestock leads to foetal malformation. Both acute and chronic toxicity are seen with stock in damp meadows and have been recorded as problems especially in North America. The alkaloids derive biosynthetically from acetate units via the polyketide pathway in contrast to other piperidine alkaloids which derive from lysine.

Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC), a hereditary disease in swine, maps to chromosome 5 by linkage analysis

Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC), defined as permanent joint contractures present at birth, is one of the most common congenital defects in piglets and other mammals. A genetic form of arthrogryposis was recently identified in Swiss Large White (LW) pigs. The disease is controlled by a single autosomal recessive allele designated as amc. At least 14 LW AI (artificial insemination) boars (about 25% of the Swiss population) are known to be carriers of the amc allele. A total of 219 pigs were used for linkage analysis, including seven founders (F1), three F0, 160 F2, and 49 F3 animals. All founder pigs were full or half sibs. Of the 219 pigs, 41 (18.7%) were found to be affected, while the remaining 178 (81.3%) were healthy. A comprehensive genome scan revealed that microsatellite SW1987 located on pig (Sus scrofa) Chromosome 5 (SSC5), was linked with AMC. Sixteen additional SSC5 microsatellites were selected for further genotyping to generate a multipoint map covering the AMC region. Significant pairwise linkage (LOD > 6.00) was found for AMC and eight marker loci. The order that best fit with the data was SW963-SW1987-SW152-AMC-(SW904, SW1094)-SWR1526-(SWR1974, SW310). AMC was mapped by linkage analysis to the position 92 cM, between SW152 and SW904/SW1094, which are located on SSC5 in bands q12-q23.

Rapid in situ detection of alkaloids in plant tissue under ambient conditions using desorption electrospray ionization

Desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry is applied to the in situ detection of alkaloids in the tissue of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) and deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). The experiment is carried out by electrospraying micro-droplets of solvent onto native or freshly-cut plant tissue surfaces. No sample preparation is required and the mass spectra are recorded under ambient conditions, in times of a few seconds. The impact of the sprayed droplets on the surface produces gaseous ions from organic compounds originally present in the plant tissue. The effects of operating parameters, including the electrospray high voltage, heated capillary temperature, the solvent infusion rate and the carrier gas pressure on analytical performance are evaluated and optimized. Different types of plant material are analyzed including seeds, stems, leaves, roots and flowers. All the previously reported alkaloids have been detected in C. maculatum, while fifteen out of nineteen known alkaloids for D. stramonium and the principal alkaloids of A. belladonna were also identified. All identifications were confirmed by tandem mass spectrometry. Results obtained show similar mass spectra, number of alkaloids, and signal intensities to those obtained when extraction and separation processes are performed prior to mass spectrometric analysis. Evidence is provided that DESI ionization occurs by both a gas-phase ionization process and by a droplet pick-up mechanism. Quantitative precision of DESI is compared with conventional electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (after sample workup) and the RSD values for the same set of 25 dicotyledonous C. maculatum seeds (one half of each seed analyzed by ESI and the other by DESI) are 9.8% and 5.2%, respectively.

Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum L.)

One of the most poisonous species amongst higher plants is Conium maculatum. It is a very common nitrophile weed species, belonging to the Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) family. It contains some piperidine alkaloids (coniine, N-methyl-coniine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine, gamma-coniceine), which are formed by the cyclisation of an eight-carbon chain derived from four acetate units. gamma-Coniceine is the precursor of the other hemlock alkaloids. All vegetative organs, flowers and fruits contain alkaloids. The concentrations (both absolute and relative) of the different alkaloids depend on plant varieties, on ecological conditions and on the age of the plant. The characteristic biological effects of the plants are summarised on cattle, sheep, goat, swine, rabbit, elk, birds and insects and the symptoms of the human toxicosis (some cases of poisonings) are discussed according to the literature data. The general symptoms of hemlock poisoning are effects on nervous system (stimulation followed by paralysis of motor nerve endings and CNS stimulation and later depression), vomiting, trembling, problems in movement, slow and weak later rapid pulse, rapid respiration, salivation, urination, nausea, convulsions, coma and death.

Successful transplantation of donor organs from a hemlock poisoning victim

BACKGROUND

The poison hemlock plant (Conium maculatum) has been a known poison since early in human history, most notably as the agent used for the execution/suicide of Socrates in ancient Greece. No experience has been reported regarding the suitability of a hemlock victim's organs for transplantation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This report documents successful transplantation of the liver, kidney, and pancreas from a 14-year-old girl who died of anoxic encephalopathy from asphyxia after the accidental ingestion of fresh hemlock while on a nature hike. Predonation laboratory values were not remarkable, and liver and kidney biopsy results were normal. All organs in the three recipients had immediate function, and no recipient had any clinical evidence of transmitted toxin. All recipients are well, with functioning transplants at greater than 6 months after transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Poison hemlock intoxication does not seem to be a contraindication to organ donation.